History of the United States of America : from the discovery of the continent [to 1789]

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HISTORY

OF THE

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

FROM

THE DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT.

BY
GEORGE BANCROFT.

IN SIX VOLUMES.

Vol. VI.

THOROUGHLY REVISED EDITION.

BOSTON:

LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY.

1879.

WC,2S2tzJ,r \*

Harvard 0)1 leg- Library
Bequest *>!''

FfU,CT0I3 tAtxKlAAN
17 Jan. X894

Copyright, 1866, 1874, 1876, 1878,
By George Bancroft.

University Press : John Wilson & Son,
Cambridge.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME VI.

CHAPTER XXIV.

the capitulation op burgoyne. August 19 — October 20, 1777.

#
Gates in Command of the Northern Army, p. 3 — Charge of Chief Justice

Jay, 3 — Gates at Stillwater, 4 — His Strength, 4 — His Character, 4 — Arnold,
4 — March of Burgoyne, 4 — He crosses the Hudson, 5 — Brown's Expedition
against Ticonderoga, 5 — His Success, 5 — Burgoyne advances, 5 — Battle of
Freeman's Farm, 6 — Good Conduct of the Americans, 6 — They fight till Sun-
down, 7 — Small Losses of the Americans, 7 — Loss of the British, 7 — Bur-
goyne' s Dangerous Encampment, 7 — Advice of Arnold, 8-7 Gates timid, 8 —
Messages from Clinton, 8 — Clinton moves against Putnam, 8 — Sagacity of
Governor Clinton, 8 — Mistakes of Putnam, 8 — Capture of Forts Clinton and
Montgomery, 9 — The British gain the Mastery of the Hudson River, 9 —
Alarming Letter from Putnam, 9 — Kingston burned, 9 — Perplexity of Bur-
goyne, 9 — Gates re-enforced, 10 — The Indians, 10 — Burgoyne' s Council, 10

— He advances, 10 — Strength of his Party, 10 — Attacked by the Americans,
11 — His Party routed, 11 — Fraser wounded, 11 — Flight of the British, U
— Loss of the British Artillery, 11 — Unwise Attack by Arnold, 12 — Good
Conduct of Brooks, 12 — Breymann's Camp taken, 12 — Grates not present in
the Battle, 12 — By whom the Battle was fought, 12 — Desperate Condition of
Burgoyne, 12 — Death of Fraser, 13 — His Burial, 13 — Retreat of Burgoyne,
13 — Burgoyne invested, 13 — Capitulation, 13 — Amount of his Losses, 14 —
Causes of the Result, 14 — What Gates should have done, 14.

CHAPTER XXV.

mi contest for the dklaware river. September— November, 1777.

Philadelphia of no Military Importance, p. 15 — Defences of the River, 15 —
Loss of the American Frigate, 15 — Billingsport deserted, 15 — Despondency,
15 — Howe's Camp at Germantown, 16 — Speech of Washington to his Army,
16 — His Plan of Attack on the British, 16— Party with Washington, 16 —
Howe surprised, 17 — Musgrave in Chew's House, 17 — Greene behind Time,
17 — Advance of Sullivan and Wayne, 17 — Attempt to take Chew's House, 17
—Washington advances to the Front, 18 — Tardy Arrival of Greene, 18 — His
Bad Disposition of his Troops, 18 — Macdougall, 18 — Greene, 18 — Stephen, 18

— Woodford, 18 — Armstrong, 18 — Sullivan's Men, 19 — Battalions with Corn-
wallis, 19 — Washington retreats, 19 — Why Victory was lost, 19 — Supplies
to the British cut off, 19 — Inactivity of Pennsylvania, 19 — British Fleet in
the Delaware, 19 — Red-bank and Mud Island, 20 — British abandon the Passes

VI CONTENTS.

in the Highlands, 20 — News from Burgoyne, 20 — Donop goes against Red-
bank, 20 — His Attack, 20 — His Repulse, 21 — The British lose Ships-of-War,
21 — Loss of the Hessians, 21 — Donop's Death-bed, 21 — Howe resigns, 22—
Gates fails in Duty, 22 — Mission of Hamilton, 22 — Conduct of Congress, 22 —
Congress lose their Opportunity, 22 — Siege of Mud Island, 23 — Fleury, 23 —
Thayer, 23 — British prepare for an Attack, 23 — Thayer evacuates Mud Island,
23 — Cornwallis in New Jersey, 24 — Followed by Greene, 24 — Gallantry of
lafayette, 24 — The States cannot be subjugated, 24.

CHAPTER XXVI.
thb confederation. November 15, 1777.

The Congress at Yorktown, p. 25 — Connection of the Present with the Past,
25— Unity of the Colonies, 25— No Central Authority, 26— Principle of Resist-
ance, 26 — Spirit of Separation increases, 26 — Extent of the United States, 26
— Citizenship, 26 — Subject and Citizen, 27 — Citizen and Free Inhabitant, 27
— Naturalization, 27 — Intercitizenship, 27 — Independence of each State, 27 —
Vote by States, 27 — The Compromise, 28 — The Two Thirds Vote, 28— Vote
by Majority, 28 — Congress has no Power to levy Taxes, 28 — Post-office,
28 — Import and Export Duties, 28 — Influence of Slavery on the Distribution
of the Quotas, 29 — Quota regulated by Houses and Lands, 29 —Navigation
Laws, 29 — Amendment proposed by New Jersey, 29 — The Confederation and
the Slave-Trade, 30 — The Domain within the States, 30 — The Country north-
west of the Ohio, 30 — Jealousy of Military Power, 30 — Effect of the Esteem
for Washington, 30 — Thirteen Armies and not One, 31 — Maritime Affairs, 31
— Foreign Relations, 31 — Joint Powers of the States and the United States, 31 —
Rotation in Congress, 31 — The Committee of States, 31 — Congress has no
Veto Power, 31 — No Judiciary, 32 — No Incidental Powers, 32 — Mode of
amending the Confederation, 32 — Character of the Confederation, 32 — Four
Great Results, 32 — A Republican Government and Extent of Territory, 32-
Elimination of Disfranchisements, 33 — Free Inhabitants Free Citizens, 33 —
Intercitizenship, 33 — Opposition of South Carolina, 33 — Overruled by Con-
gress, 33 — Causes of the Decision, 33 — Who are Members of a Colony, 34 —
Definition of a Citizen, 34 — The Free Black, 34— Universal Suffrage, 34 —
Individual Liberty secured, 34 — Declaration of Rights, 34 — The Greek System,
34 — American System, 35 — The Confederation a Contradiction, 35 — Elements
of Union, 35 — Nationality, 35 —A Free People of the United States, 35 — Dan-
gers to its Nationality, 35.

CHAPTER XXVIL

winter-quarters at vallet foroe. November, 1777— April, 1778.

Clamor for the Capture of Philadelphia, p. 36 — Howe plans an Attack on
Washington, 36 — Washington at Whitemarsh, 36 — First Advance of Howe,
86 — Its Failure, 37 — Second Advance, 37 — He fears to attack, 37 — Returns
to Philadelphia, 37 — Washington in Winter-quarters, 37 — Conway Cabal, 38
—Washington's Opinion of Conway, 38— Conway's Discontent, 38 — Letter of

CONTENTS Vll

Reed, 38 — Conduct of Wilkinson, 38 — Favors to Mifflin, 88 — Washington has
an Interview with Conway, 38 — Sullivan's Opinion, 88 — Wayne, 39 — Move-
ments of Conway, 39 — Letter of Lovell, 39 — Of Wayne, 39 — Conway and
Mifflin, 39 — Lovell on Washington, 39 — Discontent of Congress, 39 — Mifflin
on Conway, 40 — Gates to Conway, 40 — Gates complains to Congress, 40 —
Promotion and Conduct of Conway, 40 — Condition of Washington's Army, 40
— Valley Forge for Winter-quarters, 40 — Sufferings of the American Troops,
40 — They build Huts, 41 — Their Privations, 41 — Remonstrance of Pennsyl-
vania, 41 — Reply of Washington, 41 — Absurd Advice of Sullivan, 42 — " New
Jersey Gazette," 42 — Congress does Nothing for the Army, 42 — Remonstrances
of Washington, 42 — Care to avoid Jealousy of the Military Power, 42 — Rush
plots against Washington, 43 — Conduct of Patrick Henry, 43 — Vote of Penn-
sylvania, 43 — Winter Expedition against Canada, 44 — Conduct of Lafayette,
44 — Incompetency of Gates, 44 — Washington suffers Exquisite Pain, 44 — His
Letters to the Historian Gordon, 44 — His Remonstrances to Congress, 45 — His
Enemies shrink back, 46 — Gates, 45— Mifflin, 45 — Conway, 45— The Com-
mittee of Congress repair to Camp, 45 — Consequences of Procrastination, 46-
Comf ort of the British in Philadelphia, 46 — Their Passion for Amusement, 46
— Their Dissoluteness, 46 — Weakness of the Government, 47 — More Paper
Money, 47 — Its Depreciation, 47 — Washington advises Drafts from the Militia,
47 — Slaves of Rhode Island enlisted, 48 — Emancipation in Rhode Island, 48 —
The United States and Defaulters, 48 — Greene Quartermaster-general, 48 —
Steuben Inspector-general, 49 — Conflict of Opinion between Congress and Wash-
ington, 49 — Congress for Separatism, 49 — Washington for Union 50 — Con-
gress jealous of the Army, 50 — Washington on Standing Armies, 50 — Submis-
sion of the Army to the Civil Power, 50 — Necessity of Union between the Army
and Citizens, 50 — People of the United States, 51 — Merit of the Soldiers, 51 —
Unity of the Country, 51 — The Embarkation of Burgoyne's Troops suspended,
SI — Expedition of Gist to the South-west, 51 — American Privateers and Pub-
lic Ships, 51— Heroism of Biddle, 52.

CHAPTER XXVm.

THB TOOTED STATES AND GEORGE m. 1777 — 1778.

Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, p. 53 — His Bad Bargain, 53 — His Loss of Troops,
53 — Reception of his Troops at Quebec, 53 — Despotic Conduct of the Landgrave
of Hesse-Cassel, 53 — Meanness of the Brunswick Princes, 53 — Wish their
Troops sent to the West Indies, 53 — Failure of a Treaty with Wurtemberg, 53
— Address of Mir&bean to the Peoples of Germany and the Soldiers, 54 — Reply
of the Landgrave, 54 — Mirabeau's Rejoinder, 54 — Opening of Parliament, 54
— The King still for reducing the Colonies, 54 — Chatham, 54 — His Despair,
54 — His Opinion that America cannot be conquered, 54 — His Protest against
the Use of German Hirelings, 55 — And of Savage Hell-hounds, 55 — His Policy,
55 — Plan of the Rockingham Party, 55 — Duke of Richmond on Independence,
55 — Chatham on Archbishop of York, 55 — Lord North hears of Burgoyne's
Surrender, 55 — He desires to make Peace, 55 — Speech of Richmond, 55 — Of
Burke, 55 — Of Fox, 55 — North follows the Advice of George, 56 — His Peni-
tence in his Old Age, 56 — Burgoyne's Surrender known in France, 56— Ver*

Vlll CONTENTS.

gennes desires a Treaty, 56 — Boundaries of the Colonies, 56 — The Fisheries,
56 — Louis XVI. will support American Independence, 57 — On what Conditions
67 — No Propagandism, 57 — Promise of Aid in Money, 57 — Ships for America
to be convoyed, 57 — Lord Amherst's Opinion on the Conduct of the War, 57 —
The King will not let Lord North flinch, 57 — A Place in the Ministry offered
Chatham, 57 — Whose Friends the King courts, 57 — Treaties between France
and the United States, 58 — Their Principles, 68 — Their Conditions, 58— The
French Claim to the Fisheries acknowledged, 58 — Contraband Goods, 58 —
When Peace may be made, 59 — Mutual Guarantees, 59 — Spain, 69 — The
Treaties in England, 59 — Hillsborough attacks Richmond, 59 — The Answer,
59 — Richmond seeks the Friendship of Chatham, 59 — Eulogy of Chatham by
Grenville, 59 — Franklin gains Public Opinion for America, 59 — Voltaire, 60
— Difference between him and America, 60 — The Two on the Same Side, 60 —
Voltaire's Blessing on America, 60 — His Homage to Lafayette, 60 — Lord
North's Conciliatory Bills, 60 — He confesses his own Want of Policy, 60 —
Effect of his Speech on the Commons, 61 — Hartley's Attempt with Franklin, 61
— Franklin's Reply, 61 — France avows her Treaties with America, 61 — Will
protect Commerce between France and the United States, 61 — State of War
between England and France, 62 — Ambassador's Recall, 62 — George III. and
Chatham, 62 — Fox pliable, 62 — Demands of Chatham, 62 — Violence of the
King, 62 — His Persistence, 62 — Will risk his Crown, 62 — Conway for treating
with Franklin, 63 — Rockingham on Independence, 63 — Shelburne for War with
France, 63 — His Opinion of a Change in the Ministry, 63 — Vehement Anger
of George III., 63.

CHAPTER XXIX.

THE UNITED STATES AND FRANCE. 1778.

American Commissioners presented to the King, p. 64 — Franklin's Dress, 64

— The Commissioners presented to the Queen, 64 — Peevishness of the King,
65 — Character of Franklin's Mind, 65 — Not overawed by Birth or Authority,

65 — His Tranquillity, 65 — Why he was frugal, 65 — His Moral Greatness, 65

— His Manners, 65 — He wins Universal Respect, 66 — His Eulogy by John
Adams, 66 — By D' Alembert, 66 — A Representative of Opinion, 66 — What
Malesherbes said, 66 — Franklin excites no Jealousy in the Privileged Classes,

66 — His Secret of Statesmanship, 66 — His Prediction of the French Revolution,

67 — He uses his Fame for his Country's Good, 67 — Superior to Envy, 67 — He
is esteemed by the Best Men in England, 67 — Position of the King and Chat-
ham, 67 — Chatham and Richmond, 67 — Chatham and the House of Lords, 67

— Speech of Richmond, 67 — Chatham's Reply, 68 — Richmond rejoins, 68 —
Chatham struck with Death, 68 — Indifference of Mansfield, 68 — Glee of the
King, 69 — Chatham in his Last Days, 69 — His Eloquence, 69 — His Haughti-
ness to the Last, 69 — His Death, 69 — The Lords refuse to attend his Funeral,
69 — Powers of Europe favor the United States, 69 — England insists on a
Preference from the United States, 69 — France asks no Favor, 69 — Agency
of Hartley, 70 — Frankness of Franklin, 70 — Speech of Fox, 70 — The
British Commission to the United States a Delusion, 70 — Opinion of Wash-
ington, 70 — Resolution of Congress, 70 — Opinion of Governor Clinton, 71

CONTENTS. IX

—Of Jay, 71 — Of Robert Morris, 71 — A French Fleet sails to the United
States, 71 — Gerard embarks as Minister, 71 — Alliance between France and
America riveted, 71 — Franklin and Voltaire at the French Academj, 71 —
Cause of the Alliance of France and America, 71 — Free Inquiry, 71 — Sys-
tem of Lather, 71 — Of Descartes, 72 — Difference between the Systems, 72 —
The System of Protestantism Continuity, 72 — Of Descartes, Revolution, 72 —
Lutherans and Calvinists, 72 — Philosophers, 73 — Leasing, 73 — Calvinism in
Philosophy, 73 — Kant in Politics the Counterpart of America, 73 — Free Thought
in France, 73 — Why it had a Spirit of Revenge, 73 — Causes that contributed
to Free Thought, 73 — Influence of America, 73 — Force of Public Opinion in
France, 74 — No Free Public Opinion in Spain, 74 — Contrast between French
literature and Spanish, 74 — Natural Science and Religion, 74 — Religion in
Spain subjected to Materialism, 74 — Spain intolerant, 75 — Contrast between
the French Mind and the Spanish Mind, 75 — The Bourbon Family Compact
annulled, 75 — Spain an Enemy to American Independence, 75 — The Offer of
Florida rejected, 75 — Gibraltar, 76 — France and the United States, 76 —
France confers a Priceless Benefit, 76 — Benefit of the American Revolution to
France, 76.

CHAPTER XXX.

KUBOPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 1778.

The American Question in Europe, p. 77 — England at War with itself, 77 —
Mutual Dependence of American and English Liberty, 77 — The Administration
no Representative of British Character, 77 — Nor of Parties, 78 — The British
People, 78 — Chaotic State of Political Parties, 78 — Conflict of Monarchy and
the Parliament, 78 — Power passes to the Aristocracy, 79 — Absolutism of Par-
liament and Liberty, 79 — Position of the Whig Party, 80 — Chatham and the
Liberal Party, 80 — Progress, 80. — Why North remained in Power, 80 — State
of France, 81 — Its Peasantry, 81 — Its Cultivated Classes, 81 — Its Superior
Power of Generalization, 81 — Its War Minister opposes the American Alliance,
81 — Motives to the Alliance, 82 — Maurepas and the Rivalry with England, 82
— Necker and the French Finances, 83 — Vergennes a Monarchist, 83 — His
Relation to America and to Republicanism, 83 — The French Cabinet and Amer-
ica, 83 — The Light Literature, 84 — Marie Antoinette, 84 — The King, 84 —
France threatened with Bankruptcy, 85 — Society at Paris and Versailles, 85 —
Peace the True Policy of Spain, 85 — Its Foreign Dependencies, 86 — Its Cen-
tral Government, 86 — Jealousy of its Monopolies, 87 — Charles HE. and the
Jesuits, 87 — Their Expulsion, 87 — The Forerunner of Independence, 88 —
Spanish Distrust of the United States, 88 — Portugal and the United States, 88
— Austria, 89 — Policy of Kaunitz, 89 — Towards Prussia, 89 — Towards
France, 89 — Towards England, 90 — Results, 90 — Italy and the United
States, 91— Naples, 91 — Turkey, 91 — Russia, 91 — Sweden, 92 —Denmark,
92— Bernstorf and the United States, 92 — Switzerland, 93 — The Netherlands,
93— The Champions of Neutral Rights, 94— They help to restore English Lib-
erty, 94 — Their Alliance with England, 94 — Their Rights as Neutrals violated
in the French War, 95 — England intrigues to divide the Republic, 95.

X CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXXI.

OBRMAVT AND THE UNITED STATES. 1778.

The Germans, p. 96 — Their Conversion to Christianity, 96 — Their Struggle
against the Saracens, 96 — Charlemagne, 97 — Dispute between Emperor and
Pope, f r — Victory of the Pope, 97 — German Emperor and Nobles, 98 — Free
Cities and People, 98 — The Consequences of Infallibility, 99 — Greek Diviners
absolved from Sin, 99 — The Papal Power organizes the System of Absolution,
100— Absolute Power self-destructive, 100— Luther, 100— The Enfranchiser
of Mind, 100 — Justification by Faith alone, 100 — Scope of Luther's Teaching,
101 — Leibnitz on Luther, 101 — Rights of Reason, 101 — Applied to Monarchi-
cal Power, 101 — To Conscience and Private Judgment, 102 — Rights of the
Congregation, 102 — Luther's Rules of Colonization, 103 — The Synod of Horn-
berg, 103 — Compromise in Germany between the Reformation and Civil
Authority, 103 — French Protestants make no such Compromise, 104 — The
Reformation finds an Asylum in the Free Cities, 104 — Saxony loses the
Headship of Protestant Germany, 104 — The Hohenzollerns, by becoming Cal-
vinists, prepare themselves for the Headship of Northern Germany, 104 — Par-
allel between Events in Germany and in America, 105 — Gustavus Adolphus,
105 — Oxenstiern, 105 — Upper German Circles, 106 — State of Germany before
the Thirty Years' War, 106 — After the War, 106 — German Emigration, 107—
The Head of the Hohenzollerns acknowledges the Rights of the People and of
Conscience, 107 — The Huguenot Exiles in Berlin and in America, 107 — Influence
of the English Revolution in America and in Prussia, 107 — Saying of Leibnitz,
107 — The Pope foresees his Danger, 107 — Aspect of the Peace of Utrecht on
America and on Prussia, 107 — Protestant Exiles of Salzburg in America and in
Prussia, 108 — Joint Action of Pitt, Frederic, and Washington, 108 — Effect of
Bute's Policy on Frederic and on the United States, 109 — Kant and the United
States, 109 — On Slavery, the Sale of Troops, and Rights of Man, 110 — Opin-
ions of Lessing on America, 110 — Herder, 111 — Klopstock, 111 — Goethe, 111
—Schiller, 112— Niebuhr, 113 —The Youth of Germany, 113.

CHAPTER XXXII.

THE RELATIONS OF THE TWO NEW POWERS. 1778.

Duke of Saxe-Gotha, p. 114 — Refuses Troops to England, 114 — His Patriot-
ism, 114 — Charles Augustus of Saxe- Weimar, 114 — Goethe and the Class
called the Lower, 115 — Frederic Augustus of Saxony, 115 — Fate of the Ger-
man Houses that sold Troops, 115 — Of Saxe-Weimar, 115 — Cause of the Con-
trast, 115 — Frederic of Prussia, 116 — The Six Qualities of a Great Man, 116
— His Relation to the Nobility, 116— To German Letters, 116 — To other
Powers, 116— To German Liberty, 117 — To Republican Government, 117 —
To England and France, 117 — His Good-will to America, 117 — Thinks English
Government tending to Despotism, 118 — Condemns the King's Proclamation,
118 — Justifies the Americans, 118 — Wonders at the Indifference of the Eng-
lish, 119 — Condemns the British Court, 119 — Predicts American Independence,
119 — Observes the Eclipse of English Liberty, 119 — Devotes himself to Prus-
sia, 120 — Declines a Direct Commerce with the United States, 120 — Receives

CONTENTS. XI

their Declaration of Independence as a Proof that they cannot be subjugated,
120 — Hume' 8 Prophecy, 120 — Opinion on the Tory Party, 120 — Consents to
an American Commerce through French Ports, 120 — Predicts the Bankruptcy
of France, 121 — Anxious as to the Bavarian Succession, 121 — Makes Ap-
proaches to France, 121 — Declines the Overture of Franklin, 121 — Protects
Arthur Lee, 122 — Frederic again declines the English Alliance, 123 — Con-
fesses his Maritime Weakness, 124 — Seeks the Aid of France and Russia in the
Bavarian Succession, 124 — Gains the Good-will of Maurepas, 124 — Encour
ages Maurepas to a War with England, 125 — Seeks to escape a New War with
Austria, 126 — Interposition of Marie Antoinette for America, 126 — Maurepas
consults Frederic, 126 — His Opinion of England's Position after the Defeat of
Burgoyne, 127 — His Judgment on its Ministry, 127 — Ascribes its Defeat to its
Departure from English Principles, 127 — Opens Dantzic to the Americans, 128
— Forbids the Transit of Troops, 128 — Proposes to recognise American Inde-
pendence, 128.

CHAPTER XXXni.

THE BRITISH RETREAT FROM PENNSYLVANIA. May— June, 1778.

France and England change Places, p. 129 — The French a Landed People,
129 — The English a Landless People, 129 — Congress ratifies the French Trea-
ties, 129 — Their Reception in Washington's Camp, 130 — Address of Congress
to the People, 130 — Festival to General Howe, 130 — He marches to capture
Lafayette, 131 — Grant outgeneralled, 132 — Lafayette escapes, 132 — Howe
sails for England, 132 — His Mistakes as a General, 132 — At Bunker Hill, 132
—In Retreating to Halifax, 132 — On Long Island, 132 — Divides his Army,
133 — His Waste of Time, 133— His Winter in Philadelphia, 133 — Congress
rejects the British Conciliatory Acts, 133 — Will treat only as an Independent
Nation, 133 — Arrival of British Commissioners, 133 — Their Characters, 134 —
Germain's Plan for the Coming Campaign, 134 — Preparations for evacuating
Philadelphia, 135 — The Commissioners exceed their Authority in their Offers
to Congress, 135 — They sail for New York, 135 — The American Officers and
the Commissioners, 136 — Congress refuses to permit the Army of Burgoyne to
embark, 136 —Crossing the Delaware, 137 — Intrigue of Lee, 137 — Washing-
ton pursues the British £rmy, 138 — Advice of Lee, 138 — He commands the
Advanced Corps, 138 — His Negligence, 138 — His Confused Orders, 139 —
Movements of Clinton, 139 — Lee's Retreat, 140 — Washington orders him to the
Rear, 140 — The Battle of Monmouth, 141 — Conduct of Greene, 141 — Of
Wayne, 141— Death of Monckton, 141 — The British defeated, 141 — They
retire by Night, 141 — Opinion of Frederic, 141 — Congress thank Washington,
142 — Black Americans in the Battle, 142 — Insolence of Lee, 142 — Suspended
by Court-martial, 142 — Dismissed by Congress, 142 — Character, 142 — Death,
142.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

HOW FAB AMERICA HAD ACHIEVED INDEPENDENCE AT THE TIME OF THE

fbench alliance. July — September, 1778.

Wyoming Valley, p. 143 — Takes part in the War, 143 — Revenge of the
Senecas, 143 — Sucingerachton, 143 — Butler, 144 — Defeat of the Men of Wyonv

Xll CONTENTS.

tag, 144 — The Senecas and Germain, 144 — Result for Pennsylvania, 145 —
Trials for Treason, 145 — State of the British before the French Alliance, 145 —
Contrast of the American and British Soldier, 145 — Change in the American
Mind, 146 — In the English Mind, 146 — Opinion of Gibbon, 146 — Howe, 146 —
Clinton, 146 — Germain, 146 — North, 146 — Lord Amherst, 146 — Parliament,
147 — The King, 147— Lord Rockingham, 147 — Fox, 147 —Change in Parlia-
ment, 147 — Fox, Pownall, and Conway for Independence, 147 — Opinion of
Barrington, 148 — Mansfield, 148 — The Landed Aristocracy, 148 — Change of
Ministry desired, 148 — Congress in Philadelphia, 148 — Confederacy signed by
all the States except Maryland, 148— D'Estaing in Delaware Bay, 149— D'Es-
taing at Sandy Hook, 149 — Wislies to capture Newfoundland, 149 — Plan for
the Recovery of Rhode Island, 150 — D'Estaing off Newport, 150 — Congress
receives the French Minister, 150 — Sullivan lands on Rhode Island, 151 — The
French Squadron pursues the British, 151 — A Hurricane, 151 — Suffering of
the Troops on Land, 151 — Howe steers for Sandy Hook, 151 — D'Estaing for
Boston, 151 — Sullivan retreats, 152 — Good Conduct of Greene, 152 — Lord
Howe retires from America, 152 — Discontent of New England, 152 — Result of
the Campaign, 152 — Opinion of Washington, 153 — Of Trumbull, 153— Fare-
well of the British Commissioners, 153 — Their Menaces, 153 — Their Conduct
condemned in the House of Commons, 154 — And in the House of Lords, 154 —
Shelburne opposes Independence, 154 — Ravages of the British around New
Tork, 154 — Of Tories and Indians in the Interior, 155 — South Carolina Con-
stitution, 155 — Negatived by Rutledge, 155 — Constitution adopted, 156 — Its
Principal Clauses, 156 — South Carolina Law against Treason, 156 — British
plan the Conquest of the Southern States, 157 — Clinton at New York reduced
to a Starved Defensive, 157.

CHAPTER XXXV.

SPAIN AND THE UNITED STATES. 1778.

Policy of Spain towards the United States, p. 158 — Its Tergiversations, 158
— Count Montmorin, 159 — Florida Blanca abhors American Independence, 159
— Distrusts France, 159 — Chides the French for their Deference to America,
159 — Seeks to make a Tool of Great Britain, 160 — Policy of the French Coun-
cil, 160 — Why the Campaign was inactive, 160 — Indecision of the King of
Spain, 161 — His desire of Gibraltar, 161 — Refuses an Alliance with the United
States, 161 — Evil Consequences to France of Delay, 161 — Admiral Keppel
captures a French Frigate, 161 — D'Orvilliers sent out to meet Keppel, 162 —
Insignificant Fight, 162 — KeppePs Conduct, 162 — The French Camp in Nor-
mandy, 162 — Capture of Chandernagor, 162 — Of Pondicherry, 162 — Financial
Measures, 163 — Florida Blanca dupes Grantham, 163 — His Territorial Plans
in North America, 163 — Answer of Waymouth, 163 — Waymouth proposes an
Alliance, 163 — Spain formally offers Mediation, 164 — Asks of France her Con-
ditions of Peace, 164 — Waymouth rejects Mediation, 164 — Benjamin Franklin
Sole American Minister in France, 164.

CHAPTER XXXVI.
A people without a oovernment. August— December, 1778.

United States without a Government, p, 166 — Paper Money, 166 — Counter-
feited by the British, 166— Loan Offices, 166— Lottery, 166 — Forced Circu-

CONTENTS. XUl

lation, 166 — Paper Money in the States, 166— Regulation of Prices, 166 —
Certificates of Debt, 167— Unprotected Bills of Exchange, 167— Kate of Inter-
est, 167 — States to become Creditors of the United States, 167— Quotas of the
States, 168 — Hopes of Foreign Loans, 168 — From France, Spain, and Tuscany
168 — Loan Office Certificates paid by Drafts on Commissioners at Paris, 168 —
Increase of Paper Money, 168 — Trade blighted, 169— Richard Price declines
the Superintendency of American Finances, 169 — United States seek Protec-
tion from France, 169 — More Paper Money, 170 — Its Worth doubted in Con-
gress, 170 — Expenses of 1778, 170 — Errors of Judgment of Germain, 170 -
Influence of Refugees, 171 — William Franklin, 171 — Influence of the Jesuits,
171 — Clinton courts the Irish successfully, 171 — Unreasonable Requirements
of Germain, 172 — Nothing to be expected of Clinton, 172 — Confidence of the
Americans, 172 — Impracticable Plan for emancipating Canada, 172 — Spirit of
Independence increases, 173 — The Army in Winter-quarters, 173 — The Brit-
ish had made no Progress during the Campaign, 173 — Want of a Central Power
in the United States, 174 — Separate Power of the States, 174 — People of the
United States less heard of, 174 — Thirteen Sovereignties, 175 — Washington
pleads for American Union, 175.

CHAPTER XXXVH.

THE KINO OF SPAIN BAFFLED BT THE BACKWOODSMEN OF YIBGDOA.

1778—1779.

Negotiations between France and Spain, p. 176 — State of Mind of Florida
Blanca, 176 — He observes the Attachment of the United States to England,
176 — Wishes to bridle their Power, 176 — How far Vergennes consented, 177
—Intrigue of the French Minister at Philadelphia, 177 — Opinion of Gouverneur
Morris, 177 — Of Jay, 177 — Vergennes on the American Government, 177 —
The French Conditions of Peace, 178 — Florida Blanca wishes to qualify the
Independence of the United States, 178 — Insists that France shall suggest the
Advantages Spain is to gain by the War, 178 — Gibraltar, 179 — How it was to
betaken, 179 — Dilemma of Vergennes, 179 — Lafayette at Versailles, 180 —
His Reception by the Queen, 180 — His Zeal for America, 180 — France Impa-
tient for Peace, 180 — Dissimulation of Florida Blanca, 180 — He proposes to
mediate a Truce, 180 — Embarrassment of Vergennes, 181 — Answer of Way-
mouth, 181 — Motives of his Policy, 181 — How long it endured, 181 — Ver-
gennes drafts a Convention with Spain, 181 — Cavils of Florida Blanca, 181 —
Gibraltar a Condition, 182' — France undertakes an Invasion of England, 182 —
Pettifogging of Florida Blanca, 182 — Refusal to acknowledge the United
States, 182— The War Treaty between France and Spain, 183— How far it
altered the Treaty between France and the United States, 183 — The Mississippi
the Bond of American Union, 183 — The Bourbons would exclude the United
States from that River, 184 — Preserved to the United States by the Backwoods-
men, 184 — Movements of George Rogers Clark, 184 — Consultation with Vir-
ginia Statesmen, 185 — Clark at Redstone, 185 — At Louisville, 185 — Schemes
of Hamilton at Detroit, 186 — Vincennes, 186 — Kaskaskia, 186 — Its Capture
by Clark, 186— Kahokia, 186 — Gibault and Vincennes,- 187 — Plan to take the
North-west, 187 — Hamilton recovers Vincennes, 187 — Threatens St. Louis, 187

XIV CONTENTS.

—His Mannei of employing Indians, 188— His Preparations for Conquest, 188
—Insulation of Clark, 188 — Vigo reports the Condition of Vincennes, 188 —
Desperate March of the Backwoodsmen, 188 — What Hamilton was planning,
189 — The Backwoodsmen enter Vincennes, 189 — Clark lays siege to the Fort,
189 — Hamilton parleys, 190 — Surrenders at Discretion, ftO — Capture of Brit-
ish Supplies, 190 — Virginia Vote of Thanks, 190 — Further Merits of the Back-
woodsmen, 190 — Expedition under Evan Shelby, 190 — Flow of Emigration
Westward, 191— American Fort on the Mississippi, 191 — Capture of Natchez,
192.

CHAPTER XXXVIH.

PLAN OF PEACE. 1779.

The Northern Campaign defensive, p. 193 — The National Treasury, 193 —
Condition of the Officers, 193 — Of the Rank and File, 194— Congress fixes the
Number of Battalions, 194 — The Need of a National Government, 194 — Wash-
ington appeals to the States, 194 — His Letter to George Mason, 195 — American
Affairs at their Lowest Ebb, 195 — Apathy of Congress, 195 — It refuses to con-
clude any Peace in which France is not comprised, 197 — Boundaries and Fish-
eries, 197 — Demands of Spain, 197 — The Fisheries, 197 — Vergennes ex-
pounds the Law of Nations, 198 — Demands of the New England Men, 198 —
Counter Argument of Vergennes, 198 — French Minister endeavors to persuade
Congress to yield to Spain, 198 — Does not doubt of Success, 199 — Congress
refers the Terms of Peace to a Committee, 199 — Renort of the Committee, 200

Congress on Boundaries, 200 — On Fisheries, 2<ro — New York would have

Independence the Sole Condition of Peace, 201 — French Minister intervenes,
201 — Vote on the Subject, 201 — Congress solicits Portraits of the King and
Queen of France, 202 — And Further Supplies, 202 — Renewed Debate on Con-
ditions of Peace, 202 — Manoeuvre of Gerry, 202 — Stormy Debate on the Fish-
eries, 203 — The French Minister endeavors to intimidate Congress, 203 — Final
Disposition of the Question, 204 — French Minister hints at a Truce, 204 — Con-
gress demands that Independence be assured, 204 — French Minister wishes
America to yield to the King of Spain, 204 — Instructions to the Negotiators for
Peace, 204 — Plan for Treaty with Spain, 205— Jay elected Envoy to Spain,
205 — Adams appointed to negotiate Peace and a Treaty of Commerce with
England, 205.

CHAPTER XXXIX.

THE WAR IN THE NORTHERN DEPARTMENT. 1779.

Inactivity of the British Army, p. 206 — Prosperity of the Virginians, 206 —
Matthew's Predatory Expedition, 206 — Retaliation of the Virginia Legislature,
207 — Issue of Paper Money, 207 — Measures to meet the Public Exigencies,
207 — Code of Virginia, 207 — Law of Descents, 207— Bill to establish Relig-
ious Liberty, 207 — Delay in its Enactment, 208 — Expedition of Clinton up the
Hudson, 208 — Verplanck's and Stony Point fall into his Hands, 208 — Pillaging
Expedition of Tryon, 209 — At New Haven, 209 — At East Haven, 209 — At
Fairfield, 209 — At Norwalk, 210 — Address of Collier and Tryon to the Inhab-

CONTENTS. XV

itants of Connecticut, 210 — Tryon recalled to New York, 210 — Gallant Assault
of Wayne on Stony Point, 210 — Brilliant Victory and Clemency of the Ameri-
cans, 211 — Daring Enterprise of Henry Lee, 211 — Expedition against the
Senecas, 212 — Van Schaick and Willet in the Country of the Onondagas, 212
— Sullivan appointed to command the Expedition against the Senecas, 212 —
His Insatiable Demands, 212 — Barbarities of the British and Indians, 212 —
Sullivan begins his March, 218— Message of Little David to Haldimand, 213 —
Sullivan* 8 Conduct of the Expedition and Return to New Jersey, 213— Estab-
lishment of a British Post at Castine, 214 — Expedition sent against it by the
Massachusetts Legislature, 214 — Incapacity and Failure of the Commanders,
214 — Results of the Campaign, 214 — The American Army in Winter-quarters,
214 — Severity of the Winter, 215 — Heroism of the Troops, 215 — Prophecies
of Pownall, 215 — American Independence fixed, 216 — America will establish
a Strong Government, 216— Absorb the West Indies, 216 — Condition of Span-
ish South America, 216 — Peculiarities of the Americans, 217 — Their Industrial
Freedom, 217— Their Inventive Genius, 217— Their Commerce, 218— Their
Increase, 218 — Their Relation to the Sovereigns of Europe, 219 — European
Influence on the War, 219.

CHAPTER XL.

PROGRESS OF THE WAB IN EUROPE. 1779.

Frederic of Prussia engrossed by the Bavarian Succession, p. 220 — Puts
aside Lee's Importunities, 220 — Refuses an Alliance with England, 221 — Brit-
ish Cabinet seeks Aid from Russia, 221 — Report of the English Ambassador in
Petersburg, 221 — Frederic allows English Recruits to pass through his Domin-
ions, 221 — Will protect Hanover, 221 — Explains to Vergennes his Reasons
for refusing an Alliance with England, 221 — Incites his Minister to Action, 222
— Explains his Policy toward Austria, 222 — Desires an Assurance of French
Neutrality, 222 — Policy of Maurepas, 222 — The War of the Bavarian Succes-
sion, 222 — Causes of its Swift Termination, 222 — Comparison between Fred-
eric and Joseph, 222 — Insincerity of Joseph toward France, 223 — Influence of
Austria and Prussia on American Affairs, 223 — Coincidence of the Interests of
Prussia and the United States, 223 — Austria and Russia desire to mediate
between the Bourbons and England, 223 — Letter of Maria Theresa to
Charles III., 223— His Answer, 224 — Spain declares War on England, 224 —
Firmness of the English King, Commons, and People, 224 — English Opinion
condemns taxing Unrepresented Colonies, 224 — Confession of the ELing on that
Point, 224 — Interview of George III. and his Ministers, 225 — Disunion in the
Ministry, 225 — Pusillanimity of Lord North, 225— Views of the King, 225 —
Opposition of the Ablest Statesmen, 225 — Hillsborough, 225 — Movement of
French Troops to invade England, 225 — Junction of French and Spanish Fleets
in the Channel, 226 — The Combined Fleet appears off Plymouth, 226 — British
Fleet retreats, 227 — Combined Fleet disperses, 227 — Dejection in France, 227
— Maria Theresa continues her Offers of Mediation, 227 — Condition of Ireland,
227 — Vergennes would not count on the Catholics, 227 — But on the Presby-
terians, 228 — Sends an Agent to Ireland, 228 — As does Florida Blanca, 228 —
Policy of Ireland, 229 — Capitulation of Baton Rouge to the Spaniards, 229.

SV1 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XLI.

THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 1778 — 1780.

Neutral flags in the Middle Ages, p. 230 — The Dutch Code, 230 — Rights of
Neutrals in the Time of Cromwell, 230 — Recognised in Treaties with Portugal,
France, Sweden, the Netherlands, 230 — In the Peace of Utrecht, 230 — Given
up in Two Treaties between 1745 and 1780, 231 —Policy of Russia, 231 — Move-
ments of the "General Mifflin," 231 — How Russia would treat America, 232
—Prosperity of the Netherlands, 232 — Their Want of Power, 232— Defects in
their Constitution, 232 — Its Workings, 232— Holland, 232 — Different Views
respecting Sovereignty, 233 — Parties, 233— The Stadholder, 233 — France
seeks the Neutrality of the Netherlands, 233 — Intrigues of the English Party,
234 — Proposal of a Treaty of Commerce from the American Commissioners,
234 — Neglect and Silence of the Dutch, 234 — Declaration of France, 234 —
Feeling of the Dutch towards England, 235 — Jan de Neufville, 235 — Dismissal
of William Lee, 236 — States-general consign the Communication of the Amer-
ican Commissioners to Rest, 236 — Cruising of British Vessels, 236 — The Dutch
the Chief Sufferers, 236 — The Flags of Denmark, Sweden, and Prussia violated
by English Privateers, 237 — Vergennes suggests a League of Neutral Nations,
237 — Sweden and Denmark agree, 237 — Panin warns Harris, 237 — Plans of
Russia for 1779, 238 — Intervention of Frederic, 238 — Empress of Russia and
the Proposed League, 238— Panin' s Opinion on the Conduct of the English, 239 —
Harris tries to circumvent him, 239 — Character of Potemkin, 239 — Proposition
of Harris, 240 — Council of State refuse to change their Foreign Policy, 240 —
Panin to Goertz, 240 — England should lose her Colonies, 240 — Frederic gives a
Like Opinion, 240 — Conflicting Aggressions of France and England in the
Netherlands, 240 — Resolutions concerning Unlimited Convoy, 241 — Great
Britain demands Succor from the Dutch, 241 — Paul Jones, 241 — Engagement
of the " Serapis " and " Poor Richard," 242 — Prizes carried into the Texel, 242

— Reclamation of British Ships, 242 — Denmark forbids the Sale of American
Prizes in her Ports, 243 — George III. offers to Catharine an Alliance with Eng-
land, 243 —Answer of Panin, 243 — Memorial of the Northern Powers to Eng-
land, 244— Dutch Merchant Fleet fired on by the English, 245 — Spain outrages
the Russian Flag, 245 — Measures adopted by Russia, 246 —Harris overreached
by Potemkin, 246 — Panin's Last Act his Best, 247 — Goertz reports the Neutral
League, 247 — Frederic desires Spain to make Reparation to Prussia, 247 — Ver-
gennes supports the Advice, 247 — Panin's Plan for an Armed Neutrality, 248

— Declaration signed, 248 — Its Principles, 248— Welcomed at Berlin, Paris,
and Madrid, 249 — Sweden, Denmark, Portugal, and the Netherlands invited to
join in it, 249— John Adams utters the Voice of the United States, 249.

CHAPTER XLH.

THE WAR IV THE SOUTHERN STATES. 1778 — 1779.

Germain's Plans for the Campaign of 1778, 250 — He favors Cornwallis, 260
— Expedition sent out by Prevost to plunder, 251 — Sunbury summoned to sur-
render, 251 —Murder of Screven, 251 — Robert Howe's Expedition, 251 — Brit-
ish Troops arrive off Savannah, 251 — Capture of Savannah, 251 — Proclama-

CONTENTS. XVU

tion of Campbell, 252 — Merciless Conduct of the War, 252 — Georgia occupied
by the British, 252 — Lincoln appointed to the Command of the Southern De-
partment, 252 — His Previous Life, 252 — Movements of the New Commander,
253— Repulse of the British, 253— North Carolina Militia join Lincoln, 253 —
Enactments of South Carolina, 253 — Rout of a British Party by Pickens, 254
— Trial of Refugees, 254 — Lincoln desires to retire, 254 — Greene requests the
Position, 254 — Lincoln not allowed to resign, 254 — Americans under Ashe put
to flight, 254 — Civil Government proclaimed in Georgia, 255 — Expedition of
Lincoln against Savannah, 255 — Prevost's Plundering March toward Charles-
ton, 255 — Charleston in a State of Siege, 255 — Hamilton and Laurens desire
to arm the Negroes, 256 — Washington's Answer, 256 — Congress to South
Carolina, 256 — Advice to arm Slaves causes Disaffection, 257 — The Executive
Government treats for a Capitulation, 257 — Desires Neutrality, 257 — Scorn of
Laurens, 257 — Decision of Moultrie, 257 — Approach of Lincoln and Retreat of
the British, 258 — Movements of the French Fleet, 258 — Capture of St Lucia by
the British, 258— Repulse of D'Estaing, 258 — Arrival of Byron with Re-
enforcements, 259 — Running Fight between the French and British Fleets, 259
—D'Estaing captures Four British Ships-of-War, 259— The French lay Siege
to Savannah, 259 — Summon Prevost to surrender, 259 — Arrival of Maitland
with Re-enforcements, 260 — Troops under Lincoln join the French in the Siege,
260 — Assault on the Works, 260 — Its Failure, 260 — Pulaski mortally wounded,
260— Baron de Stedingk, 261— The Siege raised, 261 — Sad Condition of
South Carolina, 261 — Treatment of the Negroes by the British, 261 — Ger-
main's Instruction, 262 — British Lust for Plunder and Grain, 262 — Their Name
hated where it had been cherished, 262.

CHAPTER XLHI.

THE SIEGE OF CHARLESTON. 1779—1780.

Civil Warm South Carolina, p. 263 — Heroic Courage and Self-devotion of
her Citizens, 263 — Re-enforcement of Clinton, 263 — He sails for South Caro-
lina, 264 — Disasters to the Fleet, 264 — Rawdon comes from New York, 264 —
Charleston, 264 — Lincoln awaits a Siege, 26b — Inability of the Americans to
defend the Harbor, 265 — Lincoln's Preparations, 265 — Clinton's Caution, 265
— Lincoln re-enforced by the Virginia Line, 265 — Arbuthnot enters the Harbor,
266 — Summons the Town to surrender, 266 — Lincoln's Answer, 266 — Delib-
erations, 266 — Evacuation impossible, 266 — Lincoln capitulates, 266 — Condi-
tions of the Capitulation, 266 —Value of the Spoil, 267 — Greed of the British
Officers for Plunder, 267 — Expeditions sent out by Clinton, 267 — Williamson
surrenders Ninety-Six, 267 — Pursuit of Buford by Tarleton, 267 — Massacre of
his Forces, 268 — Resistance to the British suspended, 268 — Clinton's Proc-
lamation, 268 — Arbuthnot' s Moderation, 268 — Cornwallis not informed of the
Proclamation, 268 — British Authority in Carolina without Roots, 269.

CHAPTER XLIV.

WAS IX THE SOUTH: CORNWALLIS AND GATES.

Rivalry between Cornwallis and Clinton, p. 270 — Plan of Cornwallis, 270—
Enrolment of the Inhabitants, 270— Murder of Samuel Wyly, 271— The
YOI* vi. b

XVlll CONTENTS.

Presbyterians, 271 — Huck's Barbarity, 271 — Persecution of Prisoners by
Cornwallis, 271 — Rawdon' s Order to Rugely, 271 — Posts necessary to hold
South Carolina, 272 — Subjection of South Carolina and Georgia to Cornwallis,
272 — Houston to Jay, 272 — Sumter, 272— Brutal Treatment of his Wife by
the British, 272 — Chosen Leader of the American Refugees, 272 — Rawdon pre-
pares to receive them, 273 — Defeat of Huck's Party by Sumter, 273 — Lisle's
Desertion to the Americans, 273 — Sumter's Attack on Rocky Mount, 273 —
His Capture of Hanging Rock, 273 — Andrew Jackson, 273 — Washington
detaches Troops, under Kalb and Lee, to the South, 274 — Virginia exposed to
Invasion, 274 — Her Magnanimity 274 — Kalb's Character, 274 — Gates suc-
ceeds Lincoln, 275 — His Relation to Congress, 275 — Appoints Morgan a Brig-
adier, 275 — His Plan, 275 — Confirmed by Pinckney and Marion, 276 — March
to the Southward, 276 — Junction with Porterfield, 276 — Revival of Hope in
South Carolina, 276 — Illusions of Gates, 277 — Rawdon and Tarleton make a
Stand, 277 — Gates misses his Opportunity, 277 — Rawdon strengthens his
Works, 277 — Arrival of Cornwallis, 278 — Gates weakens himself by detaching
Sumter, 278 — His Night March, 278— Engagement near Camden, 278 — Death
of Porterfield, 279 — Council of War, 279— Cornwall's Position, 279— Battle
of Camden, 279— Defeat of Gates, 280— Loss of the British, 280— Death of
Kalb, 281— Flight of Gates and Caswell, 281— Rout of Sumter, 282.

CHAPTER XLV.

CORNWALLIS AND THE MEN OF THE SOUTH AND WEST. 1780.

Cornwallis the Principal Figure in the British Service, p. 283 — Events which
closed the Conflict, 283 — Condition of Europe, 283 — Cornwallis prepares for
his Northward March, 283 — Requests Clinton to detach Three Thousand Men
to the Chesapeake, 283 — Establishes a Reign of Terror in South Carolina, 284
— Hangs Numerous Americans, 284 — Cruelty of his Subordinates, 284 — His
Ruthless Administration, 285 — Applauded by Germain, 285 — Prisoners cap-
tured at Charleston incarcerated, 285 — Forced to serve in Jamaica, 285 —
Christopher Gadsden, 285 — And other Patriots removed to St. Augustine, 285 —
Pernicious Effects of Slaveholding, 285 — Acceptances of British Protection, 286
— The People true, 286 — Williams and Sumter rally them, 286 — Marion's Band,

286 — Williams captures Musgrove's Mills, 286 — Feat of Marion and his Men,

287 — Reports of Cornwallis and Balfour, 287 — Cornwallis begins his March,
287 — The Cherokees, 287 — Activity and Spirit of Jefferson, 287 — Sequestra-
tion of Estates by Cornwallis, 288 — Defeat of Brown by Clark, 288 — Approach
of Cruger, 288 — Cruelty of Brown, 289 — Macdowell and his Militia driven back
by the British, 289 —Check to Cornwallis at Charlotte, 289 — The Backwoods-
men, 289 — They organize themselves, 289 — Ride over the Alleghanies, 290 —
Campbell chosen Commandant, 290 — Movements of Ferguson, 290 — Corn-
wallis sends Tarleton to his Assistance, 290 — Williams harasses him, 291 —
The "Western Army" at King's Mountain, 291— The Ground, 291 — Amer-
ican Line of Attack, 291 — Battle of King's Mountain, 292 — Loss of the British,
292— Of the Americans, 293— Death of Williams, 293 — The Captives, 298 —
Results of the Victory, 293 — Cornwallis's Retreat, 294 — Harassed by Men of

CONTENTS. XIX

Mecklenburg and Rowan Counties, 294 — Privations of the British Army, 294 — •
Marion's Feats, 294 — His Clemency, 294 — Tarleton's Inhumanity, 295—
Movements against Sumter, 295 — Tarleton driven back by him, 296 — Indians
ravage the Country, 296.

CHAPTER XLVL

THE RISE OF FREE COMMONWEALTHS. 1780.

Freedom older than Slavery, p. 297 — Louis XVI. frees the Serfs of the
Crown, 297 — Fails to abolish all Bondage in France, 297 — Abolition of Bond-
age in the Netherlands, 297 — Public Opinion in Europe on Slavery, 298 —
Burke, 298— His Code, 298 — George III., 298 — Means of bringing Slavery
to an End in America, 298 — Action of the First Congress, 299 — Early Antag-
onism between North and South, 299 — Report of the French Envoy, 299 — The
North hostile to Slavery, 299 — Gouverneur Morris, 299 — The Relation of Slav-
ery to the Policy of France, 300 — Northern Dread of the Relative Increase of
the South, 800 — Black Men in the Army, 300 — South Carolina opposed to
their Employment, 301 — Jefferson's Influence in binding together the North
and South, 301 — Bitter Contest about the Fisheries, 301 — Sovereignty of each
separate State, 301 — Effect on the Slave-Trade, 301 — Vermont entreats Admis-
sion as a State, 302 — Forced to wait for a New Southern State, 302 — " Galil-
ean" and " Anti-Gallican," 302— No Hope for the Slave from Congress, 302—
Action of the Separate States, 302 — The Word " Slave " used in the Constitu-
tion of Delaware alone, 302 — Slavery, in the North and South, 303 — In Virginia,
303 — Slavery in its Tendency, 303 — Virginia's Declaration of Rights, 303 —
She prohibits the Introduction of Slaves, 303 — Confines Citizenship to White
Men, 304 — Emancipation of Slaves by Individuals, 304 — Slaves as Bounty,
304 — Virginia gives the Power of Unconditional Emancipation to Masters, 304
— Jefferson's Forebodings, 304 — Washington a Considerate Master, 305 — Del-
aware, 305 — Her Provisions for Emancipation, 305 — New York, 305 — Its
Statesmen are Abolitionists, 305 — Vermont prohibits Slavery, 305 — New
Jersey, 305 — Livingston's Declaration, 305 — Pennsylvania and Abolition, 306
— Reed's Recommendation, 306 — Bryan's Bill for Gradual Emancipation, 307 —
In South Carolina Slavery a Primary Element, 307 — Georgia, 307 — Massachu-
setts, 307 — Slavery tolerated by the Puritans, 307 — Plan for Gradual Emanci-
pation, 308— Petition of Slaves, 308— Gordon's Argument, 308— Bill for the
Abolition of Slavery, 308 — Hancock's Southern Proclivities, 308 — Draft of a
Plan of Government, 309 — Disfranchisement, 309 — Work of the Legislature
not adopted, 309 — Extreme Caution of Massachusetts, 309 — Its Convention
declares the State a Free Republic, 310 — Committee to draft a Constitution,
810 — Work of John Adams, 310— Of Lowell, 311— Of Bowdoin, 311 — Dec-
laration of Rights, 311 — Adoption of the Clause prohibiting Slavery, 311 —
Massachusetts a Free Commonwealth, 312 — The Rights of Conscience, 312—
Education, 313 — Opinion of Dumas, 313 — Contrast between the Constitutions
for Massachusetts and New Ireland, 818— The Methodists against Slavery,
114.

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XLVH.

THE OOMPLOT OF SIR HENRY CLINTON AND ABNOLD.

The Winter of 1779-80, p. 315— Feebleness of the American Army, 815—
Misrepresentations of the Refugees, 315 — Knyphausen invades New Jersey,
315 — March from Elizabethtown Point, 316— Murder of Mrs. Caldwell, 316 —
Churches burned, 316 — Engagement at Connecticut Farms, 316 — Retreat of
the British, 316 — Committee of Congress in Camp, 317 — Clinton arrives in
New Jersey, 317 — Resolves to abandon the Expedition, 317 — Retreat harassed
by Americans, 318 — Return to New York, 318 — French Ministry urged to
send Troops to America, 318 — Complies with the Request, 318 — Arrival of the
French at Newport, 318 — Clinton's Project against Rhode Island, 319 — Its
Failure, 319 — Clinton disheartened, 319 — Arnold's Extravagance, 320 — Pec-
ulations, 320 — Reprimanded, 320 — Appointed to the Command of West Point,
820 — Complot with Clinton, 320 — Andre* plans an Interview with Arnold, 321
—His Letter to Sheldon, 321 — Failure of the Plan, 821 — Sir George Rodney,
321— Gains a Victory over the Spanish Fleet, 322— Relieves Gibraltar, 322 —
Indifferent Success in the West Indies, 322 — Checked by the French and
Spanish Fleets, 322— Sails for New York, 323 — Lends himself to Clinton's
Plot, 323 — Washington goes to Hartford, 323 — Andrews Willingness to prosti-
tute a Flag of Truce, 323— Arnold's Plan, 323 — Clinton embarks Troops, 323

— Andre* on Board the "Vulture," 324 — Interview with Arnold at Smith's
House, 324 — Americans drive the "Vulture" down the Stream, 324 — Andre*
and Arnold concoct a Plan, 324 — History of West Point, 325 — Interview of
Washington with Rochambeau and De Ternay at Hartford, 325 — His Return,
325— Andre* sets out for New York, 326— His Capture, 326— His Papers, 327
— His Attempt to bribe his Captors, 327 — He is taken to Jameson, 327 — Fh'ght
of Arnold, 328— Andrews Letter to Washington, 328 — Andre* at Tappan, 329 —
Convicted before a Commission, 329 — Washington approves the Decision, 329

— His Reasons for so doing, 329 — Clinton's Attempt to save Andig, 329 —
Robertson's Interview with Greene, 330 — Arnold's Threat of Retaliation, 330-
Compassion of the American Officers for Andre\ 330 — The Use of the Gibbet,
830— Andrews Character, 331 — His Last Words, 331 — Arnold, 331— Rodney,
332 — Clinton, 832 — Arnold's Insolent Letters to Washington, 332 — His Insin-
uations against Clinton, 332 — Clinton's Stab at Washington's Fair Fame, 332.

CHAPTER XLVm.

STRIVING FOR UNION. 1779—1781.

Circular of Congress, p. 384 — Condition of the Finances defeats Vigorous
Measures, 334 — Opinions on Confederation, 334 — A New Apportionment, 335

— Washington on the Legal Tender Law, 335 — Congress sets a Limit to Emis-
sions of Paper Money, 335 — Henry Laurens sent to negotiate a Loan in the
Netherlands, 335 — Resolves to draw on him and on Jay at Madrid, 335 — Hos-
tility of Spain to American Independence, 335 — Virginia ratifies the Treaties
between France and the United States, 335 — Pleasure of Vergennes, 336 —
His Opinion on tha Chances of Union, 336 — Sentiment of Congress on the Sep-

CONTENTS. XXI

an*** Acts of the States, 336— The Claims of Virginia to Lands, 336— Her
Jealousy for State Sovereignty, 336 — New York claims Lands and surrenders
them to the Federal Union, 337 — Helplessness of Congress, 337 — Measures to
raise Money, 338— The States to issue Bills, 338 — Action of the States on the
New System, 338— Cry for an Efficient Government, 339 — Greene to Reed, 339
—Mutiny of Connecticut Regiments, 339 — Their Return to Duty, 339 — Wash-
ington to Jones on the Necessity of New Measures, 339 — Answer of Jones, 340
— Action of Congress to obtain Men and Money, 341 — Proposal for a Bank at
Philadelphia with Power to issue Notes, 341 — Women of America, 341 — Esther
Reed, 341 — Patriotism in New England, 342 — The Quartermaster's Depart-
ment, 342 — Greene's Administration of it, 342 — Reform of the System by
Congress, 342 — Greene resigns, 342 — His Successor, 342 — John Adams on
the Powers of Congress, 342 — Conventions of the States, 343 — Convention of
1780 on Confederation, 343 — Washington to Bowdoin, 343 — Sketch of Alex-
ander Hamilton, 343 — Hamilton and Fox, 345 — Hamilton traces the Waut of
Power in Congress, 345 — Proposes a Vigorous Confederation, 345 — Inveighs
against State Sovereignty, 346 — Recommends the Appointment of Great Offi-
cers of State, 346 — Relies to Excess on a Bank' of the United States, 346 —
Washington at Weehawken, 346 — Toils of Congress, 347 — It adheres to the
Armed Neutrality, 347 — Washington to Mason on Union, 347 — Need of a New
Policy, 347 — Condition of the Army, 347 — Congress distributes a New Tax
among the States, 348 — Mutiny of the Pennsylvanians, 348 — Clinton's Meas-
ures, 349 — Reed's Action, 349 — Circular Letter of Washington to the New
England States, 349 — Patriotism of the Army, 349 — Celebrated by Lafayette,
349 — Efforts in New England to enlist Men, 349 — Laurens despatched to Ver-
sailles for Aid, 350 — Washington's Statement, 350 — Comparison of France
and the United States, 350 — Measure to enable Congress to regulate Com-
merce, 351 — Consent of Virginia, 351 — Her Efforts to promote Peace and
Union, 351 — Action of Different States on Boundary Claims, 352 — The Con-
federation of the States accomplished, 352 — Delusive Hopes, 352 — Defects of
the Act of Confederation, 352 — Washington's Opinion of them, 353 — He
addresses himself to the Statesmen of Virginia, 354 — His Fears for the Future,
354 — Proposition in Congress for an Amendment to the Articles of Confedera-
tion, 355 — Efforts of Madison to establish a Better System, 356 — Webster's
Pamphlet, 356 — Road to a Government only through Humiliation, 356.

CHAPTER XLIX.

GREAT BRITAIN MAKES WAR ON THE NETHERLANDS.

Weymouth succeeded by Stormont, p. 357 — Blindness of the Latter to Moral
Distinctions, 357 — His Answer to the Complaints of the Dutch, 357 — Mario tt's
Decision, 357 — Russia invites the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, and Portu-
gal to an Armed Neutrality, 358 — Action of England, 358 — Spain accepts the
Proposal of Russia, 358 — France follows, 358 — The United States proclaim the
same Principles, 358 — England on the Armed Neutrality, 358 — Determination
of the Cabinet, 359 — Opinions of Shelburne and Camden, 359 — Answer of
England, 359 — Neutral Powers accept the Code of Catharine, 359 — England
determines to prevent the Netherlands from doing so, 360 — Yorke instructed to
edcect Intelligence on the Voyages of the Dutch Merchantmen, 360 — C< udtion

XXll CONTENTS.

of the Netherlands, 860 — Conflict between the Stadholder and the Country,
360 — Determination of Stormont to proceed to War, 861 — Panin on American
Independence, 361 — His Draft for a Convention with the Dutch Republic, 361
— Capture of Laurens by the English, 361 — His Papers, 862 — His Imprison-
ment in the Tower, 362 — Stormont' s Instructions to Yorke, 362 — The States-
General condemn the Conduct of Amsterdam, 362 — The British Cabinet pre-
pares to proceed to Extremities, 362 — Memorial to the States-General, 362 —
Yorke' s Conversation with the Stadholder, 363 — Yorke informs Stormont of
the Weakness of the Dutch, 363 — His Recommendation to strike at St Eusta-
tius communicated to the Admiralty, 363 — Yorke presents Stormont' s Memo-
rial, 364— Its Reception by the Dutch, 364— The States-General disavow Van
Berckel and his Contingent Negotiations, 364 — The Dutch desire to continue at
Peace with England, 364 — Demand of Stormont for the Punishment of the Am-
sterdam Offenders, 365 — The States-General adhere to the Armed Neutrality,
365 — Yorke recalled, 365— Depredations of the English on Dutch Commerce,
365 — Capture of St. Eustatius, 365 — Richness of the Booty, 365 — General
Confiscation of Goods, 866 — Capture of Dutch Settlements in South America,
866 — Effects of the Dutch Alliance with England, 366 — How the War was re*
garded on the Continent, 366.

CHAPTER L.

FRANCE HAS NEED OF PEACE. 1780-1781.

Yergennes on the War between England and the Netherlands, p. 867 — Prog*
ress of the Negotiations for a General Peace, 367 — Unwillingness of Spain to
continue the War, 367 — Yergennes on the American Boundaries, 367 — Charles
refuses to receive Jay as American Envoy, 367 — Spain attempts a Secret Ne-
gotiation with England, 367 — Danger to Spain from Ex-Jesuits, 367 — Adams
arrives in Paris, 368 — He gives Advice to France, 369 — Vergennes complains,
369 — Franklin communicates his Censure, 369 — Maurepas' Overture to Forth,
869 — Necker's Letter to Lord North, 369 — Vergennes on Necker, 370 — Paris
clamors for Peace, 370 — Weakness of the French Administration, 370 — Debt
of France, 370 — Yergennes attempts a Compromise with England, 370 —
Laurens arrives at Versailles, 371 — Demands a Loan, 371 — America's Need
of Money, 371 — Advice of Washington, 371 — Complaints of Vergennes, 371
— The French Cabinet accedes to the Request of the United States, 371 — De
Grasse sent to the West Indies, 371 — America to furnish the Men for the War,
372 — Washington refuses to disburse the French Gift of Money, 372 — Unau-
thorized Use of it by Laurens, 372 — Necker's Disgrace, 372 — Raynal's De-
scription of the United States, 373 — His Flight, 373 — French Jealousy of
American Greatness, 373 — Kaunitz draws up Articles for Peace, 373 — His 111
Success, 374 — British Desire for an Alliance with Russia, 874 — Plans of Cath-
arine and Joseph for the East, 374 — Insurrection in the Spanish Colonies, 375
— Ill Success of the Spanish Negotiation with England, 375 — Encounter of the
English and Dutch Fleets near the Dogger Bank, 375 — Hyder Ali, 375 — Cap-
ture of Pensacola, 375 — Vergennes complains of John Adams, 375 — Congress
votes to appoint Joint Commissioners to treat for Peace, 376 — Their Instruc-
tions, 377 — John Adams approves their Choice, 378 — Effect of the Example

.-__ ~*-t

CONTENTS. XXlll

of America on Ireland, 878— Irish Volunteers, 378— Henry Grattan, 379 —
Ireland obtains Commercial Equality with England, 379.

CHAPTER LI.

THB SOUTHERN CAMPAIGN. MORGAN AT THE COWFBNS. 1780—1781.

Greene appointed to the Southern Command, p. 380 — The Conduct of the
Whole War in Washington's Hands, 380 — Washington detaches Troops for
Greene's Army, 380 — His Letter to Mason, 380 — Greene leaves Steuben in
Virginia, 381 — Complaint of Cornwallis, 381 — Greene's Answer, 381 — His
Humanity, 381 — Cunningham's Cruelty, 381 — Barbarity of the British, 382 —
Greene introduces Discipline into the Southern Army, 382 — Camp of Best at
the Falls of the Pedee, 382 — Difficulties of Greene's Position, 382 — Spirit of
Enterprise among the Negroes, 383 — Reception of Greene by the People of the
South, 383 — Morgan confirmed in a Detached Command, 383 — His Forces,
383 — Lieutenant-colonel Washington routs Plundering Tories, 383 — Corn
wallis despatches Tarleton to cut off Morgan's Retreat, 383 — Morgan's Danger,
384— His System of Scouts, 384— Battle of the Cowpens, 386— Its Results,
386— Morgan's Illness, 387— His Retirement from Active Service, 388.

CHAPTER L1L

THB SOUTHERN CAMPAIGN. BATTLE OF GUILFORD COUBT-HOUBB-

January— March, 1781.

Effect of Morgan's Success, p. 389 — Cornwallis decides to carry the War
through North Carolina to the Chesapeake, 389 — Turns his Army into Light
Troops and begins his March, 390 — Greene visits Morgan's Camp, 390 — His
Plans, 390— Skirmish at Macgowan's Ford, 390 — Sudden Rise of the Yadkin,
391 — The British near the Moravians at Salem, 391 — Junction of the Ameri-
can Army at Guilford Court-house, 392 — Greene's Masterly Retreat across the
Dan, 392 — Cornwallis pursues, 392 — Greene's Endurance of Hardships and
Care for his Troops, 393 — Cornwallis rests his Troops and marches to Hills-
borough, 393 — Greene recrosses the Dan, 393 — Pickens routs a Body of Loyal-
ists under Pyle, 393 — Cornwallis strives to force Greene to give Battle, 394 —
Baffled by Greene, 894 — Greene re-enforced, 394 — Battle of Guilford Court-
house, 395 — Victory for the British, but with the Consequences of a Defeat,
397 — Comparison of the Battles of King's Mountain, Cowpens, and Guilford
Court-house, 397 — Magnanimity of Virginia, 397 — Her Great Advisers, 398 —
Greene's Modesty in his Report, 398 — Cornwallis retreats, 398 — Pursued by
Greene, 398 — North Carolina left to the Americans, 398 — Fox in the House of
Commons, 898 — His Motion for Peace, 399 — Speech of Pitt on the American
War, 399.

CHAPTER LHI.

TEB SOUTHERN CAMPAIGN. GREENE IN SOUTH CAttOLINA. 178L

Cornwallis arrives at Wilmington, p. 400 — His Inability to move towards
Camden, 400 — Reasons for not going to Charleston, 400 — Writes to Clinton of

XXIV CONTENTS.

his Wish to transfer *he War to the Chesapeake, 400 — Marches without Orders
into Virginia, 400 — Clinton's Reply, 400 — Reproof from Germain to CJinton,
401 — Clinton warns against Cornwallis's Plans, 401 — Cornwallis to Germain,
401 — Germain instructs Clinton to further the Plan of a Campaign on the
Chesapeake, 401 — The British with Cornwallis march to Virginia, 401 — Their
Enormities at Halifax, 401 — Greene resolves to return into South Carolina, 401
— The Posts of Ninety -Six, Camden, and Augusta, 401 — The British Con-
nections with Charleston threatened, 401 — Greene encamps before Camden, 402

— Takes a New Position on Hobkirk's Hill, 402 — Surprise and Defeat of the
Americans, 402 — Rawdon returns to Camden, 403 — Capture of Wright's Bluff
by Marion and Lee, 403 — British abandon Camden, 404 — Surrender of Orange-
burg to Sumter, 404 — Heroic Conduct of Rebecca Motte, 404 — Fort Motte
surrenders, 404 — Nelson's Ferry, Fort Granby, and Georgetown fall into the
Hands of the Americans, 404 — Rawdon retreats to Monk's Corner, 404 — Capit-
ulation of Augusta, 404 — Siege of Ninety-Six, 405 — Rawdon re-enforced, 405

— Marches to Cruger'a Assistance, 405 — Greene raises the Siege, 405 — British
evacuate Ninety-Six, 406 — Flight of Refugees to Charleston, 406 — Execution
of Isaac Hayne, 406 — Greene at the High Hills of Santee, 407 — Rawdon sails
for England, 407 —Battle of Eutaw, 407 — Victory of the Americans, 408 —
The Irish at Eutaw, 408 — Greene suffers a Repulse, 408 — The British retreat
to Charleston* 408 — Result of the Campaign, 409 — Greene second to Wash-
ington, 409.

CHAPTER LIV.

CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA. 1781.

Arnold arrives in the Chesapeake, p. 410 — Burns Richmond, 410 — Lafayette
detached to Virginia, 410 — Arrival of Phillips with Re-enforcements, 410— 7
Lafayette holds the British in Check, 411 — Short Career of Arnold in Virginia,
411 — Cornwallis sends him back to Clinton, 411 — His Incursion into Connect-
icut, 411 — Fate of Ledyard and other American Prisoners, 412 — Opinions of
Lee and Jefferson on the Dictatorship, 412 — Attempts to improve the Methods
of Administration, 412 — Hamilton on a National Debt, 413 — Languor in the
Conduct of the War, 413 — Congress accepts the Acknowledgment of Indepen-
dence as the Sole Condition of Peace, 413 — Instructions to the American Com-
missioners, 413 — Madison on reforming the Articles of Confederation, 414 —
Washington and Rochambeau settle the Preliminaries of the Campaign, 414 —
The French Auxiliaries, 414 — Washington's Call to the New England States,
414 — March of the French from Newport, 415 — Pornwallis in Virginia, 415 —
Retreat of Lafayette, 415 — His Junction with Wayne, 415 — Cornwallis sends
out Tarleton on a Raid, 415— Flight of Steuben, 416— Cornwallis at Elk Hill,
416 — At Williamsburg, 416 — His Orders from Clinton, 416 — Jealousy between
Clinton and Cornwallis, 417 — Good Conduct of Lafayette, 417 — Action of
Green Springs, 418 — Lafayette entreats Washington to march to Virginia, 418
— Cornwallis remonstrates against a Defensive Campaign, 418 — Asks Leave to
retire to Charleston, 419 — Causes of Clinton's Confused Judgment, 419 — In-
structions from Germain on holding Virginia, 419 — His Partiality for Corn-
wallis, 419 — Clinton orders CornwalHs to establish a Post in the Chesapeake,
420 — Cornwallis determines to fortify York and Gloucester, 420 — Lafayette's

CONTENTS.

Prophecies to Maurepas and to Vergennes, 421— Movements of Washington,
422 — De Barras, 422 — Accord of the Americans and French, 422 — Chesa-
peake appointed a Rendezvous for the Sea and Land Forces, 422 — Clinton
self-deceived, 422 — Americans march to the South, 422 — De Grasse arrives in
the Chesapeake, 422 — St. Simon and Lafayette, 423 — Cornwallis blockaded
by Land and Sea, 423 — Rodney fails Cornwallis, 423 — Engagement between
Graves and De Grasse, 424 — Defeat of the British, 424 — Washington joins
Lafayette, 424 — Visits De Grasse, 424 — Position of Cornwallis, 425 — Graves
sees no Immediate Danger, 425 — Investiture of Yorktown, 425 — The Duke de
Lauzun defeats Tarleton's Legion, 426 — Progress of the Siege, 426 — Storming
Party under Hamilton, 427 — Heroism of Olney, 427 — Humanity of the Amer-
icans, 427 — Simultaneous Attack by the French, 428 — They capture a Redoubt,
428— The Double Garland, 428— Surrender of Cornwallis, 429 — Share of the
French in the Siege, 429 — Troops of Anspach and Deux Ponts embrace, 430 —
Congress returns Thanks to God, 430 — Votes Honors to Washington, Rocham-
beau, and De Grasse, 430 — Orders a Column to be erected at Yorktown, 430 —
Reception of the News in France, 430 — In other Countries of Europe, 430 —
Lord North's Distress, 431 — Change of Opinion in Parliament, 431 — In the
Public Mind of England, 431— Stubbornness of the King, 431 — Retirement of
Germain, 431.

CHAPTER LV.

ENGLAND REFUSES TO CONTINUE THE AMERICAN WAR. 1782.

The American Army cantoned for the Winter, p. 432 — America asks Recog-
nition of the Dutch Republic, 432 — Adams demands a Categorical Answer, 432

— The Netherlands receive him as American Envoy, 433 — A Liberal Spirit
prevails, 433— Its Manifestation in Austria, 433— In England, 433— Sir Guy
Carleton supersedes Clinton in America, 434 — Motion in the House of Com
mons against continuing the American War, 434 — Burke congratulates Frank-
lin, 434 — Address to the King in Behalf of Peace, 434 — Forth sent to Paris to
negotiate, 435 — Speeches of Fox and Pitt, 435 — Lord North resigns, 435 —
Character of his Ministry, 435 — Parties in England, 436 —The Tories, 436 —
Shelburne and Lord Chatham's Party, 436— The Old Whigs, 436 — Union of
Shelburne and Rockingham alone able to establish a Liberal Government, 437 —
Sorrows of the King, 437 — Rockingham makes Conditions, 437— His Ministry,
438 — Why Burke had no Seat in the Cabinet, 438— Franklin's Overture, 438

— Shelburne chooses the Home Department, 439 — The Peace Negotiations with
America in his Hands, 439 — Oswald appointed Agent, 439 — His Credentials
from Shelburne to Franklin, 489 —Laurens at the Hague with John Adams, 440.

CHAPTER LVL

ROCKINGHAM'S MINISTRY ASSENTS TO AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 1782.

Why Spain hated America as a Self-existent State, p. 441— Refuses to con-
quer Jamaica, 441 — Concentrates its Energies on the Recovery of Gibraltar, 441
— Fox makes War on Shelburne, 442 — Oswald repairs to Franklin at Paris, 442

XXVI CONTENTS.

— His Interview with Vergennes, 442 — Canada, 442 — Franklin writes to Shel-
burne, 442 — Excludes Spain from the Negotiation, 443 — The Cabinet sends
Oswald back to Paris, 443 — His Instructions, 443 — Fox sends Grenville to
Paris, 444 — Franklin his Introductor to Vergennes, 444 — The Interview, 444 —
Grenville's Conversation with Franklin, 445 — Franklin prefers Oswald, 445 —
Approval of the King, 445 — Great Victory of Rbdney over De Grasse, 446 —
It reconciles England to Peace, 447 — The Cabinet offers Independence directly
to America as the Condition of Peace, 447 — Vergennes declares Grenville's
Powers insufficient, 447 — Grenville receives a Check from Franklin, 447 —
Complains to Fox, 448 — His Powers enlarged, 448— The Enabling Act, 448 —
Oswald' 8 Powers delayed, 448 — Fox quarrels with the Cabinet, 448 — Death of
Rockingham, 448 — Memorials of his Ministry, 448 — Ireland gains Legislative
Independence, 448 — Its Tribute of Loyalty, 449 — Consideration of a Reform in
the Representation of Great Britain, 449 — Effect of the Accession of a Liberal
Ministry on Frederic of Prussia, 450 — On Catharine of Russia, 460— The
Ministry accept the Principles of the Armed Neutrality, 450.

CHAPTER LVn.

SHELBURNE OFFERS PEACE. July, August, 1782.

Shelburne becomes Prime Minister, p. 451 — His Liberal Views, 451 — Fac-
tious Opposition of Fox, 451 — The Old Whig Aristocracy, 451 — Shelburne's
Cabinet, 452 — Burke on Shelburne, 452 — Sir William Jones, 453 — Shelburne
declares his Principles, 453 — His Instructions to Oswald, 453— Franklin pro-
poses the American Conditions of Peace, 453 — Refuses a Provision for the
Loyalists, 454 — Recommends Free Trade, 454 — Vergennes ignorant of the
American Conditions, 455 — Fitzherbert sent to Paris to negotiate with Spain,
France, and Holland, 455 — Shelburne accepts Franklin's Ultimatum, 455 —
Confides in Franklin's Sincerity, 455 — Sends Full Powers to Oswald, 456 —
Shelburne and Franklin as Negotiators, 456 — Jay in Paris, 457 — He demands
a Preliminary Acknowledgment of American Independence, 457 — His Mis-
trust, 457— The Peril of Delay, 457 — Hostilities in South Carolina, 458— The
Ruffian Fanning, 458 — His Narrative of his Atrocious Acts, 458 — Execution of
Americans by Delancy, 459 — Murder of Huddy by Captain Lippincot, 459 —
Sir Guy Carleton supersedes Clinton, 460 — His Humanity, 460 — Wayne re-
covers Georgia, 460 — His Conduct at Sharon, 460 — Evacuation of Savannah
by the British, 461 — South Carolina, 461 — Sad Condition of Greene's Army,
462 — Death of Laurens, 462 — Greene for a Closer Union of the States, 462 —
Robert Morris for Union, 462 — His Opinions on a National Debt, 462 — Admin-
istration of the Finances, 462 — National Bank, 463 — Thomas Paine for a Cen-
tral Government, 463 — Morris on the Army, 464 — His Plan for funding the
Public Debt, 464 — Expenditure of America for the War, 464 — Morris to the
States, 464 — Washington on a Mixed Government, 465 — Hamilton Receiver of
Taxes in New York, 465 — Schuyler carries the Legislature for a Constituent
Convention, 466 — Hamilton elected to Congress, 466 — Madison and Hamilton,
467 — Morris's Budget for 1783, 467 — Proposal of Madison to empower Con-
gress to levy Taxes on Imports, 467 — Veto of Hancock, 467— Virginia opposes
the Measure, 467 — Union rooted in the Hearts of the People, 468— Device for

CONTENTS. XXVU

the Great Seal, 468 — Distrust of Shelburne in America, 468 — State of the
Treasury of the United States, 468 — Condition of their Army, 469 —It is Time
for Peace, 469.

CHAPTER LVHI.

FBAGS BETWEEN THE TOTTED STATES AND GREAT BRITAIN. 1782.

De Grasse opens Negotiations, p. 470 — France subordinates America to
Spain, 470 — Jay inflexible, 470 — Rayneval departs for England, 470 — Mar-
bois on the Fisheries, 470 — Conduct of Jay, 470 — Of Franklin, 470 — Rayneval
at Bow Wood, 471 — On the Fisheries, 471 — On the American Boundary, 471
— Gibraltar not to be ceded, 472 — Shelburne desires Peace with France, 472 —
And Joint Political Action in Europe, 472 — And Free Trade, 472 — A New
Commission for Oswald, 473 — Ashburton's Opinion, 473 — Agitation of the
King, 473 — Jay and De Aranda, 473 — Jay draws up Articles of Peace, 474 —
Puts aside the Claims of the Loyalists, 474 — Progress of the Siege of Gibraltar,
475 — Congress asks a Loan of France, 475 — Vergennes's Policy towards
America, 476 — Strachey joined with Oswald in the Negotiations for Peace, 476
— His Instructions, 477 — Arrival of John Adams, 477 — His Hasty Concession
to British Merchants, 478 — He saves the True North-eastern Boundary, 478
— Discussions on the Fisheries, 478 — Old Debts still valid, 478 — Refusal of
Indemnity to the Refugees, 478 — Change in Public Opinion in England, 479 —
Sufferings of the King, 479— A Third Set of Articles, 479 — Fitzherbert takes
part in the American Negotiations, 480 — May bring the French Influence to
bear on them, 480 — Vergennes on the Progress of the Treaty, 480 — On the
Fisheries, 480 — The King opposes a Concurrent Fishery, 481 — Speech of
Strachey, 481 — Compromise as to the Loyalists, 482 — The Coast Fisheries, 482
— Negroes recognised as Property, 483 — The Commissioners sign the Treaty,
483 — The Boundary marked on Maps, 483 — Character and Effects of the
Treaty, 483 — The people of America want a Government, 484.

THK

AMERICAN REVOLUTION,

EPOCH FOURTH CONTINUED.

THE INDEPENDENCE OF AMERICA IS

ACKNOWLEDGED.

1776-1782.

▼OL. VI.

THE INDEPENDENCE

or TH»

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

IS ACKNOWLEDGED.

CHAPTER XXIV,

THIS CAPITULATION OF BUBGOYXB.

August 19 — October 20, 1777.

On the nineteenth of August, Gates assumed the command
of tbe northern army, which lay nine miles above
Albany, near the mouths of the Mohawk. Repelling j^jJJ;
groundless complaints of ill treatment of those cap-
tured at Bennington, he taunted Burgoyne with the murders
and scalpings by the Indians in his employ. On the return
of the battalions with Arnold and the arrival of the corps of
Morgan, his continental troops, apart from continual acces-
sions of militia, outnumbered the British and German regu-
lars whom he was to meet. Artillery and small arms were
received from France by an arrival at Portsmouth, New
Hampshire; and New York, with exhaustive patriotism,
brought out all its resources.

The war of America was a war of ideas more than
of material power. On the ninth of September, Jay, sept
the first chief justice of the new commonwealth of
New York, opened its supreme court in Kingston, and
charged the grand jury in these words : ," Free, mild, and
equal government begins to rise. Divine Providence has
made the tyranny of princes instrumental in breaking the
chains of their subjects. Whoever compares our present
with our former constitution will admit that all the calami*

* THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIV.

ties incident to this war will be amply compensated by the
many blessings flowing from this glorious revolution, which
in its rise and progress is distinguished by so many marks
of the divine favor and interposition that no doubt can
remain of its being Anally accomplished. Thirteen colonies
immediately become one people, and unanimously determine
to be free. The people of this state have chosen their con-
stitution under the guidance of reason and experience.
The highest respect has been paid to those great and equal
rights of human nature which should for ever remain invio-
late in every society. You will know no power but such as
you create, no laws but such as acquire all their obligation
from your consent. The rights of conscience and private
judgment are by nature subject to no control but that of
the Deity, and in that free situation they are now left.
Happy would it be for all mankind if the opinion prevailed
that the gospel of Christ would not fall, though unsupported
by the arm of flesh."

While Jay affirmed these principles of public justice and
wisdom, Gates, after twenty days of preparation, moved
his army to Stillwater ; and, on the twelfth of September,
advanced and encamped on a spur of hills jutting out nearly
to the Hudson. It was Kosciuszko who selected the ground,
known as Behmus's Heights. The army counted nine thou*
sand effectives, most of them husbandmen, freeholders, or
the sons of freeholders, conscious of superior strength, eager
for action, well armed except that but three soldiers
s^ in ten had bayonets. They kindled with anger and
scorn at the horrid barbarities threatened by Bur-
goyne ; they were enthusiasts for the freedom of mankind
and the independence of their country, now to be secured
by their deeds ; and it was their common determination to
win the victory. The removal of Schuyler was resented
by a few New Yorkers ; and' Arnold, who assumed the part
of his friend, was quarrelsome and insubordinate: but the
patriotism of the army was so deep and universal that it
gave no heed to doubts or altercations.

After the toils of five weeks, a hundred and eighty boats

1777 THE CAPITULATION OF BURGOYNE. &

were hauled by relays of horses over the two portages be-
tween Lake George and the river at Saratoga, and
laden with one month's provisions for the army of g™£
Burgoyne. And now he was confronted by the ques-
tion, what he should do. He had been greatly weakened,
and Howe refused him aid ; but he remembered that Ger-
main had censured Carleton because he would "hazard
nothing with the troops;" so, consulting no one of his offi-
cers, reading over his instructions a hundred times, and
reserving the excuse for failure that his orders were peremp-
tory, he called in all his men, gave up his connections, and
with less than six thousand rank and file thought to force
his way to Albany. On the thirteenth of September, his
army with its splendid train of artillery crossed the Hudson
at Schuylerville by a bridge of boats.

At once Lincoln, carrying out a plan concerted with
Gates, sent from Manchester five hundred light troops with-
out artillery, under Colonel John Brown of Pittsfield, Mas-
sachusetts, to distress the British in their rear. In the
morning twilight of the eighteenth, Brown surprised the
outposts of Ticonderoga, including Mount Defiance ; and,
with the loss of not more than nine killed and wounded,
he set free one hundred American prisoners, captured four
companies of regulars and others who guarded the newly
made portage between Lake Champlain and Lake George,
in all two hundred and ninety-three men with arms equal
to their number and five cannon, and destroyed one hun-
dred and fifty boats below the falls of Lake George, and
fifty above them, including gunboats and an armed sloop.
Not being strong enough to carry Fort Independence, or
Ticonderoga, or Diamond Island in Lake George, the party
with their trophies rejoined Lincoln.

Meantime, the army of Burgoyne, stopping to rebuild
bridges and repair roads, advanced scarcely four miles in as
many days. By this time the well-chosen camp of the
Americans had been made very strong ; their right touched
the Hudson, and could not be assailed ; their left was a
high ridge of hills ; their lines were protected by a breast-
work. Burgoyne must dislodge them, if he would get for-

6 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIV.

ward. His army moved on the nineteenth, as on former
days, in three columns : the artillery, protected by Riedesel
and Brunswick troops, took the road through the meadows
near the river ; the general in person led the centre across

a deep ravine to a field on Freeman's farm ; while
gjjk Fraser, with the right, made a circuit upon the ridge

to occupy heights from which the left of the Ameri-
cans could be assailed. Indians, Canadians, and tories hov-
ered on the front and flanks of the several columns.

In concurrence with the advice of Arnold, Gates ordered
out Morgan's riflemen and the light infantry. They put a
picket to flight at a quarter past one, but retired before
the division of Burgoyne. Leading his force unobserved
through the woods, and securing his right by thickets and
ravines, Morgan next fell unexpectedly upon the left of
the British central division. To support him, Gates, at two
o'clock, sent out three New Hampshire battalions, of which
that of Scammel met the enemy in front, that of Cilley took
them in flank. In a warm engagement, Morgan had his
horse shot under him, and with his riflemen captured a
cannon, but could not carry it off. From half-past two
there was a lull of a half-hour, during which Phillips
brought more artillery against the Americans, and Gates
ordered out two regiments of Connecticut militia under
Cook. At three the battle became general, and it raged
till after sundown. Fraser sent to the aid of Burgoyne
such detachments as he could spare without endangering
his own position, which was the object of the day. At
four, Gates ordered out the New York regiment of Cort*
landt, followed in a half-hour by that of Henry Livingston.
The battle was marked by the obstinate courage of the
Americans, but by no manoeuvre ; man fought against man,
regiment against regiment. A party would drive the Brit-
ish from the cannon which had been taken, and they would
rally and recover it with the bayonet ; but, when they ad*
vanced, it was only to fall back before the deadly fire from
the wood. The Americans used no artillery; the British
employed several field-pieces, and with effect; but Jones,
who commanded the principal battery, was killed, and some

1777. THE CAPITULATION OF BURGOYNB. 7

of his officers, and thirty-six out of forty-eight matrosses,
were killed or wounded. At five, all too late in the day,
Brigadier Learned was ordered with all his brigade and a
Massachusetts regiment to the enemy's rear* Before the
sun went down, Burgoyne was in danger of a rout ; the
troops about him wavered, when Riedesel, with more than
a single regiment and two cannon, struggling through the
thickets, across a ravine, climbed the hill, and charged the
Americans on their right flank. Evening was at hand;
those of the Americans who had been engaged for more
than three hours had nearly exhausted their ammunition,
and they quietly withdrew within their lines, taking with
them their wounded and a hundred captives. On the Brit-
ish side, three major-generals came on the field; on the
American side, not one, nor a brigadier till near its close.
The glory of the day was due to the several regiments,
which fought in unison, and needed only an able general
to have utterly routed Burgoyne's division. Of the Amer-
icans, praise justly fell upon Morgan of Virginia and Scam-
mel of New Hampshire; none offered their lives more
freely than the continental regiment of Cilley and the Con-
necticut militia of Cook. The American loss, including the
wounded and missing, proved less than three hundred and
twenty; among the dead was the brave and meritorious
Lieutenant-colonel Andrew Colburn, of New Hampshire.
This accidental battle crippled the British force irretriev-
ably. Their loss exceeded six hundred. Of the sixty-sec-
ond regiment, which left Canada five hundred strong,
there remained less than sixty men and four or five g*J£
officers. " Tell my uncle I died like a soldier," were
the last words of Hervey, one of its lieutenants, a boy of
sixteen, who was mortally wounded. A shot from a rifle,
meant for Burgoyne, struck an officer at his side.

The separated divisions of the British army passed the
night in bivouac under arms ; that of Burgoyne, on the field
of battle. Morning revealed to them their desperate con-
dition ; to all former difficulties was added the incumbrance
of their wounded. Their dead were buried promiscuously,
except that officers were thrown into holes by themselves,

8 THE AMEEICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIV

in one pit three of the twentieth regiment, of whom the
oldest was not more than seventeen.

An attack upon the remains of Burgoyne's division, while
it was still disconnected and without intrenchments, was
urged by Arnold with all the chances of a victory; but
such a movement did not suit the timid nature of Gates,
who waited for ammunition and more troops, till his effec-
tive men outnumbered his enemies by three or even four to
one. A quarrel ensued; and Arnold demanded and re-
ceived a passport for Philadelphia. Repenting of his rash-
ness, he lingered in the camp, but could no longer obtain
access to Gates, nor a command.

During the twentieth, the British general encamped his
army on the heights near Freeman's house, so near the
American lines that he could not make a movement unob-
served. With no possibility of escape but by a speedy
retreat, on the twenty-first he received from Sir Henry
Clinton a promise of a diversion on Hudson River; and,
catching at the phantom of hope, he answered that he
could maintain his position until the twelfth of October.

Putnam, who commanded on the Hudson, was unfit to
be a general officer. Spies of the British watched his con-
dition, and he had not sagacity to discover theirs. Con-
necticut had been less drawn upon for the northern army,
that its militia might assist to defend the Highlands; he
had neglected proper measures for securing their aid, and
they were sent in great numbers to Spencer at Providence,
with the vain design of attacking the British troops at New-
port. Meantime, Putnam, in his easy manner, suffered a
large part of the New York militia to go home ; so
JJJJ- that he now had but about two thousand men. Sir
Henry Clinton, with four thousand troops, feigned
an attack upon Fishkill by landing troops at Verplanek's
Point. Putnam was completely duped ; and, doing just as
the British wished, he retired out of the way to the hills
in the rear of Peekskill. George Clinton, the governor
of New York, knew the point of danger. With such
force as he could collect lie hastened to Fort Clinton, while
his brother James took command of Fort Montgomery.

1777. THE CAPITULATION OF BURGOYNE. 9

Putnam should have re-enforced their garrisons : instead of
it, he ordered troops away from them, and left the passes
unguarded. At daybreak on the sixth of October, the Brit-
ish and Hessians disembarked at Stony Point ; Yaughan
with more than one thousand men advanced towards Fort
Clinton, while a corps of about a thousand occupied the
pass of Dunderberg, and, by a difficult, circuitous march of
seven miles, at five o'clock came in the rear of Fort Mont-
gomery. Vaughan's tro.ops were then ordered to storm
Fort Clinton with the bayonet. A gallant resistance was
made by the governor; but at the close of twilight the
British, by the superiority of numbers, forced the works.
In like manner Fort Montgomery was carried ; but the two
commanders and almost all of both garrisons escaped into
the forest. A heavy iron chain with a boom had been
stretched across the river from Fort Montgomery to Antho-
ny's Nose. This now fell to the British. Overruling the
direction of Governor Clinton, Putnam had ordered down
two continental frigates for the defence of the chain ; but,
as they were badly manned, one of them could not be got
off in time ; the other grounded opposite West Point ; and
both were set on fire in the night. Fort Constitution, on .
the island opposite West Point, was abandoned, so that the
liver was open to Albany. When Putnam received large
re-enforcements from Connecticut, he did nothing with
them. On the seventh he wrote to Gates : "I cannot pre-
vent the enemy's advancing ; prepare for the worst , " and
on the eighth : " The enemy can take a fair wind, and go
to Albany or Half Moon with great expedition and without
any opposition." But Sir Henry Clinton, who, instead of
hunting cattle in New Jersey, ought a month sooner to
have gone to Albany, garrisoned Fort Montgomery, and
returned to New York, leaving Yaughan with a large
marauding expedition to ascend the Hudson. Yaughan
did no more than plunder and burn the town of Kingston
on the fifteenth, and pillage and set fire to the mansions of
patriots along the river.

After the battle of the nineteenth of September, 1777,
the condition of Burgoyne rapidly grew more per- Sept

10 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIV.

plexing. The Americans broke down the bridges which
he had built in his rear, and so swarmed in the woods that
he could gain no just idea of their situation. His foraging
parties and advanced posts were harassed; horses grew
thin and weak; the hospital was cumbered with at least
eight hundred sick and wounded men. One third part of
the soldier's ration was retrenched. While the British
army- declined in number, Gates was constantly re-enforced.
On the twenty-second Lincoln arrived, and took command
of the right wing ; he was followed by two thousand militia.
The Indians melted away from Burgoyne, and by the zeal
of Schuyler, contrary to the policy of Gates, a small band,

chiefly of Oneidas, joined the American «amp. In
JJJJ' the evening of the fourth of October, Burgoyne

called Phillips, Riedesel, and Fraser to council, and
proposed to them by a roundabout march to turn the left
of the Americans. To do this, it was answered, the British
must leave their boats and provisions for three days at the
mercy of the Americans. Riedesel advised a swift retreat
to Fort Edward ; but Burgoyne still continued to wait for
a co-operating army from below. On the seventh he agreed
to make a grand reconnoissance, and, if the Americans
could not be attacked, he would think of a retreat. At
eleven o'clock on the morning of that day, seven hundred
men of Fraser's command, three hundred of Breymann's,
and Ave hundred of Riedesel's, were picked out for the
service. The late hour was chosen, that in case of disaster
night might intervene for their relief. They were led by
Burgoyne, who took with him Phillips, Riedesel, and Fiuser.
The fate of the army hung on the event, and not many more
than fifteen hundred men could be spared without exposing
the camp ; but never was a body of that number so com-
manded, or composed of more thoroughly trained soldiers.
They entered a field about half a mile from the Americans,
where they formed a line, and sat down in double ranks,
offering battle. Their artillery, consisting of eight brass
pieces and two howitzers, was well posted ; their front was
open ; the grenadiers under Ackland, stationed in the forest,
protected the left; Fraser, with the light infantry and an

1777. THE CAPITULATION O* BUBGOYNB. . 11

English regiment, formed the right, which was skirted by
a wooded hill; the Brunswickers held the centre. While
Fraser sent foragers into a wheat-field, Canadians, provin-
cials, and Indians were to get npon the American rear.

From his camp, which contained ten or eleven thou- 1777.
sand well-armed soldiers eager for battle, Gates re- °cL
solved to send out a force sufficient to overwhelm his adver-
saries. By the advice of Morgan, a simultaneous attack was
ordered to be made on both flanks. A little before three
o'clock, the column of the American right, composed of
Poor's brigade, followed by the New York militia under Ten
Broeck, unmoved by the well-directed and well-served grape-
shot from two twelve-pounders and four sizes, marched on
to engage Ackland's grenadiers ; while the men of Morgan
were seen making a circuit, to reach the flank and rear of
the British right, upon which the American light infan-
try under Dearborn descended impetuously from superior
ground. In danger of being surrounded, Burgoyne ordered
Fraser with the light infantry and part of the twenty-fourth
regiment to form a second line in the rear, so as to secure
the retreat of the army. While executing this order, Fraser
received a ball from a sharpshooter, and, fatally wounded,
was led back to the camp. Just then, within twenty
minutes from the beginning of the action, the British gren-
adiers, suffering from the sharp fire of musketry in front
and flank, wavered and fled, leaving Major Ackland, their
commander, severely wounded. These movements exposed
the Brunswickers on both flanks, and one regiment broke,
turned, and fled. It rallied, but only to retreat in less dis-
order, driven by the Americans. Sir Francis Clarke, Bur-
goyne's first aid, sent to the rescue of the artillery, was
mortally wounded before he could deliver his message;
and the Americans took all the eight pieces. In the face of
the hot pursuit, no second line could be formed. Burgoyne
exposed himself fearlessly ; a shot passed through his hat,
and another tore his waistcoat; but he was compelled to
give the word of command for all to retreat to the camp of
Fraser, which lay to the right of head-quarters. As he
entered, ho betrayed his sense of danger, crying out:

12 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIV.

" You must defend the post till the very last man ! " The
Americans pursued with fury; and, unwisely directed by
Arnold, who had ridden upon the field as a volunteer, with-
out orders, without command, without a staff, and beside
himself, yet carrying some authority as the highest officer
present in the action, they made an onset on the strongest
part of the British line, and despite an abattis and other
obstructions, despite musketry-fire and grape-shot, continued
it for more than an hour, though in vain. Meantime, the
brigade of Learned made a circuit and assaulted the quarters
of the regiment of Breymann, which flanked the extreme
right of the British* camp, and was connected with Fraser's
quarters by two stockade redoubts, defended by Canadian
companies. These intermediate redoubts were stormed by

a Massachusetts regiment headed by John Brooks,
JJJJ* afterwards governor of that state, and were carried

with little loss. Arnold, who had joined a group in this
last assault, lost his horse and was himself badly wounded
within the works. The regiment of Breymann was now ex-
posed in front and rear. Its colonel, fighting gallantly, was
mortally wounded; 'some of his troops fled; and the rest,
about two hundred in number, surrendered. Colonel Speth,
who led a small body of Germans to his support, was taken
prisoner. The position of Breymann was the key to Bur-
goyne's camp ; but the directions for its recovery could not
be executed. Night set in, and darkness ended the battle.
During the fight, neither Gates nor Lincoln appeared on
the field. In his report of the action, Gates named Arnold
with Morgan and Dearborn; and congress rewarded his
courage by giving him the rank which he had claimed. The
action was the battle of husbandmen ; in which men of the
valley of Virginia, of Maryland, of Pennsylvania, of New
York, and of New England, fought together with one spirit
for a common cause. At ten o'clock in the night, Burgoyne
gave orders to retreat. His army was greatly outn*i inhered,
its cattle starving, its hospital cumbered with sick, wounded,
and dying, and at daybreak he had only transferred his
camp to the heights above the hospital. Light dawned, to
show the hopelessness of his position.

1777. THE CAPITULATION 01? BURGOYNE. 18

All persons sorrowed over Fraser, so much love had
he inspired. He questioned the surgeon eagerly as to his
wound, and, when he found that he must go from wife and
children, from fame and promotion and life, he cried out in
his agony : " Damned ambition ! " At sunset of the eighth,
as his body, attended by the officers of his family, was
borne by soldiers of his corps to the great redoubt above
the Hudson, where he had asked to be buried, the three
major-generals, Burgoyne, Phillips, and Riedesel, and none
beside, followed as mourners ; and, amidst the boom*
ing of the American artillery, the order for the burial qJ'
of the dead was strictly observed in the twilight over
his grave. Death in itself is not terrible ; but he came to
America for selfish advancement, and, with all his fidelity
as a soldier, he died unconsoled.

In the following hours, Burgoyne, abandoning the wound-
ed and sick in his hospital, continued his retreat ; but, as
he was still clogged with artillery and baggage, the night
being dark, the narrow road worsened by rain, they made
halt two miles short of Saratoga. In the night before the
tenth, the British army, finding the passage of the Hudson
too strongly guarded by the Americans, forded the Fishkill,
and in a very bad position at Saratoga made their last en-
campment. On the tenth, Burgoyne sent out a party to
reconnoitre the road on the west of the Hudson ; but Stark,
who after the battle of Bennington had been received at
home as a conqueror, had returned with more than two
thousand men of New Hampshire, and held the river at
Port Edward.

At daybreak of the eleventh, an American brigade,
favored by a thick fog, broke up the British posts at the
mouth of the Fishkill, and captured all their boats and all
their provisions, except a short allowance for five days. On
the twelfth, the British army was completely invested ; nor
was there a spot in their camp which was not exposed to
cannon or rifle shot. On the thirteenth, Burgoyne, for the
first time, called the commanders of the corps to council ;
and they were unanimous for treating on honorable terms.
Had Gates been firm, they would have surrendered as pris-

14 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIV.

oners of war. Burgoyne's counter proposals stipulated for
a passage for the army from the port of Boston to Great
Britain, upon condition of not serving again in North
America during the war. Frightened by the expedition of
Vaughan, Gates consented to the modification, and on the
seventeenth the convention was signed. A body of Ameri-
cans marched to the tune of Yankee Doodle into the lines
of the British, while they marched out and in mute astonish-
ment and sorrow laid down their arms with none of the
American soldiery to witness the spectacle. Bread was
then served to them, for they had none left, nor flour.
1777. Their number, including officers, was ^\e thousand

0ct seven hundred and ninety-one. Beside these, there
were eighteen hundred and fifty-six prisoners of war, in-
cluding the sick and wounded, who had been abandoned.
Of deserters there were three hundred ; so that, including
the killed, prisoners, and disabled at Hubbardton, Fort Ann,
Bennington, Orisca, the outposts of Ticonderoga, and round
Saratoga, the total loss of the British in this northern cam-
paign was not far from ten thousand, counting officers as
well as rank and file. The Americans acquired forty-two
pieces of the best brass ordnance then known, beside large
munitions of war, and more than forty-six hundred muskets.

So many of their rank and file were freeholders or free-
holders9 sons that they gave a character to the whole army.
The negroes, of whom there were many in every regiment,
served in the same companies with them, shared their mess,
and partook of their spirit. Next to the generous care of
Washington in detaching to their aid troops destined and
needed against Howe, victory was due to the enthusiasm of
the soldiers. When the generals who should have directed
them remained in camp, their common zeal created a har-
monious correspondence of movement, and baffled the high
officers and veterans opposed to them.

Gates knew that public duty required him to send the
best part of his continental troops as swiftly as possible to
support the contest against Howe. His conduct now will
test his character as a general and a patriot.

1777. THE CONTEST FOB THE DELAWARE RIVER. 15

CHAPTER XXV.

THE CONTEST FOB THE DELAWARE BIVEB.

September — November, 1777.

Some of the Pennsylvania^ would have had Washington
shut himself up in Philadelphia. Except that it was
the city in which congress had declared American gJH;
independence, its possession was of no importance ;
for above it the rivers were not navigable, and it did not
intercept the communication between the north and the
south. The approach to it by water was still obstructed by
a doable set of chevaux de-frise, extending across the chan-
nel of the Delaware : one, seven miles from Philadelphia,
just below the mouth of the Schuylkill, and protected by
Fort Mercer at Red-bank on the New Jersey shore and Fort
Mifflin on Mud Island ; the other, five miles still nearer the
bay, and overlooked by works at Billingsport.

At Philadelphia the river was commanded by an Ameri-
can flotilla composed of one frigate, smaller vessels, galleys,
floating batteries, and other craft. On the twenty-seventh
of September they approached the city to annoy the working
parties : on the ebb of the tide, the frigate grounded, and
its commander, fearing a fire from land, hastily surrendered.
This disaster enabled the British to open communi-
cation with the Jersey shore. On the second of Oct 2.
October a detachment was put across the Delaware
from Chester by the boats of one of their frigates; the
1 garrison at Billingsport, spiking their guns, fled, leaving
the lower line of obstructions to be removed without mo-
lestation. Faint-heartedness spread along the river; the
militia who were to have defended Red-bank disappeared,

1G THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXV.

>
those of New Jersey held back ; from the water-craft and
even from the forts there were frequent desertions both of
officers and privates. Washington must act, or despondency
will prevail.

1777. The village of Germantown formed for two miles

0tt' one continuous street. At its centre it was crossed
at right angles by Howe's encampment, which extended on
the right to a wood, and was guarded on its extreme left
by Hessian yagers at the Schuylkill. The first battalion of
light infantry and the queen's American rangers were ad-
vanced in front of the right wing; the second battalion
supported the furthest pickets of the left at Mount Airy,
about two miles from the camp; and at the head of the
village, in an open field near a large stone house known as
that of Chew, the fortieth regiment under the veteran Mus-
grave pitched its tents. Information of the intended attack
reached Howe, but he received it with incredulity.

About noon on the third, Washington, at Matuchen Hills,
announced to his army his purpose to move upon German-
town. He spoke to them of the successes of the northern
army, and explained " that Howe, who lay at a distance of
several miles from Cornwallis, had further weakened himself
by sending two battalions to Billingsport. If they would
be brave and patient, he might on the next day lead them
to victory ." He inspired them with his own hopeful cour-
age. A defeat of the insulated British army must have
been its ruin. His plan was to direct the chief attack upon
its right, to which the approach was easy; and, for that
purpose, to Greene, in whom of all his generals he most
confided, he gave the command of his left wing, composed
of the divisions of Greene and of Stephen and flanked by
Macdougall's brigade. These formed about two thirds of
all his effective force. The divisions of Sullivan and Wayne,
flanked by Conway's brigade and followed by Washington,
with the brigades of Nash and Maxwell, under Lord Stirling,
as the reserve, assumed the more difficult task of engaging
the British left. To distract attention, the Maryland and
New Jersey militia were to make a circuit and come upon
the rear of the British right ; while, on the opposite side,

1777. THE CONTEST FOR THE DELAWARE RIVER. 17

Armstrong, with the Pennsylvania militia, was to deal
heavy blows on the Hessian yagers.

The different columns received orders to conduct their
march of about fourteen miles so as to arrive near the
enemy in time to rest, and to begin the attack on all quar-
ters precisely at five o'clock. Accordingly, the right wing,
after marching all night, halted two miles in front of the
British outpost, and took refreshment. Then, screened by a
fog and moving in silence, the advance party at the appointed
hour surprised the British picket. The battalion of light in-
fantry offered a gallant resistance ; but when Wayne's men,
whom Sullivan's division closely followed, rushed on with
the terrible cry, "Have at the blood-hounds! Revenge!
revenge ! " the bugle sounded a retreat. The cannon woke
Cornwallis in Philadelphia, who instantly ordered his British
grenadiers and Hessians to the scene of action ; Howe, in like
manner startled from his bed, rode up just in time to see the
battalion running away. " For shame, light infantry ! " he
cried in anger ; a I never saw you retreat before. Form !
form ! it is only a scouting party." But the cutting grape-
shot from three of the American cannon rattling about
him showed the seriousness of the attack, and he JJJJ;
rode off at full speed to prepare his camp for battle ;
while Musgrave, detaching a part of his regiment to support
the fugitives, threw himself with six companies into Chew's
house, which was built solidly of stone and stood at the
roadside, and barricaded its lower windows and doors.

Greene should by this time have engaged the British
right ; but nothing was heard from any part of his wing.
In consequence, as Sullivan and Wayne approached Chew's
house together, Sullivan directed Wayne to pass to the left of
it, while he advanced on its right. In this manner their two
divisions were separated. The advance was slow, for it was
made in line; while the troops wasted their ammunition
by an incessant fire at every house and hedge which showed
signs of resistance. Washington, with Maxwell's part of the
reserve, summoned Musgrave to surrender ; but the officer
who carried the white flag was fired upon and killed ; the
brave Chevalier Mauduit Duplessis, who with John Laurens
▼ol. vi. 2

18 THB AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXV.

of South Carolina forced and mounted the window on the
ground-floor to set the house on fire, was not supported by
men with combustibles, and, incredible as it may seem, the
two retired slowly and safely under a fire from both stories
of the house. The cannon were too light to breach the walls.
Urged forward by his own anxiety and the zeal of
Oct! tne y°ung officers of his staff, Washington left a sin-
gle regiment to watch the house, and with the rest
of the reserve advanced to the front of the battle and
remained there to the last.

And where was Greene with two thirds of the attacking
force confided to his command ? From some cause which
he never explained, he reached the British outpost three
quarters of an hour behind time ; then, at a great distance
from the force which he was to have attacked, he formed his
whole wing, and thus in line of battle attempted to advance
two miles or more through marshes, thickets, and strong
and numerous post-and-rail fences. Irretrievable disorder
was the consequence ; the divisions became mixed, and the
line was broken. Macdougall never came into the fight ; and
Greene was left with only the brigades of Scott and Muhlen-
berg. These entered the village and attacked the British
right, which had had ample time for preparation. They
were outflanked, and after about fifteen minutes of heavy fir-
ing were driven back; and the regiment which had pene-
trated furthest was captured. Stephen with one of his
brigades came up with the left of Wayne's division ; Wood-
ford, who commanded the other and was on the extreme
right of the wing under Greene, went out of his way as
marked out by his orders to Chew's house, which he found
watched by a single regiment, halted there, as we know
from Marshall, an eye-witness, with bis whole brigade, and
took no part in the battle except to order his light field-
pieces to play upon its walls. This new and unexpected
cannonade, which was contrary to the plan of the battle,
was exactly in the rear of Wayne's division ; they could not
account for it, except by supposing that the British right had
gained their rear ; and, throwing off all control, they retreated
in disorder, Armstrong with his militia on the extreme right

1777. THE CONTEST FOR THE DELAWARE RIVER. 19

considered it his duty " rather to divert the foreigners than
to come in contact with them ; " so he did no more than
"cannonade them from the heights on the Wissahiccon."
Sullivan's men, against the order of Washington, had ex-
pended their ammunition by firing often without an object.
The English battalions from Philadelphia, advancing on a
run, were close at hand. In the fog, parties of Americans
had repeatedly mistaken each other for British. At about
half-past eight, Washington, who " in his anxiety exposed
himself to the hottest fire," seeing that the day was lost,
gave the word to retreat, and sent it to every division.
Care was taken for the removal of every piece of artil. JJJJ*
lery. " British officers of the first rank said that no
retreat was ever conducted in better order.; " and they and
the German officers alike judged the attack to have been
well planned.

In the official report of this engagement, the commander
in chief stated with exactness the tardy arrival of Greene.
Had the forces intrusted to that officer and the militia with
Armstrong acted as efficiently as the troops with Washing-
ton, the morning might have been fatal to Howe's army. The
renewal of an attack so soon after the defeat at the Brandy-
wine, and its partial success, inspirited congress and the
army. In Europe, it convinced Frederic of Prussia and
the cabinet of the king of France that the independence of
America was assured.

To stop the sale of provisions to the British army, con-
gress subjected every person, within thirty miles of a Brit-
ish post, who should give them information or furnish them
supplies, to the penalty of death on conviction by court-
martial ; and a party of militia under Potter watched the
west of the Schuylkill so carpfully that the enemy suffered
from a scarcity of food and forage. Could Washington
obtain a force sufficient to blockade Philadelphia by land
and maintain the posts on the Delaware, there was hope
of driving Howe to retreat. But Pennsylvania would not
rise ; the contest was on her soil, and there were in camp
only twelve hundred of her militia.

Between the fourth and the eighth, the fleet of Lord

20 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXV.

Howe anchored betweec Newcastle and Reedy Island. It
was the middle of October before they could open a narrow
and intricate channel through the lower obstruction in the
river. The upper set of chevaux-de-f rise was untouched ;
and the forts on Red-bank and on Mud Island, which pro-
tected it, were garrisoned by continental troops, the former
under the command of Colonel Christopher Greene of Rhode
Island, the latter under that of Lieutenant-colonel Samuel
Smith of Maryland. Meantime, Sir William Howe, from
the necessity of concentrating his force, ordered Clin-
o^' ton to abandon Fort Clinton on the Hudson, and to
send him a re-enforcement of " full six thousand men."
He removed his army from Germantown to Philadelphia,
and raised a line of fortifications from the Schuylkill to the
Delaware.

On the morning of the eighteenth, a messenger arrived
in the American camp, bringing letters from Putnam and
Clinton, prematurely but positively announcing the surrender
of the army of Burgoyne. Washington received them with
joy unspeakable and devout gratitude " for this signal stroke
of Providence." " All will be well," he said, " in His own
good time.9' The news circulated among the Americans
in every direction, and quickly penetrated the camp of Sir
William Howe. The difficulty of access to the upper che-
vaux-de-frise had rendered its reduction much more tedious
than was conceived ; under a feeling of exasperated impa-
tience, he gave verbal orders to Colonel Donop, who had ex-
pressed a wish for a separate command, to carry Red-bank by
assault if it could be easily done, and make short work of the
affair. On the twenty-second, Donop with five regiments of
Hessian grenadiers and infantry, four companies of yagers, a
few mounted yagers, all the artillery of the five battalions,
and two English howitzers, arrived at the fort. Making
a reconnoissance with his artillery officers, he found that
on three sides it could be approached through thick woods
within four hundred yards. It was a pentagon, with a high,
earthy rampart, protected in front by an abattis. The
battery of eight three-pounders and two howitzers was
brought up on the right wing, and directed on the embra-

1777. THE CONTEST FOR THE DELAWARE RIVER. 21

sures. At the front of each of the four battalions selected
for the assault stood a captain with the carpenters and one
hundred men bearing the fascines which had been hastily
bound together. Mad after glory, Donop, at half-past four,
summoned the garrison in arrogant language. A defiance
being returned, he addressed a few words to his troops.
Each colonel placed himself at the head of his division ; and
at a quarter before five, under the protection of a brisk
cannonade from all their artillery, they ran forward and
carried the abattis. On clearing it, they were embarrassed
by pitfalls, and were exposed to a terrible fire of small arms
and of grape-shot from a concealed gallery, while two gal-
leys, which the bushes had hidden, raked their flanks with
chain-shot. Yet the brave Hessians formed on the glacis,
filled the ditch, and pressed on towards the rampart. But
Donop, the officers of his staff, and more than half the other
officers, were killed or wounded ; the men who climbed the
parapet were beaten down with lances and bayonets ; and,
as twilight was coming on, the assailants fell back
under the protection of their reserve. Many of the JJJJ*
wounded crawled away into the forest, but Donop
and a few others were left behind. The party marched
back during the night unpursued.

As the British ships-of-war which had attempted to take
part in the attack fell down the river, the "Augusta," of
sixty-four guns, and the " Merlin " frigate grounded. The
next day the " Augusta" was set on fire by red-hot shot
from the American galleys and floating batteries, and blown
up before all her crew could escape; the "Merlin" was
abandoned and set on fire. From the wrecks the Americans
brought off two twenty-four pounders. "Thank God,"
reasoned John Adams, " the glory is not immediately due
to the commander in chief, or idolatry and adulation would
have been so excessive as to endanger our liberties."

The Hessians, by their own account, lost in the assault
four hundred and two in killed and wounded, of whom
twenty-six were officers. Two colonels gave up their lives.
Donop, whose thigh was shattered, lingered for three days *
and to Mauduit Duplessis, who watched over his death-bed,

22 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXV.

he said ; " It is finishing a noble career early ; I die the
victim of my ambition, and of the avarice of my sovereign."
This was the moment chosen by Howe to complain of Lord
George Germain, and to ask the king's leave to resign his
command; and he added that there was no prospect of
terminating the war without another campaign, nor then,
unless large re-enforcements, such as he knew could not be
furnished, should be sent from Europe.

On Burgoyne's surrender, it became the paramount duty
of Gates to detach re-enforcements to Washington; but
weeks passed, and even the corps of Morgan did not arrive.
The commander in chief, therefore, near the end of
JJJ£ October, despatched his able aid, Alexander Hamil-
ton, with authority to demand them. This was fol-
lowed by the strangest incidents of the war. Putnam for
a while disregarded the orders borne by Hamilton. Gates,
in his elation, detained a very large part of his army in
idleness at Albany, under the pretext of an expedition
against Ticonderoga, which he did not mean to attack, and
which the British of themselves abandoned ; he neglected
to announce his victory to the commander in chief ; and
he sent directly to congress the tardy message : " With an
army in health, vigor, and spirits, Major-general Gates now
waits the commands of the honorable congress." Instead
of chiding the insubordination, congress appointed him to
regain the forts and passes on the Hudson River. Now
Washington had himself recovered these forts and passes
by pressing Howe so closely as to compel him to order their
evacuation; yet congress forbade Washington to detach
from the northern army more than twenty-five hundred
men, including the corps of Morgan, without first consulting
General Gates and the governor of New York. It was
even moved that he should not detach any troops except
after consultation with Gates and Clinton; and Samuel
Adams, John Adams, and Gerry of Massachusetts, and
Marchant of Rhode Island, voted for that restriction. Time
was wasted by this interference. Besides, while the north-
ern army had been borne onward to victory by the rising
of the people, Washington encountered in Pennsylvania

1777. THE CONTEST FOB THE DELAWARE RIVER. 28

disaffection, languor, and internal fends. So the opportu-
nity of driving Howe from Philadelphia before winter was
lost.

By the tenth of November the British had completed
their batteries on the reedy morass of Province Island, five
hundred yards from the American fort on Mud Island, and
began an incessant fire from four batteries of heavy artil-
lery. Smith gave the opinion that the garrison could not
repel a storming party ; but Major Fleury, the French en-
gineer, reported the place still defensible. On the eleventh,
Smith, having received a slight hurt, passed immediately to
Bed-bank ; the next in rank desired to be recalled ; and
early on the thirteenth the brave little garrison of two hun-
dred and eighty-six fresh men and twenty artillerists was
confided to Major Simeon Thayer of Rhode Island, who
had distinguished himself in the expedition against Quebec,
and who now volunteered to take the desperate command.
Supported by his superior ability and the skill and cool
courage of Fleury, the garrison held out gallantly during
an incessant bombardment and cannonade. On the fif-
teenth, the wind proving fair, the " Vigilant," carrying six-
teen twenty-four pounders, and the hulk of a large India-
man with three twenty-four pounders, aided by the tide,
were warped through an inner channel which the obstruc-
tions in the river had deepened, and anchored so near the
American fort that they could send into it hand-grenades,
and marksmen from the mast of the " Vigilant " could pick
off men from its platform. Five large British ships-of-war,
which drew near the chevaux-de-frise, kept off the Ameri-
can flotilla, and sometimes directed their fire at the fort on
its unprotected side. The land batteries, now five in num-
ber, played from thirty pieces at short distances. The ram-
parts and block-houses on Mud Island were honeycombed,
their cannon nearly silenced. A storming party was got
ready ; but, to avoid bloodshed, Sir William Howe, who on
the fifteenth was present with his brother, gave orders tc
keep up the fire all night through. In the evening,
Thayer sent all the garrison but forty men over to j£JJ
Red-bank, and after midnight followed with the rest.

24 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap XXV.

When, on the sixteenth, the British troops entered the
fort, they found nearly every one of its cannon stained
with blood. Never were orders to defend a place to the
last extremity more faithfully executed. Thayer was re-
ported to Washington as an officer of the highest merit ;
Fleury won well-deserved promotion from congress.

Cornwallis was next sent by way of Chester to Billings-
port, with a strong body of troops to clear the left bank of
the Delaware. A division under Greene was promptly de-
spatched across the river to give him battle. But Corn-
wallis was joined by five British battalions from New York,
while the American re-enforcements from the northern
army were still delayed. It therefore became necessary to
evacuate Red-bank. Cornwallis, having levelled its ram-
parts, returned to Philadelphia, and Greene rejoined Wash-
ington; but not till Lafayette, who attended the
jj^- expedition as a volunteer, had secured the applause
of congress by routing a party of Hessians. For all
the seeming success, many officers in the British camp
expressed the opinion that the states could not be subju-
gated, and should be suffered to go free.

Mr. Joseph J. Lewis, of West Chester, Pennsylvania, most courteously
intrusted to me the very voluminous and instructive correspondence and
papers of General Anthony Wayne.

1777. THE CONFEDERATION. 2S

CHAPTER XXVI.

THE COOTEDBBATION.

November 15, 1777.

Whilb the winter-quarters of the British in Plnladelphia
were rendered secure by the possession of the river Dela-
ware, the congress which was scoffed at in the British house
of lords as a " vagrant " horde resumed at Yorktown the
work of confederation. Of the committee who, in June,
1776, had been appointed to prepare the plan, Samuel
Adams alone remained a member ; and even he was
absent when, on the fifteenth of November, 1777, jJJJ;
" articles of confederation and perpetual union " were
adopted, to be submitted for approbation to the several
states.

The present is always the lineal descendant of the past.
A new form of political life never appears but as a growth
out of its antecedents, just as in nature there is no animal
life without a seed or a spore. In civil affairs, as much as
in husbandry, seed-time goes before the harvest, and the
harvest may be seen in the seed, the seed in the harvest.
According to the American theory, the unity of the colo-
nies had, before the declaration of independence, resided
in the British king. The congress of the United States
was the king's successor, and it inherited only such powers
as the colonies themselves acknowledged to have belonged
to the crown.

The vastness of America interfered with the instincts of
local attachment. Affection could not twine itself round a
continental domain of which the greatest part was a wilder-
ness, associated with no recollections. Gadsden, of South
Carolina, had advised all to be not Carolinians or New

526 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVL

Yorkers, but Americans ; yet the sentiment of unity existed
only in the germ. The confederacy was formed under the
influence of political ideas which had been developed by a
contest of centuries for individual and local liberties against
an irresponsible central authority. Now that power had
passed to the people, new institutions were required strong
enough to protect the state, while they should leave un-
touched the liberties of the individual. But America, mis-
led by what belonged to the past, took for her organizing
principle the principle of resistance 4;o power, which in all
the thirteen colonies had been hardened into stubbornness
by a succession of common jealousies and struggles.

During the sixteen months that followed the introduction
of the plan for confederation prepared by Dickinson, the
spirit of separation, fostered by uncontrolled indulgence, by
opposing interests, by fears on the part of the south of the
more homogeneous and compact population of the north-east,
by the dissimilar impulses under which the different sections
of the country had been colonized, and by a dread of inter-
ference with the peculiar institutions of each colony, visibly
increased in congress, and every change in his draft, which
of itself proposed only a league of states, darkened more
and more the prospect of that energetic authority which
is the first guarantee of liberty.

The possessions of the British crown had extended from
the St. Mary's to the extreme north of the habitable conti-
nent, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi or even to the Pa-
cific ; the United States of America included within
^- their jurisdiction so much of that territory as had
belonged to any of the thirteen colonies; and, if
Canada would so choose, they were ready to annex Canada.

In the republics of Greece, citizenship had in theory been
confined to a body of kindred families, which formed an
hereditary caste, a multitudinous aristocracy. Such a sys-
tem could have no permanent vitality ; and the Greek
republics, as the Italian republics in after-ages, died out for
want of citizens. America adopted at once the greatest
■result of modern civilization, the principle of the all-embrac-
ing unity of society. As the American territory was that

1777.. THE CONFEDERATION. 27

of the old thirteen colonies, so the free people residing npoL
it formed the free people of the United States. Subject
and citizen were correlative terms, and subjects of the mon-
archy became citizens of the republic. He that had owed
primary allegiance to the king of England now owed pri-
mary allegiance to united America; yet, as the republic
was the sudden birth of a revolution, the moderation of
congress did not name it treason for the former subjects
of the king to adhere to his government ; only it was held
that whoever chose to remain on the soil, by residence
accepted the protection of America, and in return owed it
allegiance. This is the reason why, for twelve years, free
inhabitants and citizens were in American state papers con-
vertible terms, sometimes used one for the other, and
sometimes, for the sake of perspicuity, redundantly joined
together.

The king of England, according to the rule of modern
civilization, claimed as his subjects all persons born within
his dominions : in like manner, every one who first
saw the light on the American soil was a natural- jJJJ;
born American citizen ; but the power of naturaliza-
tion, which, under the king, each colony had claimed to reg-
ulate by its own laws, remained under the confederacy with
the separate states.

The king had extended protection to every one of his
lieges in every one of the thirteen colonies ; now that con-
gress was the successor of the king in America, the right to
equal protection was continued to every free inhabitant in
whatever state he might sojourn or dwell.

It had been held under the monarchy that each American
colony was as independent of England as the electorate
of Hanover; now, therefore, in the confederacy of "the
United States of America," each state was to remain an
independent sovereign, and the union was to be no more
than an alliance. This theory decided the manner in which
congress should vote. Pennsylvania and Virginia asked
that, while each state might have at least one delegate, the
rule should be one for every fifty thousand inhabitants ; but
the amendment was rejected by nine states against two,

28 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVI.

Delaware being absent and North Carolina divided. Vir-
ginia would have allowed to each state one member of con-
gress for every thirty thousand of its inhabitants, and in
this she was supported by John Adams ; but his colleagues
cast the vote of Massachusetts against it, and Virginia was
left alone, North Carolina as before losing its vote by being
equally divided. Virginia next desired that the representa-
tion for each state should be in proportion to its contribu-
tion to the public treasury ; here again she was supported by
John Adams, but in the debate was opposed by every other
state, including North Carolina and Massachusetts. At last,
with only one state divided and no negative voice but that
of Virginia, an equal vote in congress was acknowledged to
belong to each sovereign state, though the number of dele-
gates to give that vote might be not less than two nor more
than seven for each state. The remedy for this inequality
enhanced the evil and foreboded anarchy ; while each state
had one vote, " great and very interesting questions " could
be carried only by the concurrence of nine states. If the
advice of Samuel Adams had been listened to, the vote of
nine states would not have prevailed, unless they repre-
sented a majority of the people of all the states. For the

transaction of less important business, an affirmative
jJJJ; vote of seven states was required. In other words,

in the one case the assent of two thirds, in the other
of a majority of all the thirteen states, was needed, the
absence of any state having the force of a negative vote.
Principles of policy which in their origin may have been
beneficent, when wrongly applied, become a curse. The
king's power to levy taxes by parliament or by his preroga-
tive had been denied, and no more than a power to make
requisitions conceded : in like manner the general congress,
as successor to the king, could not levy taxes, but only
make requisitions for money on the several states. The
king might establish post-offices for public convenience, not
for revenue : in like manner congress might authorize no
rates of postage except to defray the expense of transport-
ing the mails. The colonies under the king had severally
levied import and export duties; the same power was

1777. THE CONFEDEBATTON 29

allowed stilt to reside in each separate state, litnitod only
by the proposed treaties with France and Spain.

Thus the new republic was left without any independent
revenue, and the charges of the government, its issues of
paper money, its loans, were to be ultimately defrayed by
quotas assessed upon the separate states. The difference
between the north and the south growing out of the institu-
tion of slavery decided the rule for the distribution of these
quotas. By the draft of Dickinson, taxation was to be in pro-
portion to the census of population, in which slaves were to
be enumerated. On the thirteenth of October, 1777, it was
moved that the sum to be paid by each state into the treasury
should be ascertained by the value of all property within each
state. This was promptly negatived, and was followed by a
motion having for its object to exempt slaves from taxation
altogether. On the following day, eleven states were pres
ent. The four of New England voted in the negative;
Maryland, Virginia, and the two Carolinas in the affirma-
tive. Robert Morris of Pennsylvania against Roberdeau,
and Duer of New Tork against Duane, voted with the south,
and so the votes of their states were divided and lost. The
decision rested on New Jersey, and she gave it for the com-
plete exemption from taxation of all property in slaves.
This is the first important division between slaveholding
states and the states where slavery was of little account.
The rule for apportioning the revenue, as finally adopted,
was the respective value of land granted or surveyed,
and the buildings and improvements thereon, with- £11'.
out regard to personal property or numbers. This
alone rendered the confederacy nugatory ; for congress had
not power to make the valuation.

In like manner the rules for navigation were to be estab-
lished exclusively by each separate state, and the con-
federation did not take to itself power to countervail the
restrictions of foreign governments, or to form agreements
of reciprocity, or even to establish uniformity. These
arrangements suited the opinions of the time ; the legisla
tare of New Jersey, vexed by the control of New York
over the waters of New Tork Bay, alone proposed as an

80 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVI

amendment a grant of greater power over foreign com-
merce. Moreover, each state decided for itself what
JjJJ imports it would permit and what it would prohibit ;
so that the confederate congress for itself renounoed
for ever the power to sanction or to stop the slave-trade.

The king had possessed all the lands not alienated bj
royal grants. On the declaration of independence, the
quit-rents were sequestered to the benefit of the proprietors,
while each state assumed the ownership of the royal domain
within its limits. A question was raised as to public lands
which might be acquired or recovered by the war, espe-
cially the region north-west of the Ohio, which had been
transferred to the province of Quebec by act of parliament ;
but that act formed one of the grievances of America ; its
validity was denied ; and the states which by their charters
extended indefinitely west, or west and north-west, refused
to accept the United States as the umpire to settle their
boundaries, except with regard to each other.

Jealousy of a standing army was one of the traditionary
lessons of English liberty. The superiority of the civil
over the military power was most deeply imprinted on the
heart of the people. It was borne in mind that victorious
legions revolutionized Rome; that Charles I. sought to
overturn the institutions of England by an army ; that by
an army Charles II. was brought back without conditions ;
that by a standing army, which Americans themselves were
to have been taxed to maintain, it had been proposed to
abridge American liberties. In congress, this distrust of
military power existed all the more for the confidence and
undivided affection which the people bore to the American
commander in chief, and has for its excuse that human
nature was hardly supposed able to furnish an example of
a military hero eminent as a statesman, the liberator of his
country, and yet desirous after finishing his work to go into
private life. We have seen how earnestly Washington
endeavored to establish an army of the United States. His
plan, which, at the time it was proposed, congress did not
venture to reject, was now deliberately demolished. Con-
gress thought it augured, well for liberty that the states

1777. THE CONFEDERATION. 31

were stretched along the Atlantic shore in a narrow line, ill
suited to unity of military action ; and, to prevent a homo-
geneous organization, it not only left to each of them
the exclusive power over its militia, but the exclusive jJJJ;
appointment of the regimental officers in its quota of
land forces for the public service ; so that there might be
thirteen armies, rather than one.

As in England, so in America, this jealousy did not ex-
tend to maritime affairs ; the separate states had no share
in the appointment of officers in the navy, and the United
States might even establish courts of admiralty, though
with a jurisdiction limited to piracies and felonies on the
high seas and to appeals in all cases of capture.

As the king in England, so the United States determined
on peace and war, sent ambassadors to foreign powers, and
entered into treaties and alliances ; but, beside their gen*
eral want of executive power, the grant to make treaties of
commerce was nullified by the power reserved to the states
over imports and exports, over shipping and revenue.

The right of coining money, the right of keeping up
ships-of-war, land forces, forts, garrisons, were shared by
congress with the respective states. No state, Massachu-
setts not more than South Carolina, would subordinate its
law of treason to the will of congress. The formation of a
class of national statesmen was impeded by the clause which
forbade any man to sit in congress more than three years
out of six; nor could the same member of congress be
appointed its president more than one year in any term
of three years. As there was scarcely the rudiment of a
judiciary, so direct executive power was altogether wanting.
The report of Dickinson provided for a council of state ;
but this was narrowed down to "a committee of states,"
to be composed of one delegate from each state, with
no power whatever respecting important business, and no
power of any kind except that with which congress, " by the
consent of nine states,9' might invest them from time to
time.

Each state retained its sovereignty, and all power not
expressly delegated. Under the king of England, the ass

82 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVI.

of the veto in colonial legislation had been complained of.
There was not even a thought of vesting congress with a
veto on the legislation of states, or subjecting such legisla-
tion to the revision of a judicial tribunal. Each state,
2^; being esteemed independent and sovereign, had ex-
clusive, full, and final powers in every matter relat-
ing to domestic p.^ice and government, to slavery and
manumission, to the conditions of the elective franchise;
and the restraints required by loyalty to the central govern-
ment were left to be self-imposed. Incidental powers to carry
into effect the powers granted to the United States were
denied, and thus granted powers might be made of no avail.
To complete the security against central authority, the
articles of confederation were not to be adopted except by
the unanimous assent of each one of the legislatures of the
thirteen separate states ; and no amendment might be made
without an equal unanimity. A government which had not
power to levy a tax, or raise a soldier, or deal directly with
an individual, or keep its engagements with foreign powers,
or amend its constitution without the unanimous consent
of its members, had not enough of vital force to live. It
could not interest the human race, and the establishment of
independence must be the signal for its dissolution. But a
higher spirit moved over the darkness of that formless void.
That which then flowered bore the seed of that which was
to be. Notwithstanding the defects of the confederation,
the congress of the United States, inspired by the highest
wisdom of the eighteenth century, and seemingly with-
out debate, embodied in their work four capital results,
which Providence in its love for the human race could not
let die.

The republics of Greece and Rome had been essentially
no more than governments of cities. When Rome ex-
changed the narrowness of the ancient municipality for cos-
mopolitan expansion, the republic, from the false principle
on which it was organized, became an empire. The middle
ages had free towns and cantons, but no national republic.
Congress had faith that one republican government could
comprehend a continental territory, even though it should

1777. THE CONFEDERATION. 38

extend from the Gulf of Mexico to the uttermost limit of
Canada and include Newfoundland.

Having thus proclaimed that republicanism may equal
the widest empire in its bounds, they settled the relation of
the United States to the natural rights of their inhabitants
with superior wisdom. Some of the states had, each
according to its prevailing superstition or prejudice, nar-
rowed the rights of classes of men. One state disfranchised
Jews, another Catholics, another deniers of the Trinity,
another men of a complexion different from white. The
United States in congress assembled suffered the errors
against humanity in one state to eliminate the errors against
humanity in another. They rejected every disfran-
chisement and superadded none. The declaration of JJJJ;
independence said, all men are created equal ; the
articles of confederation and perpetual union made no dis-
tinction of classes, and knew no caste but the caste of
humanity. To them, free inhabitants were free citizens.

That which gave reality to the union was the article
which secured to "the free inhabitants" of each of the
states "all privileges and immunities of free citizens in
the several states." Congress appeared anxiously to shun
the term "people of the United States." It is nowhere
found in the articles of confederation, and rarely and only
accidentally in their votes ; yet by this act they constituted
the free inhabitants of the different states one people.
When the articles of confederation reached South Carolina
for confirmation, it was perceived that they secured equal
rights of inter-citizenship in the several states to the free
black inhabitant of any state. This concession was opposed
in the legislature of South Carolina, and, after an elaborate
speech by William Henry Drayton, the articles were re-
turned to congress with a recommendation that inter-citi-
zenship should be confined to the white man ; but congress,
by a vote of eight states against South Carolina and Georgia,
one state being divided, refused to recede from the univer-
sal system on which American institutions were to be
founded. The decision was not due to impassioned philan-
thropy: slavery at that day existed in every one of the

VOL. VI. 8

84 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Ch ap. XXVI

thirteen states ; and, notwithstanding many men south as
well as north revolted at the thought of continuing the
institution, custom scarcely recognised the black man as an
equal ; yet congress, with a fixedness of purpose resting on
a principle, would not swerve from its position. For, when
it resolved upon independence and had to decide on whom
a demand could be made to maintain that independence, it
defined as members of a colony all persons abiding within it
and derr ving protection from its laws. Now, therefore, when
inter-state rights were to be confided to the members of
each state, it looked upon every freeman who owed primary
allegiance to the state as a citizen of the state. The free
black inhabitant owed allegiance, and was entitled to equal
civil rights, and so was a citizen. Universal suffrage as the
right of man was not as yet asserted in the constitution of
any one of the states. Congress, while it left the regulation
of the elective franchise to the judgment of each state, in
the articles of confederation, in its votes and its treaties
with other powers, reckoned all the free inhabitants, with-
out distinction of ancestry, creed, or color, as subjects or
citizens. But America, though the best representative of
the social and political gains of the eighteenth century, was

not the parent of the idea in modern civilization that
JJ™; man is a constituent member of the state of his birth,

irrespective of his ancestry. It was the public law
of Christendom. Had America done less, she would have
been, not the leader of nations, but a laggard.

One other life-giving excellence distinguished the articles
of confederation. The instrument was suffused with the
idea of securing the largest liberty to individual man. In
the ancient Greek republic, the state existed before the
individual and absorbed the individual. Thought, religious
opinion, worship, conscience, amusements, joys, sorrows, all
activities, were regulated by the state ; the individual lived
only as subordinate to the state. A declaration of rights is
a declaration of those liberties of the individual which the
state cannot justly control. The Greek system of law knew
nothing of such liberties ; the Greek citizen never spoke of
the rights of man ; the individual was merged in the body

1777. THE CONFEDERATION. 85

politic. At last a government founded on consent could be
perfected, for the acknowledgment that conscience
has its rights had broken the unity of despotic power, j$JJ;
and confirmed the freedom of the individual. Be-
cause there was life in all the parts, there was the sure
promise of a well-organized life in the whole.

Yet the young republic failed in its first effort at forming
a general union. The smoke in the flame overpowered the
light. " The articles of confederation endeavored to recon-
cile a partial sovereignty in the union with complete sover-
eignty in the states, to subvert a mathematical axiom by
taking away a part and letting the whole remain.'9 The
polity then formed could hardly be called an organization,
so little did the parts mutually correspond and concur to
the same final actions. The executive power vested in the
independent will of thirteen separate sovereign states was
like many pairs of ganglia in one of the inferior articulata,
of which part may press to go one way and part another.
Tet through this chaotic mass the rudiment of a spinal cord
may be traced. The system was imperfect, and was ac-
knowledged to be imperfect. A better one could not then
have been accepted ; but with all its faults it contained the
elements for the evolution of a more perfect union. America
carried along with her the urn which held the ashes of the
past, but she also had hope and creative power. The senti-
ment of nationality was forming. The framers of the
confederacy would not admit into that instrument the name
of the people of the United States, and described the states
as so many sovereign . and independent communities ; yet
already in the circular letter of November, 1777, to the
states, asking their several subscriptions to the plan of
confederacy, they avowed the purpose to secure to the
inhabitants of all the states an " existence as a free people."
The child that was then born was cradled between opposing
powers of evil ; if it will live, its infant strength must
stranglo the twin serpents of separatism and central des-
potism

86 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVII

CHAPTER XXVII.

TTCNTEBrQUABTERS AT VAXLET FOBGE.

November, 1777 — April, 1778.

When at last Washington was joined by troops from
the northern army, a clamor arose for the capture of
mj: Philadelphia. Protected by the Schuylkill and the
Delaware, the city could be approached only from
the north, and on that side a chain of fourteen redoubts
extended from river to river. Moreover, the army by
which it was occupied, having been re-enforced from New
York by more than three thousand men, now exceeded
nineteen thousand. Yet four American officers voted in
council for an assault upon the lines of this greatly superior
force ; but the general, sustained by eleven, disregarded the
murmurs of congress and rejected " the mad enterprise."

Ashamed of inaction, Sir William Howe announced to
his government his intention to make a forward movement.
Washington, with a quickness of eye that had been de-
veloped by his forest life as a surveyor, selected in the
woods of Whitemarsh strong ground for an encampment,
and there, within fourteen miles of Philadelphia, awaited
the enemy, of whose movements he received exact and
timely intelligence. On the severely cold night of
Deo. the fourth of December, the British, fourteen thou-
sand strong, marched out to attack the American
lines. Before daybreak on the fifth, their advance party
halted on a ridge beyond Chestnut Hill, eleven miles from
Philadelphia, and at seven their main body formed in one
line, with a few regiments as reserves. The Americans
occupied thickly wooded hills, with a morass and a brook
in their front. Opposite the British left wing a breastwork

1777. WINTER-QUARTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. 87

defended the only point where the brook could be easily
forded. About noon, General Irvine, who led some Penn-
sylvania militia into a skirmish, was wounded and taken
prisoner, and his party were dispersed. At night the
British force rested on their arms, and the hills far and
wide blazed with the innumerable fires of the two armies.
Washington passed the hours in strengthening his position ;
and though, from sickness, fatigue, and want of clothing,
he had at most but eleven thousand, according to Kalb
who was present, but seven thousand really effective men,
he wished for an engagement. Near the end of another
day Howe marched back to Oermantown, and on the next,
as if intending a surprise, suddenly returned upon the Amer-
ican left, which he made preparations to assail. Washington
rode through every brigade, delivering in person his orders
on the manner of receiving their enemy, exhorting to a
reliance on the bayonet ; and his words, and still more his
example, inspired them with his own fortitude. All day
long, and until eight/n the evening, Howe kept up his
reconnoitring, but found the American position every-
where strong by nature and by art. Nothing occurred
but a sharp action on Edge Hill, between light troops
under Gist and Morgan's riflemen and a British party led
by General Grey. The latter lost eighty-nine in killed
and wounded ; the Americans, twenty-seven, among
them the brave Major Morris of New Jersey. On jJJJ;
the eighth, just after noon, the British suddenly filed
off, and marched by the shortest road to Philadelphia.
Their loss in the expedition exceeded one hundred. Thus
the campaign closed. Howe had gone out with superior
numbers and the avowed intention of bringing on a battle,
and had so respected his adversary that he would ntot en-
gage him without some advantage of ground. Hencefor-
ward he passed the winder behind his intrenchments, making
only excursions for food or forage ; and Washington had no
choice but to seek winter-quarters for his suffering soldiers.
Military affairs had thus far been superintended by con-
gress, through a committee of its own members. After
some prelude in July, 1777, it was settled in the following

38

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVIL

October to institute an executive board of war of five per-
sons not members of congress.

im Conway, a French officer of Irish descent, whom

Greene and others described as "worthless,9' had long
been eagor for higher rank. In a timely letter to Richard
Henry Lee, a friend to Conway, Washington wrote : " His
merits exist more in his own imagination than in reality ; it
is a maxim with him not to want any thing which is to be
obtained by importunity ; " his promotion would be " a real
act of injustice," likely to "incur a train of irremediable
evils. To sum up the whole, I have been a slave to the ser-
vice ; I have undergone more than most men are aware of
to harmonize so many discordant parts ; but it will be impos-
sible for me to be of any further service, if such insuperable
difficulties are thrown in my way." These words might be
interpreted as a threat of resignation in the event of Con-
way's promotion. Conway breathed out his discontent to
Gates, writing in substance : " Heaven has been determined
to save your country, or a weak general and bad counsel-
lors would have ruined it." The correspondents of Gates
did not scruple in their letters to speak of the commander
in chief with bitterness or contempt. " This army," wrote
Reed, "notwithstanding the efforts of our amiable chief,
has as yet gathered no laurels. I perfectly agree with that
sentiment which leads to request your assistance." On the
sixth of November, Wilkinson, the principal aid of Gates,
a babbling and unsteady sycophant, praised by his chief for
military genius, was made a brigadier. On the seventh,
Mifflin, leaving his office of quartermaster-general, of which
he had neglected the duties, yet retaining the rank of major-
general, was elected to the board of war. The injurious
words of Conway having through Wilkinson been reported
to Washington, on the ninth he communicated his knowl-
edge of them to Conway, and to him alone. Conway in an
interview justified them, made no apology, and after the in-
terview reported his defiance of Washington to Mifflin. On
the tenth, Sullivan, second in rank in the army, knowing the
opinion of his brother officers and of his chief, and that on
a discussion at a council of war about appointing an in-

1777. WINTER-QUARTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. 39

specter-general Conway's pretensions met with no favor,
wrote to a member of congress : " No man can behave bet-
ter in action than General Conway ; his regulations in
his brigade are much better than any in the army ; ^ov!
his knowledge of military matters far exceeds any
officer we have. If the office of inspector-general with the
rank of major-general was given him, our army would soon
cut a different figure from what they now do." On the
same day, Wayne expressed his purpose " to follow the line
pointed out by the conduct of Lee, Gates, and Mifflin." On
the eleventh, Conway, foreseeing that Gates was to preside
at the board of war, offered to form for him a plan for the
instruction of the army ; and, on the fifteenth, to advance
his intrigue, he tendered his resignation to congress. On the
seventeenth, Lovell, of Massachusetts, wrote to Gates, threat-
ening Washington " with the mighty torrent of public clamor
and vengeance," and subjoined : " How different your con-
duct and your fortune ; this army will be totally lost unless
you come down and collect the virtuous band who wish to
fight under your banner." On the twenty-first, Wayne, for-
getting the disaster that had attended his own rash confi-
dence, disparaged Washington as having more than once
slighted the favors of fortune. On the twenty-fourth, con-
gress received the resignation of Conway, and referred it to
the board of war, of which Mifflin at that time was the head.
On the twenty-seventh, they filled the places in that board,
and appointed Gates its president. On the same day, Lovell
wrote to Gates : " We want you in different places ; we
want you most near Germantown. Good God, what a situ-
ation we are in ! how different from what might have been
justly expected ! " and he represented Washington as a
general who collected astonishing numbers of men to wear
out stockings, shoes, and breeches, and "Fabiused affairs
into a very disagreeable posture." On the twenty -eighth,
congress by a unanimous resolution declared themselves in
favor of carrying on a winter's campaign with vigor and
success, and sent three of their members with Washington's
concurrence to direct every measure which circumstances
might require. On the same day, Mifflin, explaining to

40 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVII.

Gates how Conway had braved the commander in chief,
volunteered his own opinion that the extract from Con*
way's letter was a " collection of just sentiments." Gates,
on receiving the letter, wrote to Conway : " You acted with
all the dignity of a virtuous soldier." He wished " so very
valuable and polite an officer might remain in the service."
To congress he complained of the betrayal of his corre-
spondence to Washington, with whom he came to an open
rapture. On the thirteenth of December, congress, follow-
ing Mifflin's report, appointed Conway inspector-general,
promoted him to be a major-general, made his office inde-
pendent of the commander in chief, and referred him to the
board of war for the regulations which he was to introduce.
Conway, made more ambitious and more dangerous by his
promotion, labored hard to take from Washington the affec-
tion and confidence of Lafayette, and even strove to induce
the heroic young man to abandon the country. Some of
those engaged in the cabal, " which had its supporters ex-
clusively in the north,*' wished to provoke Washington to
the resignation which he seemed to have threatened.
1777. This happened just as Washington by his skill at

Dec* Whitemarsh had closed the campaign with honor.
The condition of his troops required repose. The problem
which he must solve was to keep together through the cold
winter an army without tents, and to confine the British
to the environs of Philadelphia. There was no town which
would serve the purpose. Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill,
but twenty-one miles from Philadelphia, admitted of de-
fence against the artillery of those days, and had more than
one route convenient for escape into the interior. The
ground lay between two ridges of hills, and was covered by
a thick forest. From his life in the woods, Washington
could see in the trees a town of log cabins, built in regular
streets, and affording shelter enough to save the army from
dispersion.

As his men moved towards the spot selected for their
winter resting-place, they had not clothes to cover their
nakedness, nor blankets to lie on, nor tents to sleep under.
For the want of shoes their marches through frost and

1777. WINTER-QUARTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. 41

snow might be traced by the blood from their feet, and
they were almost as often without provisions as with them.
On the nineteenth they arrived at Valley Forge, within a
day's march of Howe's army, with no covering till they
could build houses for themselves. The order for their
erection was received by officers and men as impossible of
execution ; and they were still more astonished at the ease
with which, as the work of their Christmas holidays, they
changed the forest into huts thatched with boughs in the
order of a regular encampment. Washington's unsleeping
vigilance and thorough system for receiving intelligence
secured them against surprise ; love of country and attach-
ment to their general sustained them under their unparal-
leled hardships ; with any other leader, the army would
have dissolved and vanished. He was followed to Valley
Forge by letters from congress transmitting the remon-
strance of the council and assembly of Pennsylvania against
his going into winter-quarters. To this senseless re-
proof, Washington on the twenty-third, after laying j-^;
deserved blame upon Mifflin for neglect of duty as
quartermaster-general, replied: "For the want of a two
days' supply of provisions, an opportunity scarcely ever
offered of taking an advantage of the enemy that has not
been either totally obstructed or greatly impeded. Men are
confined to hospitals, or in farmers' houses for want of shoes.
We have this day no less than two thousand eight hundred
and ninety-eight men in camp unfit for duty, because they are
barefoot and otherwise naked. Our whole strength in con-
tinental troops amounts to no more than eight thousand two
hundred in camp fit for duty. Since the fourth instant, our
numbers fit for duty from hardships and exposures have
decreased nearly two thousand men. Numbers still are
obliged to sit all night by fires. Gentlemen reprobate
the going into winter-quarters as much as if they thought
the soldiers were made of stocks or stones. I can assure
those gentlemen that it is a much easier and less distressing
thing to draw remonstrances in a comfortable room by a
good fireside, than to occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep
under frost and snow without clothes or blankets. How-

4^ THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Csujp. XXVtt

ever, although they seem to have little feeling for the naked
and distressed soldiers, I feel superabundantly for them,
and from my soul I pity those miseries which it is neither
in my power to relieve or prevent."

While the shivering soldiers were shaping the logs for
their cabins, the clamor of the Pennsylvanians continued ;
and, the day after Christmas, Sullivan, who held with both
sides, gave his written advice to Washington to yield and
attack Howe in Philadelphia, " risking every consequence
in an action." The press was oalled into activity. On the
last day of the year, an anonymous writer in the " New Jer-
sey Gazette," at Trenton, supposed to be Benjamin Rush,
began a series of articles under the name of a French officer,
to set forth the unrivalled glory of Gates, who had con-
quered veterans with militia, pointing out plainly Washing-
ton's successor. But the more subtle members of the cabal
never intended the advancement of Gates ; the highest
place must have been given to the much talked of Lee, then
a prisoner with the English, to whom it would have been
his first care to deliver up his own friends and all America.
1778. The year 1778 opened gloomily at Valley Forge.

Jan. rpQ tke touting account of the condition of the army,
congress, which had not provided one magazine for winter,
made no response except a promise to the soldiers of one
month's extra pay, and a renewal of authority to take the
articles necessary for their comfortable subsistence. Wash-
ington was averse to the exercise of military power, not
only from reluctance to give distress, but to avoid increas-
ing the prevalent jealousy and suspicion. On the fifth of
January he renewed his remonstrances with respect and
firmness : " The letter from the committee of congress and
board of war does not mention the regulations adopted for
removing the difficulties and failures in the commissary line.
I trust they will be vigorous, or the army cannot exist. It
will never answer to procure supplies of clothing or provi-
sion by ooercive measures. The small seizures made of the
former a few days ago, when that or to dissolve was the
alternative, excited the greatest uneasiness even among our
warmest friends. Such procedures may give a momentary

1778. WINTER-QUARTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. 48

relief, bat, if repeated, will prove of the most pernicious
consequence. Besides spreading disaffection, jealousy, and
fear among the people, they never fail, even in the most
veteran troops under the most rigid and exact discipline,
to raise in the soldiery a disposition to plunder, difficult to
suppress, and not only ruinous to the inhabitants, but, in
many instances, to armies themselves. I regret the occasion
that compelled us to the measure the other day, and shall
consider it among the greatest of our misfortunes if we
should be under the necessity of practising it again." Still,
congress did no more than on the tenth and twelfth of Jan-
uary appoint Gates and Mifflin, with four or five others, to
repair to head-quarters and concert reforms.

While those who wished the general out of the way
urged him to some rash enterprise, or, to feel the public
pulse, sent abroad rumors that he was about to resign, Ben-
jamin Rush in a letter to Patrick Henry represented the
army of Washington as having no general at their head,
and went on to say : " A Gates, a Lee, or a Conway would
in a few weeks render them an irresistible body of men.
Some of the contents of this letter ought to be made public,
in order to awaken, enlighten, and alarm our coun-
try." This communication, to which Rush dared not j ™;
sign his name, Patrick Henry received with scorn,
and noticed only by sending it to Washington. An anony-
mous paper of the like stamp, transmitted to the president
of congress, took the same direction.

Meantime, the council and assembly of Pennsylvania
renewed to congress their wish that Philadelphia might be
recovered and the British driven away. Congress hailed
the letter as proof of a rising spirit, and directed the com-
mittee appointed to go to camp to consult on the desired
attack with the government of Pennsylvania and with Gen-
eral Washington.

Nor was this all. The board of war was ambitious of
the fame of great activity, and also wished to detach Lafay-
ette, the representative of France, from the general in
chief, by dazzling him with ideas of glory, and a brilliant
command that might be dear to him as a Frenchman. In

44 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Ciu*. XXVII.

concert with Conway, but without consulting Washington,
they induced congress to sanction a winter expedition
against Canada, under Lafayette, who was not yet twenty-
one years old, with Conway for his second in command, and
with Stark. At a banquet given in his honor by Gates at
Yorktown, he braved the intriguers, and made them all, crim-
soning with blushes, drink his toast to the health of their
general. Assured by Gates that he would have a force of
three thousand men, and that Stark would have already
destroyed the shipping at St. John's, Lafayette, who in his
youth and inexperience could not put aside the proffered
honor, repaired to Albany ; but not until he obtained from
congress Kalb as his second, and Washington as his direct
superior. There the three major-generals of the expedition
met, and were attended or followed by twenty French
officers. Stark wrote for orders. The available force for
the conquest, counting a regiment which Gates detached
from the army of Washington, did not exceed a thousand.
For these there was no store of provision, nor clothing
suited to the climate of Canada, nor means of transportation.
Two years' service in the northern department cannot leave
to Gates the plea of ignorance ; his plan showed his
Jan. utter administrative incapacity; it accidentally re-
lieved the country of Conway, who, writing petu-
lantly to congress, found his resignation, which he had
meant only as a complaint, irrevocably accepted. Lafayette
and Kalb were recalled.

Slights and selfish cabals could wound the sensibility, but
not affect the conduct of Washington. The strokes of ill-
fortune in his campaigns he had met with equanimity and
fortitude ; but he sought the esteem of his fellow-men as
his only reward, and now unjust censure gave him the most
exquisite pain. More was expected from him than was
possible to be performed. Moreover, his detractors took
an unfair advantage; for he was obliged to conceal the
weakness of his army from public view, and thereby submit
to calumny. To William Gordon, who was seeking mate-
rials for a history of the war, he wrote freely : " Neither
interested nor ambitious views led me into the service. I

1778. WINTERr-QUABTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. 45

did not solicit the command, but accepted it after much
entreaty, with all that diffidence which a conscious want of
ability and experience equal to the discharge of so impor-
tant a trust must naturally excite in a mind not quite de-
void of thought ; and, after I did engage, pursued the great
line of my duty and the object in view, as far as my judg-
ment could direct, as pointedly as the needle to the pole."
" No person ever heard me drop an expression that had a
tendency to resignation. The same principles that led me
to embark in the opposition to the arbitrary claims of Great
Britain operate with additional force at this day ; nor is it
my desire to withdraw my services, while they are
considered of importance to the present contest. 177a
There is not an officer in the service of the United
States that would return to the sweets of domestic life with
more heartfelt joy than I should, but I mean not to shrink
in the cause."

In his remonstrances with congress he wrote with plain-
ness, but with moderation. His calm dignity alike irritated
and overawed his adversaries ; and nothing could shake the
confidence of the people, or divide the affections of any part
of the army, or permanently distract the majority of con-
gress. Those who had been most ready to cavil at him
soon wished their rash words benevolently interpreted or
forgotten. Gates denied the charge of being in a league
to supersede Washington as a wicked, false, diabolical cal-
umny of incendiaries, and would not believe that any such
plot existed ; Mifflin exonerated himself in more equivocal
language; and both retired from the committee that was
to repair to head-quarters. The French minister loudly
expressed to the officers from his country his disapprobation
of their taking part in any cabal whatever. In the following
July, Conway, thinking himself mortally wounded in a duel,
wrote to Washington: "My career will soon be over; there-
fore justice and truth prompt me to declare my last senti-
ments. You are in my eyes the great and good man. May
you long enjoy the love, veneration, and esteem of these
states, whose liberties you have asserted by your virtues.'*
The committee, which towards the end of January was finally

46 THB AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVIL

sent to consult with Washington, was composed exclusively
of members of congress ; and the majority of them, espe-
cially Charles Carroll of Maryland, were his friends. But,
in the procrastination of active measures of relief, the de-
partments of the quartermaster and commissary remained
like clocks with so many checks that they cannot go. Even
so late as the eleventh of February, Dana, one of the com-
mittee, reported that men died for the want of straw or
materials to raise them from the cold, wet earth. In
numerous and crowded hospitals, the sick could not be
properly cared for. Inoculation was delayed for want of
straw and other necessaries. Almost every species of camp-
transportation was performed by men, who, without a mur-
mur, yoked themselves to little carriages of their own
making, or loaded their fuel and provisions on their backs.
Sometimes fuel was wanting, when for want of shoes and
stockings they could not walk through the snow to cut it
in the neighboring woods. Some brigades had been four
days without meat. For days together the army was with-
out bread. Desertions were frequent. There was danger
that the troops would perish from famine or disperse in
search of food.
All this time the British soldiers in Philadelphia were

well provided for, the officers quartered upon the
1778. inhabitants. The days were spent in pastime, the

nights in entertainments. By a proportionate tax on
the pay and allowances of each officer, a house was opened
for daily resort and for weekly balls, with a gaming-table
which had assiduous votaries, and a room devoted to the
game of chess. Thrice a week, plays were enacted by ama-
teur performers. The curtain painted by Andr6 was greatly
admired. The officers, among whom all ranks of the British
aristocracy were represented, lived in open licentiousness.
At a grand review, a beautiful English girl, mistress of a
colonel, and dressed in the colors of his regiment, drove
down the line in her open carriage with great ostentation.
The pursuit of pleasure was so eager, and the self-indulgent
Howe had been so frequently baffled, that, to the wonder
of all observers, the disquiet of an attack in winter was not

177a WINTER-QUARTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. 47

added to the trials of the army at Valley Forge, even though
at one time it was reduced to fire thousand men.

During the winter, the members present in congress were
sometimes only nine, rarely seventeen ; of former members,
Franklin, Washington, Jefferson, John Rutledge, Jay, and
others, were employed elsewhere, and John Adams had
recently been elected to succeed Deane as commissioner in
France. The want of power explains and excuses the con-
tinuous inefficiency of congress. It proposed in January to
borrow ten millions of dollars, but it had no credit. So in
January, February, and March, two millions of paper money
were ordered to be issued, and in April six and a half mil-
lions more. These emissions were rapidly followed by corre-
sponding depreciations. When the currency lost its value,
congress would have had the army serve on from disinter-
ested patriotism ; but Washington pointed out the quality
in human nature which does not permit practical affairs
to be conducted through a succession of years by a
great variety of persons without regard to just claims ins.
and equitable interests ; and, after months of resist-
ance, officers who should serve to the end of the war were
promised half-pay for seven years, privates a sum of eighty
dollars.

The opportunity of keeping up an army by voluntary
enlistments having been thrown away by the jealousy of
congress, Washington, in February, in a particular manner
laid before the congressional committee of arrangement,
then with the army at Valley Forge, a plan of an annual
draft as the surest and most certain, if not the only, means
left for conducting the war " on a proper and respectable
ground." Towards the end of the month, congress partially
adopted the advice, but changed its character to that of a
transient expedient. It directed the continental battalions
of all the states, except South Carolina and Georgia, to be
completed by drafts from their militia, but limited the term
of service to nine months. The execution of the measure
was unequal, for it depended on the good-will of the several
states ; but the scattered villages paraded their militia for
the draft with sufficient regularity to save the army from

48 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVIL

dissolution. Varnum, a brigadier of Rhode Island, proposed
the emancipation of slaves in that state, on condition of
their enlisting in the army for the war. The scheme, ap-
proved by Washington, and by him referred to Cooke, the
governor of the state, was accepted. Every able-bodied
slave in Rhdde Island received by law liberty to enlist in
the army for the war. On passing muster, he became free
and entitled to all the wages and encouragements given by
congress to any soldier. The state made some compensa-
tion to their masters.

The powerlessness of congress admitted no effec-
tive supervision over officers of their own appoint-
ment. Unable to force a defaulting agent to a settle-
ment, in February they asked the legislatures of the several
states to enact laws for the recovery of debts due to the
United States ; and they invited the supreme executive
of every state to watch the behavior of all civil and Mili-
tary officers of the United States in the execution of their
offices.

The regulation of the staff of the army was shaped by
Joseph Reed, now a member of congress, and of the com
mittee sent by that body to the camp. Notwithstanding
the distresses of the country, the system was founded on the
maxim of large emoluments, especially for the head of the
quartermaster's department ; and for that head Greene was
selected, with two family connections of Reed as his as-
sistants. The former was to be with the army ; the other
two, of whom one was superfluous, near congress ; and, by
an agreement among themselves, the emoluments in the
shape of commissions were to be divided equally between
the three. All subordinate appointments were to be made
by the quartermaster-general himself, and their emoluments
were likewise to be derived from commissions. The system
was arranged and carried through congress independently
of Washington, who, though repeatedly solicited, would
never, to the last, sanction it by his approval. Greene was
importunate in his demands to retain the command of a di-
vision ; but on that point Washington was inflexible. After
more than another month, the system of centralization was

1778. WINTER-QUARTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. 49

extended to the commissary department. To increase his
profits, Greene did not scruple to enter into a most secret
partnership with a member of the commissary department,
having a third partner as the only one known to the public.
When he was censured for his desire of lucre from his
office as quartermaster-general, he offered the excuse that, as
he made a sacrifice of his command of a division and so of
his chances of glory in the field, he had a right to look for
compensation in larger emoluments.

The place of inspector-general fell to Baron Steu- ms.
ben, a Prussian officer, then forty-seven years of age,
who had served during the seven years' war, and now
adopted America for his country. The high rank which he
assumed without right but without question, the good opinion
of Vergennes and Saint-Germain, the recommendation of
Franklin, the halo of having served under the great Fred-
eric, and his real merit, secured for him the place of a major*
general. On the twenty-third of February, he was welcomed
to Valley Forge. Introducing in part the Prussian system
of tactics, he wrought a thorough reform of the army in the
use of the musket and in manoeuvre.

Tet there remained a deeply seated conflict of opinion
between congress and the commander in chief on questions
of principle and policy. Washington would from the first
have had men enlisted for the war ; congress, from jealousy
of standing armies, had insisted upon short enlistments.
Washington was anxious to exchange prisoners; congress
bore in mind that each British prisoner would resume his
place in the army, while the American prisoner, from the
system of short enlistments, would return home. Washing*
ton wished the exchange to be conducted on one uniform
rule; congress, repeatedly checking him by sudden inter-
ference, required a respect to the law of treason of each
separate state. Washington would have one continental
army; congress, an army of thirteen sovereignties. Con-
gress was satisfied with the amount of its power as a
helpless committee; Washington wished a government of
organized vigor. Congress guarded separate independence ;
the patriotism of Washington took a wider range, and in
vol. ti. 4

50 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVEL

return the concentrated public affections, radiating from
every part of the United States, met in him. All this
merit and this popularity, and the undivided attachment of
the army, quickened the jealousy of congress, and made
them more sensible of their own relative weakness. They
could not have defended themselves against the mutiny of
a single regiment. They felt that their perfect control over
the general sprung from his own nature, and that nature
could not be fully judged of before the end. Nor was it
then known that the safety of the country against military
usurpation lay in the character and circumstances of the
American people, which had life in all its parts, and there-
fore a common life that was indestructible.

1778 To allay *e Jealou8V which ingress entertained

and some of its members labored to establish, Wash-
ington, on the twenty-first of April, wrote to one of its dele-
gates : " Under proper limitations it is certainly true that
standing armies are dangerous to a state. The prejudices of
other countries have only gone to them in time of peace, and
from their being hirelings. It is our policy to be prejudiced
against them in time of war, though they are citizens, hav-
ing all the ties and interests of citizens, and in most cases
property totally unconnected with the military line. The
jealousy, impolitic in the extreme, can answer not a single
good purpose. It is unjust, because no order of men in
the thirteen states has paid a more sacred regard to the
proceedings of congress than the army ; for, without arro-
gance or the smallest deviation from truth, it may be said
that no history now extant can furnish an instance of an
army's Buffering such uncommon hardships as ours has
done, and bearing them with the same patience and forti-
tude. Their submitting without a murmur is a proof of
patience and obedience which in my opinion can scarce be
paralleled. There may have been some remonstrances or
applications to congress in the style of complaint from the
army, and slaves indeed should we be, if this privilege were
denied; but these will not authorize nor even excuse a
jealousy that they are therefore aiming at unreasonable
powers, or making strides subversive of civil authority.

1778. WINTER-QUARTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. 51

There should be none of these distinctions* We should all,
congress and army, be considered as one people, embarked
in one cause, in one interest, acting on the same principle
and to the same end." In framing an oath of fidelity for
all civil and military officers, congress, much as it avoided
the expression, made them swear that the " people of the
United States" owed no allegiance to the king of Great
Britain. The soldiers serving under one common flag, to
establish one common independence, and, though in want
of food, of shoes, of clothes, of straw for bedding, of regular
pay, of pay in a currency of fixed value, never suffer-
ing their just discontent to get the better of their ma,
patriotism, still more clearly foreshadowed a great
nationality. The unity of the country was formally pro-
claimed in its relations to the rest of the world.

The troops of Burgoyne remained in the environs of
Boston. In violation of the word of honor of the officers,
much -public property had been carried off by them from
Saratoga. As if preparing an excuse for a total disengage-
ment from his obligations, Burgoyne, complaining without
reason of the quarters provided for his officers, deliberately
wrote and insisted that the United States had violated the
public faith, and refused to congress descriptive lists of
the non-commissioned officers and soldiers who were not
to serve in America during the war. On these grounds,
congress suspended the embarkation of the troops under
his command till it should receive notice of a ratification of
the convention by the court of Great Britain. Burgoyne
sailed for England on his parole.

To counteract the arts of the British emissaries among
the Indians on the borders of Virginia and the Carolinas,
Colonel Nathaniel Gist was commissioned to take into the
public service two hundred of the red men and fifty of the
white inhabitants of the neighboring counties. Care was
taken to preserve the friendship of the Oneidas.

The American militia of the sea were restlessly active.
In the night of the twenty-seventh of January, a privateer
took the fort of New Providence, made prize of a British
vessel of war of sixteen guns, which had gone in for repairs,

52 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVIL

and recaptured five American vessels. On the seventh of
March, Biddle, in the " Randolph," a United States frigate

of thirty-six guns on a cruise from Charleston, falling
ins. in with the " Yarmouth," a British ship of sixty-four

guns, hoisted the stars and stripes, fired a broadside,
and continued the engagement till his ship went down.

1777 THE UNITED STATES AND GEOBGE m. 58

CHAPTER XXVin.

THE UNITED STATES AND GEOBGE ta#

1777—1778.

The king of England succeeded but poorly in his nego-
tiations for subsidiary troops. The crazy prince of
Anhalt-Zerbst, who ruled over but three hundred im.
square miles with twenty thousand inhabitants, after
unceasing importunities, concluded a bargain for twelve hun-
dred and twenty-eight men, to be delivered at his own risk
at the place of embarkation. Death was the penalty for the
attempt to desert ; yet, as these regiments passed near the
frontier of Prussia, there was a loss of three hundred and
thirty-three in ten days, and the number finally delivered
was less than half of what was promised. When the men
of Anhalt-Zerbst arrived at their destination in Quebec,
Carleton the governor, having no orders to receive them,
showed his spite against Germain by not suffering them
to disembark till a messenger could go to England and
return.

To make good the loss of Hessians, the landgrave of
Hesse-Cassel impressed men wherever he could do so with
impunity. The heartless meanness of the Brunswick princes
would pass belief, if it was not officially authenticated.
These professed fathers of their people begged that the
wretched captives of Saratoga might not find their way
back to Brunswick, where they would disgust everybody
with the war, and spoil the traffic in soldiers by their com-
plaints, but be sent to the British West Indies, or anywhere
rather than to their own homes. The princes who first en-
gaged in the trade in soldiers were jealous of competitors,
and dropped hints that the states of Wttrtemberg, where

54 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVm.

Schiller ran the risk of being assistant-surgeon to a regiment
of mercenaries, would never suffer a contract by their duke
to be consummated ; that Protestant England ought not to
employ Catholic troops like those of the elector palatine.

Had officers or men sent over to America uttered com-
plaints, they would have been shot for mutiny ; Mirabeau,
then a fugitive in Holland, lifted up the voice of the civil-
ization of his day against the trade, and spoke to the
peoples of Germany and the soldiers themselves : " What
new madness is this ? Alas, miserable men, you burn down
not the camp of an enemy, but your own hopes ! Germans !
what brand do you suffer to be put upon your forehead ?
You war against a people who have never wronged you,
who fight for a righteous cause, and set you the noblest
pattern. They break their chains. Imitate their example.
Have you not the same claim to honor and right as your
princes? Yes, without doubt. Men stand higher than
princes. Of all rulers, conscience is the highest. You,
peoples that are cheated, humbled, and sold, fly to Amer-
ica, but there embrace your brothers. In the spacious
places of refuge which they open to suffering humanity,
learn to be free and happy, to apply social institutions to
the advantage of every member of society." Against thin
tocsin of revolution the landgrave of Hesse defended him-
self on principles of feudal law and legitimacy ; and Mira-
beau rejoined : " When power breaks the compact
JJJ£ which secured and limited its rights, then resistance
becomes a duty. To recover freedom, insurrection
becomes just. There is no crime like the crime against the
freedom of the peoples."

When on the twentieth of November the king of England
opened the session of parliament, only three systems were
proposed between which the choice lay. The king insisted
on a continuation of the war without regard to the waste
of life or treasure, till the former colonies should be reduced
to subordination. Chatham said : " France has insulted
you, and our ministers dare not interpose with dignity or
effect. My lords ! you cannot conquer America. In three
campaigns we have done nothing and suffered much. You

1777. THE UNITED STATES AND GEORGE HI. 55

may swell every expense, accumulate every assistance you
can buy or borrow, traffic and barter with every little piti-
ful German prince that sells and sends his subjects to the
shambles of a foreign prince : your efforts are for ever vain
and impotent, doubly so from this mercenary aid on which
you rely, for it irritates to an incurable resentment. If I
were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign
troop was landed in my country, I never would lay down
my arms; never, never, never." And he passed on to
condemn the alliance with "the horrible hell-hounds of
savage war." His advice, freed from his rhetoric, was to
conciliate America by a change of ministry, and to chastise
France. The third plan, which was that of the Rockingham
party, was expressed by the Duke of Richmond : " I would
sooner give up every claim to America than continue an
unjust and cruel civil war." A few days later, Lord Chat-
ham inveighed against a sermon which Markham, the arch-
bishop of York, had preached and published, reflecting on
the " ideas of savage liberty" in America, and denounced his
teachings as " the doctrines of Atterbury and Sacheverell."
Returning from the fatiguing debate of the second 1777.
of December on the state of the nation, Lord North Dec*
received the news of the total loss of Burgoyne's army. He
was so agitated that he could neither eat nor sleep, and the
next day at the levee his distress was visible to the foreign
ministers. Concession after defeat was humiliating; but
there must be prompt action, or France would interfere. In
a debate of the eleventh, the Duke of Richmond, from the
impossibility of conquest, argued for " a peace on the terms
of independence, and an alliance or federal union." Burke
in the commons was for an agreement with the Americans
at any rate. " The ministers know as little how to make
peace as war," said Fox ; and privately among his friends,
openly in the house of commons, he demanded a settlement
with the Americans on their own terms of independence.
Eliot, afterwards Lord Minto, and Gibbon, agreed in the
speculative opinion that, after the substance of power was
lost, the name of independence might be granted to the
Americans. On that basis the desire of peace was uni-

56 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVm

versal. It was the king who persuaded his minister to
forego the opportunity which never could recur, and against
his own conviction, without opening to America any hope
of pacification, to adjourn the parliament to the twentieth
of January. Those who were near Lord North in his old
age never heard him murmur at his having become blind ;
" but in the solitude of sleepless nights he would sometimes
fall into very low spirits, and deeply reproach himself for
having at the earnest desire of the king remained in admin-
istration after he thought that peace ought to have been
made with America."

1777 ^e account °* Burgoyne's surrender, which was

brought to France by a swift-sailing ship from Boston,
threw Turgot and all Paris into transports of joy. None
doubted the ability of the states to maintain their indepen-
dence. On the twelfth of December, their commissioners
had an interview with Vergennes. "Nothing," said he,
" has struck me so much as General Washington's attacking
and giving battle to General Howe's army. To bring troops
raised within the year to this, promises every thing. The
court of France, in the treaty which is to be entered into,
intend to take no advantage of your present situation. Once
made, it should be durable ; and therefore it should contain
no condition of which the Americans may afterwards repent,
but such only as will last as long as human institutions shall
endure, so that mutual amity may subsist for ever. Enter-
ing into a treaty will be an avowal of your independence.
Spain must be consulted, and Spain will not be satisfied
with an undetermined boundary on the west. Some of the
states are supposed to run to the South Sea, which might
interfere with her claim to California." It was answered
that the last treaty of peace adopted the Mississippi as a
boundary. " And what share do you intend to give us in
the fisheries?" said Vergennes ; for in the original draft of
a treaty the United States had proposed to take to them-
selves Cape Breton and the whole of the island of New-
foundland. Explanations were made by the American
commissioners that their later instructions removed all
chances of disagreement on that subject.

1778. THE UNITED STATES AND GEORGE m. 57

The return of the courier to Spain was not waited for.
On the seventeenth, Gerard, one of the secretaries of Ver-
gennes, informed Franklin and Deane, by the king's order,
that the king in council had determined not only to ac-
knowledge the United States, but to support their cause ;
and, perhaps exceeding his authority, he added, in case Eng-
land should declare war on France on account of this rec-
ognition, he would not insist that the Americans should
not make a separate peace, but only that they should main-
tain their independence. The American commissioners an-
swered : " We perceive and admire the king's magnanimity
and wisdom. He will find us faithful and firm allies. We
wish with his majesty that the amity between the two
nations may last for ever ; " and both parties agreed that
good .relations could continue between a monarchy and a
republic, between a Catholic monarchy and a Protestant
republic. The French king promised in January three mil-
lions of livres ; as much more, it was said, would be remitted
by Spain from Havana. The vessels laden with supplies
for the United States should be convoyed by a king's ship
out of the channel. But the Spanish government, which
wished to avoid a rupture with England, took alarm, and
receded from its intention.

In January, 1778, Lord Amherst, as military ad- 1773.
viser, gave the opinion that nothing less than an Jan<
additional army of forty thousand men would be sufficient
to carry on offensive war in North America ; but the king
would not suffer Lord North to flinch, writing sometimes
chidingly that there could not be " a man either bold or
mad enough to presume to treat for the mother country on
a basis of independence ; " sometimes appealing to the min-
ister's "personal affection for him and sense of honor;"
and, in the event of a war with France, suggesting that " it
might be wise to draw the troops from the revolted prov-
inces, and to make war on the French and Spanish islands."
To Lord Chatham might be offered any thing but substan-
tial power, for " his name, which was always his greatest
merit, would hurt Lord Rockingham's party." And at
court the king lavished civilities on George Grenville and
others who were connected with Lord Chatham.

58 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXVIIL

Correct reports from Versailles reached Leopold of Tus-
cany and Joseph of Austria. " The women," so predicted
the latter to his brother before the end of January, " the
women and the enthusiasm of the moment, making the min-
isters afraid of losing their places, will determine them
for making war on the English ; and they could commit
no greater folly." While "the two greatest countries in
Europe were fairly running a race for the favor of the
Americans, the question of a French alliance with them
was discussed by Vergennes with the Marquis D'Ossun as
the best adviser with regard to Spain, and the plan of action
was digested by them. Then these two met the king at the
apartment of Maurepas, who was ill with the gout; and
there the whole subject was debated and finally settled.
Maurepas, at heart opposed to the war, loved his ease, and
loved popularity too well to escape the sway of external
opinion ; and Louis XVI. sacrificed his own inclination and
his own feeling of justice to policy of state and the
iSb.' opinion of his advisers. So, on the sixth of Feb-
ruary, a treaty of amity and commerce, and also an
eventual defensive treaty of alliance, was concluded between
the king of France and the United States. They were
founded on principles of equality and reciprocity, and for
the most part were in conformity to the proposals of con-
gress. In commerce each party was to be placed on the
footing of the most favored nation. The king of France
promised his good offices with the princes and powers of
Barbary. As to the fisheries, each party reserved to itself
the exclusive possession of its own. Accepting the French
interpretation of the treaties of Utrecht and of Paris, the
United States acknowledged the right of French subjects
to fish on the banks of Newfoundland, and their exclusive
right to half the coast of that island for drying-places. On
the question of ownership in the event of the conquest of
Newfoundland, the treaty was silent. The American pro-
posal, that free ships give freedom to goods and to persons
except to soldiers in actual service of an enemy, was adopted.
Careful lists were made out of contraband merchandises,
and of those not contraband. The absolute and unlimited

1778. THE UNITED STATES AND GEORGE III. 59

independence of the United States was described as the
essential end of the defensive alliance ; and the two parties
mutually engaged not to lay down their arms until it should
be assured by the treaties terminating the war. Moreover,
the United States guaranteed to France the posses-
sions then held by France in America, as well as jj*
those which it might aoquire by a future treaty of
peace ; and, in like manner, the king of France guaranteed
to the United States their present possessions, and their ac-
quisitions during the war from the dominions of Great Brit-
ain in North America. A separate and secret act reserved to
the king of Spain the power of acceding to the treaties.

Within forty-two hours of the signature of these treaties
of commerce and alliance, the ministry received the news
by a special messenger from their spy in Paris ; but it was
not divulged ; the floating rumors which crossed the chan-
nel could not arrest the senseless bickerings of parties, or
the favorite amusement of badgering the friends of Rock-
ingham about the declaratory act. On the eleventh, Hills-
borough called out to the Duke of Richmond : " In what
manner does he mean that England shall crouch to the
vipers and rebels in America ? By giving up the sacred
right of taxation ? or by yielding to America with respect
to her absurd pretensions about her charters ? or by declar-
ing the thirteen provinces independent?" Richmond an-
swered : "I never liked the declaratory act ; I voted for it
with regret to obtain the repeal of the stamp act ; I wish
we could have done without it ; I looked upon it as a piece
of waste paper that no minister would ever have the mad-
ness to revive ; I will, with pleasure, be the first to repeal
it, or to give it up." In this mood Richmond sought har-
mony with Chatham. On the same day, in the house of
commons, young George Grenville attacked the administra-
tion in the harshest terms, and pointed out Lord Chatham
as the proper person to treat with America. The very sin-
cere and glowing words of eulogy spoken by the son of the
author of the stamp-tax were pleasing to Lord Chatham in
these his last days.

While the British government stumbled in the dark,

60 THE AMERICAN EEVOLUTION. Chap. XXVIII

Franklin placed the public opinion of philosophical France
conspicuously on the side of America. No man of that
century so imbodied the idea of toleration as Voltaire ; for
fame he was unequalled among living men of letters ; for
great age he was venerable ; he, more than Louis XVI.,
more than the cabinet of the king, represented France of
that day; and now he was come up to Paris, bent with
years, to receive before his death the homage of its people.
Wide indeed was the difference between him and America.
" I have done more in my day than Luther or Calvin," was
his boast ; and America, which was reverently Protestant,
and through Protestantism established not the toleration,
but the equality of all churches and opinions, did not
count him among her teachers. He had given out that, if
there was not a God, it would be necessary to invent him ;
while America held that any god of man's invention is an
idol ; that God must be worshipped in truth as well as in
spirit. But for the moment America and Voltaire were on
one side ; and, before he had been a week in Paris, Frank-
lin claimed leave to wait upon him. We have Voltaire's
account of the interview. Franklin bade his grandson de-
mand the benediction of the more than octogenarian, and
in the presence of twenty persons he gave it in these
i£JJ; words: "God aot> Libebty!" Everywhere Vol-
taire appeared as the friend of America. Being in
company where the young wife of Lafayette was present, he
asked that she might be brought to him, kissed her hand,
and spoke to her the praises of her husband and of the
cause which he served.

Almost simultaneously, Lord North, on the seventeenth
of February, made known to the house of commons the
extent of his conciliatory propositions. Of the two bills, one
declared the intention of the parliament of Great Britain
not to exercise the right of imposing taxes within the colo-
nies of North America, the other authorized commissioners
to be sent to the United States. In a speech of two hours,
Lord North avowed that he had never had a policy of his
own. He had never proposed any tax on America ; he had
found the tea-tax imposed, and, while he declined to repeal

1778. THE UNITED STATES AND GEORGE m. 61

it, he never devised means to enforce it ; the commissioners
would have power to treat with congress, with provincial
assemblies, or with Washington ; to order a truce ; to sus-
pend all laws ; to grant pardons and rewards ; to restore
the form of constitution as it stood before the troubles.
"A dull, melancholy silence for some time succeeded to
the speech. It had been heard with profound attention,
but without a single mark of approbation to any part from
any party or man in the house. Astonishment, dejection,
and fear overclouded the assembly.'9 After the house of
commons had given leave to bring in the bills, Hartley, act-
ing on an understanding with Lord North, enclosed copies
of them to Franklin. Franklin, with the knowledge of
Vergennes, answered : " If peace, by a treaty with America,
upon eqnal terms, were really desired, your commissioners
need not go there for it. Seriously, if wise and honest
men, such as Sir George Saville, the bishop of St. Asaph,
and yourself, were to come over here immediately with
powers to treat, you might not only obtain peace with
America, but prevent a war with France."

The conciliatory bills, which with slight modifica- ms.
tions became statutes by nearly unanimous consent, March-
confirmed the ministry in power. The king of France
deemed it required by his dignity to make a formal declara-
tion to Great Britain of his treaties with the United States.
British ships-of-war had captured many French ships, but
the ministry had neither communicated the instructions
under which their officers acted, nor given heed to the
reclamations of the French government. This dictated the
form of the rescript which on the thirteenth of March was
left by the French ambassador with the British secretary
of state. It announced that " the United States of North
America are in full possession of independence, which they
had declared on the fourth of July, 1776 ; that, to consoli-
date the connection between the two nations, their respec-
tive plenipotentiaries had signed a treaty of friendship and
commerce, but without any exclusive advantages in favor
of the French nation." Aind it added : " The king is de-
termined to protect the lawful commerce of his subjects,

62 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chjlp. XXVUL

and for that purpose has taken measures in concert with
the United States of North America."

This declaration was held to establish a state of war be-
tween England and France. The British ambassador was
immediately recalled from Paris, and the recall notified to
the French ambassador. Lord North became despondent,
and professed a desire to make way for Lord Chatham.
The king on the fifteenth answered : " I am willing to ac-
cept through you any person that will come avowedly to
the support of your administration. On a clear explanation
that Lord Chatham is to step forth to support you, I will
receive him with open arms. Having said this, I will only
add, to put before your eyes my most inmost thoughts, that
no advantage to my country nor personal danger to myself
can make me address myself to Lord Chatham, or to any
other branch of opposition. Honestly, I would rather lose
the crown I now wear than bear the ignominy of possessing
it under their shackles. You have now full power to act,
but I don't expect Lord Chatham and his crew will come
to your assistance." Fox would have consented to a coali-
tion, had it been agreeable to his friends. Shelburne, on
being consulted, answered instantly : " Lord Chatham must
be the dictator. I know that Lord Chatham thinks any
change insufficient which does not comprehend a great law
arrangement and annihilate every party in the kingdom."
When this reply was reported to the king, he broke out
with violence: "Lord Chatham, that perfidious man, as
dictator! I solemnly declare that nothing shall bring me
to treat personally with Lord Chatham. Experience makes
me resolve to run any personal risk rather than submit to
a set of men who certainly would make me a slave for the
remainder of my days."

1778. After a night's rest, the king wrote with still more
M*rch# energy : " My dear lord, no consideration in life shall
make me stoop to opposition. Whilst any ten men in the
kingdom will stand by me, I will not give myself up into
bondage. My dear lord, I will rather risk my crown than
do what I think personally disgraceful. If the nation will
not stand by me, they shall have another king ; for I never

j

1778. THE UNITED STATES AND GEOEGE m. 63

will pat my hand to what will make me miserable to the
last day of my life."

On the seventeenth the king communicated to par- 1778.
liament the rescript of the French ambassador. In Mar* 17#
the commons, Conway said : " What have we to do but to
take np the idea that Franklin has thrown out with fairness
and manliness?" Among the lords, Rockingham advised
to break the alliance between France and the United States
by acknowledging American independence. Richmond still
hoped to avoid a war. Lord Shelburae dwelt on the great-
ness of the affront offered by France, and the impossibility
of not resenting it. Yet Shelburne would not listen to an
overture in private from the ministers. "Without Lord
Chatham," he said, " any new arrangement would be ineffi-
cient ; with Lord Chatham, nothing could be done but by
an entire new cabinet and a change in the chief departments
of the law." On the report of this language, the king wrote
his last word to Lord North : " Rather than be shackled
by these desperate men, I will see any form of government
introduced into this island, and lose my crown rather than
wear it as a disgrace."

64 THE AMEEICAN REVOLUTION. Chjlp. Tnrnr

CHAPTER XXIX.

THE UNITED STATES AND FRANCE.

1778.

The twentieth of March was the day appointed for the
presentation of the American commissioners to the
m ™h. king of France in the palace built by Louis XIV.
at Versailles. The world thought only of Franklin ;
but he was accompanied by his two colleagues and by the
unreceived ministers to Prussia and Tuscany. These four
glittered in lace and powder ; the patriarch was dressed in
the plain gala coat of Manchester velvet which he had used
at the levee of George III., — the same which, according
to the custom of that age, he had worn, as it proved for the
last time in England, when as agent of Massachusetts he
had appeared before the privy council, — with white stock-
ings, as was the use in England, spectacles on his nose, a
round white hat under his arm, and his thin gray hair in
its natural state. The crowd through which they passed
received them with long-continued applause. The king,
without any unusual courtesy, said to them : " I wish con-
gress to be assured of my friendship." After the ceremony,
they paid a visit to the young wife of Lafayette, and dined
with the secretary for foreign affairs. Two days later, they
were introduced to the still youthful Marie Antoinette, who
yielded willingly to generous impulses in behalf of repub-
licans, and by her sympathy made the cause of America a
fashion at the French court. The king felt all the while
as if he were wronging the cause of monarchy by his ac-
knowledgment of rebels, and engaged in the American
revolution against his own will, in obedience to the advice
of Maurepas and the opinion of some members of his cabinet

1778. THE UNITED STATES AND FRANCE. 65

on hig duty to France. Personally he was irritated, and

did not disguise his vexation. The praises lavished

on Franklin by those around the queen fretted him March.

to peevishness, and he mocked what seemed to him

the pretentious enthusiasm of the Countess Diana de Polig-

nac by the coarsest jest.

The pique of the king was not due to any defect in
Franklin. He was a man of the soundest understanding,
never disturbed by recollections or fears, with none of the
capricious anxieties of diseased minds or the susceptibili-
ties of disturbed self-love. Free from the illusions of poetic
natures, he loved truth for its own sake, and looked upon
things just as they were. As a consequence, he had no
eloquence but that of clearness. He computed that the.
inheritor of a noble title in the ninth generation represents
at most but the five hundred and twelfth part of the an-
cestor ; nor was he awed by a crosier or dazzled by a crown.
He knew the moral world to be subjected to laws like the
natural world; in conducting affairs, he remembered the
necessary relation of cause to effect, aiming only at what
was possible ; and with a tranquil mind he signed the treaty
with France, just as with calm observation he had contem-
plated the dangers of his country. In regard to money
he was frugal, that he might be independent, and that he
might be generous. He owed good health to his exemplary
temperance. Habitually gay, employment was his resource
against weariness and sorrow, and contentment came from
his superiority to ambition, interest, or vanity. There was
about him more of moral greatness than appeared on the
surface ; and, while he made no boast of unselfish benevo-
lence, there never lived a man who would have more surely
met martyrdom in the course of duty.

The official conduct of Franklin and his intercourse with
persons of highest rank were marked by the most delicate
propriety as well as by perfect self-respect. His charm was
simplicity, which gave grace to his style and ease to his
manners. No life-long courtier could have been more free
from vulgarity ; no diplomatist more true to his position as
minister of a republic ; no laborer more consistent with his

VOL. vi. 5

66 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIX.

former life as a working-man ; and thus he won respect and
love from all. When a celebrated cause was to be heard
before the parliament of Paris, the throng which filled the
house and its approaches opened a way on his appearance,
and he passed to the seat reserved for him amidst the
acclamations of the people. At the opera, at the theatres,
similar honors were paid him. It is John Adams who said :
" Not Leibnitz or Newton, not Frederic or Voltaire, had a
more universal reputation ; and his character was more
beloved and esteemed than that of them all." Through-
out Europe, there was scarcely a citizen or a peasant of any
culture who was not familiar with his name, and who did
not consider him as a friend to all men. At the academy,
D'Alembert addressed him as the man who had wrenched
the thunderbolt from the cloud, the sceptre from tyrants ;
and both these ideas were of a nature to pass easily into the
common mind. From the part which he had taken in the
emancipation of America, imagination transfigured him as
the man who had separated the colonies from Great Britain,
had framed their best constitutions of government, and by
counsel and example would show how to abolish all political
evil throughout the world. Malesherbes spoke of the excel-
lence of the institutions that permitted a printer, the son of
a tallow-chandler, to act a great part in public affairs ; and,
if Malesherbes reasoned so, how much more the workmen
of Paris and the people. Thus Franklin was the venerable
impersonation of democracy, yet so calmly decorous, so free
from a disposition to quarrel with the convictions of others,
that, while he was the delight of free-thinking philosophers,
he escaped the hatred of the clergy, and his presence excited
no jealousy in the old nobility, though sometimes a woman
of rank might find fault with his hands and skin, which toil
had embrowned. Yet he understood the movement of the
French of his day. He remarked to those in Paris who
learned of him the secret of statesmanship : " He who shall

introduce into public affairs the principles of primi-
MarSi. t*ve Christianity will change the face of the world ; "

and we know from Condorcet that while in France
he said in a public company : " You perceive liberty estab-

177a THE UNITED STATES AND FRANCE. 67

lish herself and flourish almost under your eyes ; I dare to
predict that hy and hy you will be anxious to taste her bless-
ings." In this way he conciliated the most opposite natures,
yet not for himself. Whatever favor he met in society, what-
ever honor he received from the academy, whatever author-
ity he gained as a man of science, whatever distinction came
to him through the good-will of the people, whatever fame
he acquired throughout Europe, he turned all to account for
the good of his country. Surrounded by colleagues, some
of whom were jealous of his superiority, and for no service
whatever were greedy of the public money, he threw their
angry demands into the fire. Arthur Lee intrigued to sup-
plant him with persevering malignity ; the weak and incom-
petent Izard brought against him charges which bear the
strangeness of frenzy ; but he met their hostility by patient
indifference. Never detracting from the merit of any one,
he did not disdain glory, and he knew how to pardon envy.
Great as were the injuries which he received in England,
he used towards that power undeviating frankness and fair-
ness, and never from resentment lost an opportunity of
promoting peace.

In England, Rockingham, Richmond, Burke, Fox, Con-
way, respected Franklin, and desired to meet his offers.
So, too, did Lord North, though he had not courage to be
true to his convictions. On the other side stood foremost
and firmest the king, and Chatham arrayed himself against
American independence. Richmond, as a friend to
liberty, made frank advances to Chatham, sending ^TJJ;
him the draft of an address which he .was to move in
the house of lords, and entreating of him reunion, mutual
confidence, and support. Chatham rejected his overture,
and avowed the purpose of opposing his motion.
Accordingly, on Tuesday the seventh of April, April 7.
against earnest requests, Lord Chatham, wrapped up
in flannel to the knees, pale and wasted away, his eyes still
retaining their fire, came into the house of lords, leaning
upon his son William Pitt and his son-in-law Lord Mahon.
The peers stood up out of respect as he hobbled to his
bench. The Duke of Richmond proposed and spoke elab-

68 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Ciiap. XXIX

orately in favor of an address to the king, which in sub-
stance recommended the recognition of the independent
sovereignty of the thirteen revolted provinces and a change
of administration. Chatham, who alone of British states-
men had a right to invite America to resume her old con-
nection, rose from his seat with slowness and difficulty,
leaning on his crutches and supported under each arm by a
friend. His figure was marked with dignity, and he seemed
a being superior to those around him. Raising one hand
from his crutch, and casting his eyes towards heaven, he
said: "I thank God that, old and infirm, and with more
than one foot in the grave, I have been able to come this
day to stand up in the cause of my country, perhaps never
again to enter the walls of this house." Stillness prevailed.
His voice, at first low and feeble, rose and became harmo-
nious ; but his speech faltered, his sentences were broken,
his words no more than flashes through darkness, shreds of
sublime but unconnected eloquence. He recalled his proph-
ecies of the evils which were to follow such American
measures as had been adopted, adding at the end of each :
" and so it proved." He could not act with Lord Rocking-
ham and his friends, because they persisted in unretracted
error. With the loftiest pride he laughed to scorn the idea
of an invasion of England by Spain or by France or by both.
" If peace cannot be preserved with honor, why is not war
declared without hesitation? This kingdom has still re-
sources to maintain its just rights. Any state is better than
despair. My lords, I rejoice that the grave has not closed
upon me, that I am still alive to lift up my voice against
the dismemberment of this ancient and most noble mon-
archy." The Duke of Richmond answered with respect for
the name of Chatham, so dear to Englishmen ; but he reso-
lutely maintained the wisdom of avoiding a war in which
France and Spain would have America for their ally. Lord

Chatham would have replied; but, after two or three
ipSi. unsuccessful efforts to rise, he fell backwards, and

seemed in the agoi ies of death. Every one of the
peers pressed round him, aave only the Earl of Mansfield,
who sat unmoved. The senseless sufferer was borne from

1778. THE UNITED STATES AND FRANCE. 69

the house with tender solicitude to the bed from which he
never was to rise.

The king wrote at once to Lord North : " May not the
political exit of Lord Chatham incline you to continue at
the head of my affairs ? " The world was saddened by the
loss of so great a man. The elder Pitt never seemed more
thoroughly the spokesman of the commoners of England
than in these last months of his public career. He came
to parliament with an all-impassioned love of liberty, the
proudest sentiment of nationality, and his old disdain of
the house of Bourbon ; and the sorrows of his country were
as massive clouds about his brilliant pathway to the grave.
His eloquence in the early part of the session seemed to
some of his hearers to surpass all that they had ever heard of
the orators of Greece or Rome. In his last days, he was
still dreaming of an ideal England with a parliament of the
people ; and, with a haughtiness all the more marvellous
from his age, decrepitude, and insulation, he confronted
alone all branches of the nobility, who had lost a continent
in the vain hope of saving themselves a shilling in the
pound of the land-tax, and declared that there could be no
good government but under an administration that should
crush to atoms the political influence of all parties of the
aristocracy, and interpret law in favor of liberty.
He died like a hero struck down on the field of bat- ^pSi.
tie after the day was lost, still in heart, though not in
place, the great commoner. With logical consistency, the
house of lords refused to attend his funeral.

By this time the news of the French alliance with the
United States had spread through Europe. It was re-
ceived at St. Petersburg with lively satisfaction. In Eng-
land, the king, the ministry, parliament, the British nation,
all were unwilling to speak the word independence, wishing
at least to retain some preference by compact. France in
her treaty of commerce asked no favor, considering equality
as the only basis for a permanent friendship. Custom,
mutual confidence, sameness of language and of civil law,
the habit of using English manufactures, their cheapness
and merit, of themselves secured to England almost a

70 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIX.

monopoly of American commerce for a generation, and yet
she stickled for the formal concession of some special com*
mercial advantages. Deluded by the long usage of mo-
nopoly, she would not see that equality was all she needed.
Once more Hartley, as an informal agent from Lord North,
repaired to Paris to seek of Franklin an offer of some alli-
ance or at least of some favor in trade. Franklin answered

him as he answered other emissaries, that as to in-
Aprfi. dependence the Americans enjoyed it already ; its

acknowledgment would secure to Britain equal but
not superior advantages in commerce. Fox was satisfied
with this offer ; and on the tenth, when it was moved in the
house of commons to enlarge the powers of the commission-
ers, he held up to view that greater benefits to trade would
follow from friendly relations with independent America
than from nominal dependence.

Fox was in the right, but was not heeded. Had Chatham
lived and obtained power, the course of events would not
have been changed. Jackson, the former colleague of Frank-
lin and secretary of Grenville, refused to be of the commis-
sion for peace, because he saw that it was a delusion accorded
by the king to quiet Lord North, and to unite the nation
against the Americans. Long before the commissioners
arrived, the United States had taken its part. On the
twenty-first of April, "Washington gave his opinion to a
member of congress : " Nothing short of independence can
possibly do. A peace on any other terms would be a peace
of war. The injuries we have received from the British
nation were so unprovoked, and have been so great and so
many, that they can never be forgotten. Our fidelity as
a people, our character as men, are opposed to a coalition
with them as subjects." Upon the twenty-second, a day
of general public fasting and humiliation, with prayers to
Almighty God to strengthen and perpetuate the union, in
their house of worship congress resolved " to hold no con-
ference or treaty with any commissioners on the part ot
Great Britain, unless they shall, as a preliminary thereto,
either withdraw their fleets and armies, or in positive and
expiess terms acknowledge the independence of the states."

1778. THE UNITED STATES AND FRANCE. 71

"Lord North is two years too late with his political ma-
noeuvre," responded George Clinton, then governor of New
York. Jay met not a single American " willing to accept
peace under Lord North's terms." " No offers," wrote Rob-
ert Morris, " ought to have a hearing of one moment,
unless preceded by acknowledgment of our indepen- 2jSi.
dence, because we can never be a happy people under
their domination. Great Britain would still enjoy the
greatest share and most valuable parts of our trade."

Since Britain would grant no peace, on the tenth the
French king despatched from Toulon a fleet, bearing Ge-
rard as his minister to the congress of the United States,
that the alliance between France and America might be
riveted. On the twenty-ninth,' when, in the presence of
Franklin and his newly arrived colleague John Adams,
Voltaire was solemnly received by the French academy,
philosophic France gave the right hand of fellowship to
America as its child by adoption. The numerous assembly
demanded a visible sign of the union of the intellect of the
two continents ; and, in the presence of all that was most
distinguished in letters and philosophy, Franklin and Vol-
taire kissed one another, in recognition that the war . for
American independence was a war for freedom of mind.

Many causes combined to procure the alliance of France
and the American republic; but the force which brought
all influences harmoniously together, overruling the timor-
ous levity of Maurepas and the dull reluctance of Louis
XVL, was the movement of intellectual freedom. We are
arrived at the largest generalization thus far in the history
of America.

The spirit of free inquiry penetrated the Catholic world
as it penetrated the Protestant world. Each of their
methods of reform recognised that every man shares in
the eternal reason, and in each the renovation proceeded
from within the soul. Luther, as he climbed on his knees
the marble steps of a church at Rome, heard a voice within
him cry out, " Justification is by faith alone ; " and to all
the people he vindicated man's individuality from the point
of view of religion. The most stupendous thought that was

72 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIX.

ever conceived by man, such as had never been dared by
Socrates or the academy, by Aristotle or the stoics, took
possession of Descartes on a November night in his medita-
tions on the banks of the Danube. His mind separated itself
from every thing beside, and in the consciousness of its
freedom stood over against all tradition, all received opin-
ion, all knowledge, all existence except itself, thus asserting
the principle of individuality as the key-note of all coming
philosophy and political institutions. Nothing was to be

received by a man as truth which did not convince
m8. his own reason. Luther opened a new world in

which every man was his own priest, his own inter-
cessor ; Descartes opened a new world in which every man
was his own philosopher, his own judge of truth.

A practical difference marked the kindred systems: the
one was the method of continuity and gradual reform ; the
other of an instantaneous, complete, and thoroughly radical
revolution. The principle of Luther waked up a supersti-
tious world, "asleep in lap of legends old," but did not
renounce all external authority. It used drags and anchors
to check too rapid a progress, and to secure its moorings.
So it escaped premature conflicts. By the principle of Des-
cartes, the individual man at once and altogether stood
aloof from king, church, universities, public opinion, tradi-
tional science, all external authority and all other beings,
and, turning every intruder out of the inner temple of the
mind, kept guard at its portal to bar the entry to every
belief that had not first obtained a passport from himself.
No one ever applied the theory of Descartes with rigid in-
flexibility ; a man can as little move without the weight of
the superincumbent atmosphere as escape altogether the
opinions of the age in which he sees the light; but the
theory was there, and it rescued philosophy from bondage
to monkish theology, forbade to the church all inquisition
into private opinion, and gave to reason, and not to civil
magistrates, the maintenance of truth. The nations that
learned their lessons of liberty from Luther and Calvin went
forward in their natural development, and suffered their
institutions to grow and to shape themselves according to

1778. THE UNITED STATES AND FRANCE. 73

the increasing public intelligence. The nations that learned
their lessons of liberty from Descartes were led to question
every thing, and by creative power renew society through
the destruction of the past. The spirit of liberty in all
Protestant countries was marked by moderation. The Ger-
man Lessing, the antitype of Luther, said to his country-
men : u Don't put out the candles till day breaks." Out of
Calvinistic Protestantism rose in that day four great teach-
ers of four great nationalities, America, Great Britain, Ger-
many, and France. Edwards, Reid, Kant, and Rous-
seau were all imbued with religiosity, and all except cts.
the last, who spoiled his doctrine by dreamy indo-
lence, were expositors of the active powers of man. All
these in political science, Kant most exactly of all, were the
counterpart of America, which was conducting a revolution
on the highest principles of freedom with such circumspec-
tion that it seemed to be only a war against innovation. On
the other hand, free thought in France, as pure in its source
as free thought in America, became speculative and skeptical
and impassioned. This modern Prometheus, as it broke its
chains, started up with a sentiment of revenge against the
ecclesiastical terrorism which for centuries had sequestered
the rights of mind. Inquiry took up with zeal every ques-
tion in science, politics, and morals. Free thought paid
homage to the " majesty of nature ; " investigated the origin
of species ; analyzed the air we breathe ; pursued the dis-
coveries of Columbus and Copernicus ; mapped the skies ;
explored the oceans and measured the earth ; revived ancient
learning ; revelled in the philosophy of Greece, which, un-
trammelled by national theology, went forth to seek the
reason of things ; nursed the republican sentiment by study
of the history of Athens and Rome ; spoke words for liberty
on the stage ; and adapted the round of learning to the com-
mon understanding. Now it translated and scattered abroad
the writings of Americans and the new American constitu-
tions ; and the proud intellect of France was in a maze,
Turgot and Condorcet melted with admiration and sym-
pathy as they read the organic laws in which the unpretend-
ing husbandmen of a new continent had introduced into the

T4 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIX.

world of real life the ideas that for them dwelt only in hope.
All influences that favored freedom of mind conspired to-
gether. Anti-prelatical Puritanism was embraced
i,T8. by anti-prelatical skepticism. The exile Calvin was
welcomed home as he returned by way of New
England and the states where Huguenots and Presbyterians
prevailed. The lineage of Calvin and the lineage of Des-
cartes met together. One great current of vigorous living
opinion, which there was no power in France capable of
resisting, swept through society, driving all the clouds in
the sky in one direction. Ministers and king and nation
were hurried along together.

The wave of free thought broke as it rolled against th*
Pyrenees. The Bourbon of France was compelled into ar
alliance with America ; the Bourbon of Spain, disturbed
only by the remonstrances of De Aranda, his ambassador
in Paris, was left to pursue a strictly national policy. The
Spanish people did not share the passion and enthusiasm of
the French, for they had not had the training of the French.
In France, there was no inquisition; in Spain, the king
would have submitted his own son to its tribunal. For the
French soldier Descartes, the emancipator of thought, Spain
had the soldier Loyola to organize repression ; for the proud
Corneille, so full of republican fire, Spain had the monkish
Calderon. There no poet like Moliere unfrocked hypocrisy.
Not only had Spain no Calvin, no Voltaire, no Rousseau ;
she had no Pascal to mock at casuistry ; no prelate to in-
struct her princes in the rights of the people like Fenelon,
or defend her church against Rome, or teach the equality
of all men before God like Bossuet ; no controversies
through the press like those with the Huguenots ; no edict
of toleration like that of Nantes. A richly endowed church
always leans to Arminianism and justification by works ;
and it was so in Spain, where the spiritual instincts of man,
which are the life of freedom, had been trodden under foot,
and alms-giving to professed mendicants usurped the place
of charity. Natural science in its progress gently strips
from religion the follies of superstition, and purifies and
spiritualizes faith ; in Spain it was dreaded as of kin to the

1778. THE UNITED STATES AND FRANCE. 75

Islam ; and, as the material world was driven from its right*
ful place among the objects of study, it avenged itself by
overlaying religion. The idea was lost in the symbol ; to
the wooden or metal cross was imputed the worth of inward
piety ; religious feeling was cherished by magnificent cere-
monies to delight the senses ; penitence in this world made
atonement by using the hair shirt, the scourge, and macera-
tion ; the immortal soul was thought to be purged by mate-
rial flames ; the merciless inquisition kept spies over opinion
in every house by the confessional, and quelled unbelief by
the dungeon, the torture, and the stake. Free thought was
rooted out in the struggle for homogeneousness. Nothing
was left in Spain that could tolerate Protestantism, least of
all the stern Protestantism of America ; nothing congenial
to free thought, least of all to free thought as it was in
France.

France was alive with the restless spirit of inquiry ; the
country beyond the Pyrenees was still benumbed by super-
stition and priestcraft and tyranny over mind, and the
church through its organization maintained a stagnant calm.
As there was no union between the French mind and
the Spanish mind, between the French people and the ms.
Spanish people, the union of the governments was
simply the result of the family compact, which the engage-
ment between France and the United States without the
assent of Spain violated and annulled. Moreover, the self-
love of the Catholic king was touched, that his nephew
should have formed a treaty with America without waiting
for his advice. Besides, the independence of colonies was
an example that might divest his crown of its possessions
in both parts of America; and the danger was greatly en-
hanced by the establishment of republicanism on the borders
of his transatlantic provinces, where he dreaded it as more
surely fatal than all the power of Great Britain.

The king of France, while he declared his wish to make
no conquest whatever in the war, held out to the king of
Spain, with the consent of the United States, the acqui-
sition of Florida; but Florida had not power to allure
Charles HI., or his ministry, which was a truly Spanish

76 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXIX

ministry and wished to pursue a truly Spanish policy.
There was indeed one word which, if pronounced, would
be a spell potent enough to alter their decision; a word
that calls the blood into the cheek of a Spaniard as a brand
of inferiority on his nation. That word was Gibraltar.

Meantime, the king of Spain declared that he would
ins. not then, nor in the future, enter into the quarrel of

France and England ; that he wished to close his life
in tranquillity, and valued peace too highly to sacrifice it to
the interests or opinions of another.

So the flags of France and the United States went to-
gether into the field against Great Britain, unsupported by
any other government, yet with the good wishes of all the
peoples of Europe. The benefit then conferred on the
United States was priceless. In return, the revolution in
America came opportunely for France. During the last
years of Louis XIV. and the reign of Louis XV., she lost
her creative power and stumbled about in the regions of
skepticism. She aspired to deny, and knew only how to
deny; yet that France which its own clergy calumniated
as a nation of atheists was the lineal successor of the France
which raised cathedrals on each side of the channel, the
France which took up the banner of the very God in-
dwelling in man against paganized Christianity and against
Islam, the France which maintained Gallican liberties against
papal Rome, the France which after its fashion delivered
thought from bondage -to the church. To that same France,
America brought new life and hope ; she superseded skep-
ticism by a wise and prudent enthusiasm in action, and
bade the nation that became her ally lift up its heart from
the barrenness of doubt to the highest affirmation of God
and liberty, to freedom in union with the good, the beauti-
ful, and the true.

l778 EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 77

CHAPTER XXX.

EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE.

1778.

The alliance of France with the United States brought
the American question into the heart of Europe,
where it called new political aspirations into activity, 1778.
waked the hope of free trade between all the con-
tinents, and arraigned the British ministry at the judgment-
seat of the civilized world. England could recover influence
in the direction of external affairs only by a peace with her
colonies. American independence was to be decided not
by arms alone, but equally by the policy and the sympathies
of foreign princes and nations.

Both the great belligerents were involved in contradic-
tions at home. The government of England, in seeking to
suppress in her dependencies English rights by English
arms, made war on the life of her own life. Inasmuch as
the party of freedom and justice, which is, indeed, one for
all mankind, was at least seen to be one and the same for
the whole English race, it appeared more and more clearly
that the total subjugation of America would be the prelude
to the repression of liberty in the British isles.

In point of commercial wealth, industry, and adventurous
enterprise, England at the time had no equal ; in pride of
nationality, no rival but France : yet her movements were
marked by languor. There was no man in the cabinet who
could speak words of power to call out her moral resources,
and harmonize the various branches of the public service.
The country, which in the seven years' war had been
wrought by the elder Pitt to deeds of magnanimity, found
in the ministry no representative. Public spirit had been
quelled, and a disposition fostered to value personal interest

'8 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXX.

above the general good. Even impending foreign war
could not hush the turbulence of partisans. The adminis-
tration, having no guiding principle, held its majority in
the house of commons only on sufferance, its own officials
only by its control of patronage. Insubordination showed
itself in the fleet and in the army, and most among the
officers. England had not known so bad a govern-
1778. ment since the reign of James II. It was neither
beloved nor respected, and truly stood neither for
the people nor for any party of the aristocracy ; neither for
the spirit of the time, nor for the past age, nor for that
which was coming. It was a conglomerate of inferior and
heterogeneous materials, totally unfit to conduct the policy
of a mighty empire, endured only during an interim.

The period in British history was one of great and in-
creasing intellectual vigor. It was distinguished in philoso-
phy by Hume and Reid and Price and Adam Smith ; in
painting by Reynolds; in poetry and various learning by
Gray and Goldsmith, Johnson and Cowper; in legislative
eloquence by Chatham, Burke, and Pox ; in history by Gib-
bon ; in the useful arts by Brindley, Watt, and Arkwright.
That the nation, in a state of high and advancing culture,
should have been governed by a sordid ministry, so inferior
to itself as that of Lord North, was not due to the corrup-
tion of parliament alone ; for there was always in the house
of commons an independent fraction. It cannot be fully
explained without considering the chaotic state of political
parties.

The conflict between England and her American colo-
nies sprang necessarily out of the development of British
institutions. The supreme right of parliament as the rep-
resentative of English nationality, and bound to resist and
overthrow the personal government of the Stuarts, was the
watch-word of the Revolution of 1688, which had been dear
to America as the death-blow to monarchical absolutism
throughout the English dominions, and as the harbinger of
constitutional liberty for the civilized woild. Parliament
again asserted its paramount authority over the crown, when
by its own enactment it transferred the succession to the

1778. EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 79

house of Hanover. These revolutions could not have been
achieved except through a categorical piinciple that would
endure no questioning of its rightfulness. Such a
principle could not submit to modifications, until it 17m
had accomplished its work ; and, as it was imbedded
with the love of liberty in the mass of the English nation,
it had moved and acted with the strength and majesty of a
national conviction.

In the process of years, the assertion of the supreme
power of parliament soon assumed an exaggerated form,
and was claimed to extend, without limit, over Ireland and
over the colonies ; so that the theory which had first been
used to rescue and secure the liberties of England became
an instrument of despotism. Meantime, both branches of
parliament were but representatives of the same favored
class ; and the kings awakened no counterpoising sentiment
of loyalty so long as the house of Hanover, the creature of
parliament, was represented by princes of foreign birth,
ignorant of the laws and the language of the land.

In this manner the government was conducted for a half
century by the aristocracy, which, keeping in memory the
days of Cromwell and of James II., were led into the per-
suasion that the party of liberty, to use the words of Rock-
ingham, was that which " fought up against the king and
against the people."

But by the side of the theory of absolute power concen-
tred in parliament, which had twice been the sheet-anchor
of the English constitution, there existed the older respect
for the rights of the individual and the liberties of organ-
ized communities. These two elements of British political
life were brought into collision by the American revolution,
which had its provocation in the theory of the omnipotence
of parliament, and its justification in the eyes of English
men in the principle of vital liberty diffused through all the
parts of the commonwealth. The two ideas struggled for
the ascendency in the mind of the British nation and in
its legislature. They both are so embalmed in the undying
eloquence of Burke as to have led to the most opposite
estimates of his political character. They both appear in

80 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXX.

startling distinctness in the speeches and conduct of Fox,
who put all at hazard on the omnipotence of parliament,
and yet excelled in the clear statement of the attitude of
America. Both lay in ^reconciled confusion in the politics
of Rockingham, whose administration signalized itself by
enacting the right of the king, lords, and commons of Brit-
ain to bind America in all cases whatsoever, and humanely
refused to enforce the pretension. The aristocratic party of
liberty, organized on the principle of the absolute power of
parliament, in order to defeat effectually and for all time
the designs of the king against parliamentary usages and
rights, had done its work and outlived its usefulness. In
opposition to the continued rule of an aristocratic connec-
tion with the device of omnipotence over king and
1778. people, there rose up around the pure and venerable
form of Chatham a new liberal party, willing to use
the prerogative of the king to moderate the rule of the aris-
tocracy in favor of the people.

The new party aimed at a double modification of the
unrestricted sovereignty of parliament. The elder Pitt
ever insisted, and his friends continued to maintain, that
the commons of Oreat Britain had no right to impose taxes
on unrepresented colonies. This was the first step in the
renovation of English liberty. The next was to recognise
that parliament, as then composed, did not adequately rep-
resent the nation ; and statesmen of the connection of Rock-
ingham desperately resisted both these cardinal principles
of reform. This unyielding division among the opponents
of Lord North prolonged his administration.

Besides, many men of honest intentions, neither wishing
to see English liberties impaired, nor yet to consent to the
independence of the colonies, kept their minds in a state of
suspense ; and this reluctance to decide led them to bear a
little longer the ministry which alone professed ability to
suppress the insurrection : for better men would not con-
sent to take their places coupled with the condition of con-
tinuing their policy. Once in a moment of petulance, Lord
George Germain resigned ; and the king, who wished to be
rid of him, regarded his defection as a most favorable event.

1778. EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 81

But he was from necessity continued in his office, because
no one else could be found willing to accept it.

In the great kingdom on the other side of the channel,
antagonistic forces were likewise in action. As the repre-
sentative of popular power, France had in reserve one great
advantage over England in her numerous independent
peasantry. Brought up in ignorance and seclusion, they
knew not how to question any thing that was taught
by the church or commanded by the monarch ; but, ins.
however they might for the present suffer from
grievous and unredressed oppression, they constituted the
safeguard of order as well as of nationality.

It was in the capital and among the cultivated classes of
society, in coffee-houses and saloons, that the cry rose for
reform or revolution. The French king was absolute ; yet
the teachings of Montesquieu and the example of England
raised in men of generous natures an uncontrollable desire
for free institutions ; while speculative fault-finders, know-
ing nothing of the self-restraint which is taught by responsi-
bility in the exercise of office, indulged in ideal anticipations,
which were colored by an exasperating remembrance of
griefs and wrongs. France was the eldest daughter of the
Roman church, with a king who was a sincere though not a
bigoted Roman Catholic ; and its philosophers carried their
impassioned war against the church to the utmost verge of
skepticism and unbelief, while a suspicion that forms of
religion were used as a mere instrument of government
began to find its way into the minds of the discontented
laboring classes in the cities. But, apart from all inferior
influences, the power of generalization, in which the French
nation excels all others, imparts from time to time an ideal-
istic character to its policy. The Parisians felt the reverses
of the Americans as if they had been their own ; and in
November, 1776, an approaching rupture with England was
the subject of all conversations.

The American struggle was avowedly a war in defence
of the common rights of mankind. The Prince de Mont-
barey, who owed his place as minister of war to the favor of
Maurepas and female influence, and who cherished the pre

VOL. VI. 6

82 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXX.

judices of his order without being aware of his own medi
ocrity, professed to despise the people of the United States
as formed from emigrants for the most part without chai-
acter and without fortune, ambitious and fanatical, and
likely to attract to their support " all the rogues and the
worthless from the four parts of the globe." He had warned
Lafayette against leaving his wife and wasting his fortune
to play the part of Don Quixote in their behalf, and had
raised in the council his feeble voice against the alliance of
France with the insurgents. He regarded a victory over
England as of no advantage commensurate with the danger-
ous example of sustaining a revolt against established
1778. authority. Besides, war would accumulate disorder
in the public finances, retard useful works for the
happiness of France, and justify reprisals by Great Britain
on the colonies of the Bourbon princes.

It was against the interior sentiment of the king, the
doubts of Maurepas, and the vivid remonstrances of the
minister of war, that the lingering influence of the policy of
the balance of power, the mercantile aspirations of France,
its spirit of philosophic freedom, its traditional antagonism
to England as aiming at the universal monarchy of commerce
and the seas, quickened by an eagerness to forestall a seem-
ingly imminent reconciliation with the colonies, forced the
French alliance with America.

Just thirty-eight years before, when Maurepas was in the
vigor of manhood, he had been famed for his aversion to
England, and for founding his glory on the restoration of
the French navy. In the administration of Cardinal Fleury,
he was thought to have had the mind of the widest range ;
and it was in those days predicted of him that he would
lead France to accomplish great results, if he should ever
become the director of the government. At length ht was
raised to be first minister by a king who looked up to him
with simple-minded deference and implicit trust. The tenor
of his mind was unchanged ; but he was so enfeebled by
long exclusion from public affairs and the heavy burden of
years and infirmities that no daring design could lure him
from the love of quiet. By habit he put aside all business

1778. EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 83

which admitted of delay, and shunned every effort of heroic
enterprise. When the question of the alliance with America
became urgent, he shrunk from proposing new taxes, which
the lately restored parliaments might refuse to register ; and
he gladly accepted the guarantee of Necker, that all war
expenditures could be met by the use of credit, varied finan-
cial operations, and reforms. It was only after the assurance
of a sufficient supply of money from loans, of which the re»
payment would not disturb the remnant of his life, that he
no longer attempted to stem the prevailing opinion of Paris
in favor of America. The same fondness for ease, after
hostilities were begun, led him to protect Necker from the
many enemies who, from hatred of his reforms, joined the
clamor against him as a foreigner and a Calvinist.

The strength of the cabinet lay in Vergennes, whose su-
perior statesmanship was yet not in itself sufficient to raise
him above the care of maintaining himself in favor. He
secured the unfailing good-will of his sovereign by his po
litical principles, recognising no authority of either clergy,
or nobility, or third estate, but only a monarch to give the
word, and all, as one people, to obey. Nor did he ever for
a moment forget the respect due to Maurepas as his supe-
rior, so that he never excited a jealousy of rivalship. He
had no prejudice about calling republics into being, whether
in Europe or beyond the Atlantic, if the welfare of France
seemed to require it ; he had, however, in his earliest
approaches to the insurgent colonies, acted in conjunction
with Spain, which he continued to believe would follow
Prance into the war with England; and in his eyes the
interests of that branch of the house of Bourbon took
precedence over those of the United States, except where
the latter were precisely guaranteed by treaty.

Not one of the chiefs of the executive government, not
even the director-general of the finances, was pri-
marily a hearty friend to the new republic : the vm.
opinion of Necker was in favor of neutrality; and
his liberalism, though he was a Swiss by birth, and valued
the praises of the philosophic world, did not go beyond
admiration of the political institutions of England.

84 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXX

The statesmen of the nation had not yet deduced from
experience and the intuitions of reason a system of civil
liberty to supersede worn-out traditional forms; and the
lighter literature of the hour, skeptical rather than hopeful,
mocked at the contradiction between institutions and rights.
" Gentlemen of America," wrote Parny, at Paris, just before
the alliance between France and the United States, " what
right have you, more than we, to this cherished lib-
1778. erty ? Inexorable tyranny crushes Europe ; and you,
lawless and mutinous people, without kings and with-
out queens, will you dance to the clank of the chains which
weigh down the human race ? And, deranging the beauti-
ful equipoise, will you beard the whole world, and be free ? "
Mirabeau wrote a fiery invective against despotism, from a
prison of which his passionate imploring for leave to serve
in America could not open the doors.

Until chastened by affliction, Marie Antoinette wanted
earnestness of character, and suffered herself to be swayed
by generous caprices, or family ties, or the selfish solicita-
tions of her female companions. She had an ascendency
over the mind of the king, but never aspired to control his
foreign policy, except in relation to Austria ; and she could
not always conceal her contempt for his understanding. It
was only in the pursuit of offices and benefits for her friends
that she would suffer no denial. She did not spare words
of angry petulance to a minister who dared to thwart her
requests ; and Necker retained her favor by never refusing
them. To find an embassy for the aged, inexperienced, and
incompetent father-in-law of the woman whom she appeared
to love the most, she did not scruple to derange the diplo-
matic service of the kingdom. For the moment her emo-
tions ran with the prevailing enthusiasm for the new
republic ; but they were only superficial and occasional, and
could form no support for a steady conduct of the war.

It was the age of personal government in France. Its
navy, its army, its credit, its administration, rested abso-
lutely in the hands of a young man of four-and-twenty,
whom his Austrian brother-in-law described as a child. He
felt for the Americans neither as insurgents against wrongs

1778 EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 85

nor as a self-governing people ; and never understood how it
came about that, contrary to his own faith in unlimited
monarchical power and in the Catholic Church, his kingdom
had plunged into a war to introduce to the potentates of
the civilized world a revolutionary Protestant republic.

France was rich in resources ; but its finances had *
not recovered from their exhaustion in the seven
years' war. Their restoration became hopeless, when Necker
promised to employ the fame of his severer administration
only to add new weight to debts which were already too
heavy to be borne. The king of Prussia, whose poverty
made him a sharp observer of the revenues of wealthier
powers, repeatedly foretold the bankruptcy of the royal
treasury, if the young king should break the peace.

All this while Paris was the centre of the gay society
and intelligence of Europe. The best artists of the day, the
masters of the rival schools of music, crowded round the
court. The splendor oi the Bourbon monarchy was kept
up at the TuUeries and Versailles with prodigal magnifi-
cence ; and invention was ever devising new methods of
refined social enjoyment. The queen was happy in the daz-
zling scenes of which she was the life ; the king pleased with
the supreme power which he held it his right to exercise.
To France, the years which followed are the most glorious
in her history ; for they were those in which she most con-
sistently and disinterestedly fought for the liberties of man-
kind, and so prepared the way for her own regeneration
and the overthrow of feudalism throughout Europe; but
Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, when they embarked for
the liberation of America, pleasure on the prow, and the
uncertain hand of youth at the helm, might have cried out
to the young republic which they fostered : " Morituri te
salutant," " The doomed to die salute thee."

The Catholic king might love to avenge himself on Eng-
land by worrying her with chicanes and weakening her by
promoting dissensions in her dominions ; but he had learned
from experience to recoil from war, and longed for tranquil-
lity in his old age. A very costly and most unsuccessful
expedition against Algiers, and a protracted strife with

86 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXX

Portugal respecting the extension of Brazil to the La Plata,
where Pombal by active forethought long counterbalanced
superior power, had wasted the resources of his world-wide
monarchy. Its revenue amounted to not much more than
twenty millions of dollars, and a large annual deficit rapidly
increased the public debt. Every consideration of sound

policy enjoined upon the ruler of Spain to husband
1778. for his land the blessings of peaceful times ; and

above all, as the great possessor of colonies, to avoid
a war which was leading to the complete and irretrievable
ruin of the old colonial system.

The management of its foreign dependencies — colonies
they could not properly be called, nor could Spain be named
their mother country — was to that kingdom an object of
anxiety and never-sleeping suspicion, heightened by a per-
petual consciousness that the task of governing them was
beyond its ability. The total number of their inhabitants
greatly exceeded its own. By their very extent, embracing,
at least in theory, all the Pacific coast of America; and
north of the Gulf of Mexico the land eastward to the Mis-
sissippi, or even to the Alleghanies, it could have no feeling
of their subordination. The remoteness of the provinces on
the Pacific still more weakened the tie of supremacy, which
was nowhere confirmed by a common language, inherited
traditions, or affinities of race. There was no bond of
patriotism, or sense of the joint possession of political
rights, or inbred loyalty. The connection between rulers
and ruled was one of force alone; and the force was in
itself so very weak that it availed only from the dull slug-
gishness of the governed. Distrust marked the policy of the
home government, even toward those of its officials who
were natives of Spain ; still more toward the Creoles, as the
offspring of Spaniards in America were called. No attempt
had been made to bind the mind of the old races, except
through the Roman religion, which was introduced by the
sword and maintained by methods of superstition. There
was, perhaps, never a time when the war-cry of the semi-
barbarous nations who formed the bulk of the population
was not heard somewhere on their border. The restraints

1778. EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 87

on commerce were mischievous and vexatious, prompted by
fear and provoking murmurs and frauds.

Moreover, all the world was becoming impatient that so
large a portion of the globe should be monopolized by an
incapable and decrepit dynasty. The Dutch and the Brit-
ish and the French sought opportunities of illicit
trade. The British cut down forest trees, useful in iro.
the workshop and the dye-house, and carried them
off as unappropriated products of nature. The Russian flag
waved on the American shore of the North Pacific.

To all these dangers from abroad, Charles III. had added
another, by making war on the so-called company of Jesus.
Of the prelates of Spain, seven archbishops and twenty-
eight bishops, two thirds of them all, not only approved the
exile of the order from his dominions, but recommended
its total dissolution ; while only one bishop desired to pre-
serve it without reform. With their concurrence, and the
support of France and Portugal, he finally extorted the
assent of the pope to its abolition. But before the formal
act of the see of Borne, on the second of April, 1767, at one
and the same hour in Spain, in the north and south of
Africa, in Asia, in America, in all the islands of the mon-
archy, the royal decree was opened by officials of the crown,
enjoining them immediately to take possession of its houses,
to chase its members from their convents, and within
twenty-four hours to transport them as prisoners to some
appointed harbor. These commands were followed with
precision in Spain, where the Jesuit priests, without regard
to their birth, education, or age, were sent on board ships
to land where they could. They were executed less per-
fectly in Mexico and California, and still less so along the
South Pacific coast and the waters of the La Plata.

But the power of Spain in her colonies had been promoted
by the unwearied activity of the Jesuits. Their banishment
weakened her authority over Spanish emigrants, and stifl
more confused the minds of the rude progeny of the abo-
rigines. In Paraguay, where Spanish supremacy had rested
on Jesuits alone, who had held in their hands all the attri-
butes of Caesar and pope, of state and church, the revolution

88 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXX

which divided these powers between a civil chief and Do-
minicans, Franciscans, and monks of the Lady of Mercy,
made a fracture that never could be healed. It was as
colonial insurgents that Spain dreaded the Americans, not
as a new Protestant power. The antipathy of the king to
the United States arose from political motives : by the rec-
ognition of their independence, he was threatened with a
new, unexpected, and very real danger in all his boundless
vice-royalties. There could be no fear of a popular rising
in any of them to avenge a breach of political privileges ;
but as they had been won by adventurous leaders, so a
priest, an aboriginal chief, a descendant of an Inca, might
waken a common feeling in the native population, and defy
the Spanish monarch. Jesuits might find shelter among
their neophytes, and reappear as the guides of rebellion.
One of their fathers has written : " When Spain tore evan-
gelical laborers away from the colonies, the breath of inde-
pendence agitated the New World, and God permitted it
to detach itself from the Old."

The example of the United States did not merely threaten
to disturb the valley of the Mississippi ; but, as epidemic
disease leaps mysteriously over mountains and crosses
oceans, spores of discontent might be unaccountably borne,
to germinate among the many-tongued peoples of South
America. All alluring promises of lowering the strength of
England could soothe Florida Blanca no more. His well-
grounded sensitiveness was inflamed, till it became a con-
tinual state of morbid irritability ; and, from the time when
the court of France resolved to treat with the Americans,
his prophetic fears could never for a moment be lulled to
rest.

Portugal, which in the seven years' war, with the aid of
England, escaped absorption by Spain, seemed necessarily
about to become an ally of the British king. Its harbors,
during the last year of the ministry of Pombal, were shut
against the vessels of the United States ; and con-
Dec.V g^88? on tne thirtieth of December, 1776, resenting
the insult, was willing to incur its enmity, as the
price of the active friendship of Spain. But when, two

1778. EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 89

months later, on the twenty-fourth of February, 1777, m7#
the weak-minded, superstitious Maria I. succeeded Feb- 24*
to the throne, Pombal retired before reactionary imbecility.
Portugal, in exchange for a tract of land conterminous to
Brazil, withdrew from the La Plata, and was scarcely heard
of again during the war.

In the south-east of Europe, the chief political im
interest for the United States centred in the joint
rulers of the Austrian empire. The Danube, first of rivers
of the Old World, rolled through their dominions between
valleys of exuberant fertility towards the great inland sea
which drains a larger surface of Europe than the Mediter-
ranean. Yet the culture and commerce of the eastern lands
of the crown, by which alone their house could become
great, were set aside as secondary objects, so that the
mighty stream flowed almost in silence towards the Euxine.

In August, 1755, when Kaunitz was about to take in his
hand the helm of the Austrian empire, and hold it for a
third of a century, his first words in explanation of his pol-
icy were : "Prussia must be utterly thrown down from its
very foundations, if the house of Austria is to stand up-
right." In the year in which the United States declared
their independence, as Joseph II. visited France to draw
closer his relations with that power, Kaunitz thus counselled
the young emperor : " Move against Prussia with all moder-
ation and regard for good appearances. Never fully trust its
court. Direct against it the sum total of political strength,
and let our whole system of state rest on this principle."

Successive popes of Rome had wished an alliance of the
two great Catholic powers of Central Europe against the
smaller states, by which the Reformation had been rescued ;
and it was the chief boast of Kaunitz that he had effected
that alliance. Twenty years after it was framed, his lan-
guage was still : " Austria and Bourbon are natural allies,
and have to regard the Protestant powers as their common
rivals and enemies."

Further, the Austrian court in the time of Kaunitz de-
sired, above all, increased power and possessions in Ger-
many, and planned the absorption of Bavaria. And, as the

90 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXX

dynastic interests of the imperial family claimed parity
with those of the state, the same minister knew how to find
thrones at Parma, at Paris, at Naples, for the three young-
est of the six daughters of Maria Theresa.

The arch-house looked upon itself as alone privileged to
produce the chiefs of the holy Roman empire, the continuers
of Augustus, of Constantine, of Charlemagne, of Otho. In
this idea lay its fiction of a claim to universal monarchy,
sanctified by the church ; so that any new acquisition could
easily be regarded but as a recovery of a rightful part
ins. of its dominions. For the same reason it asserted
precedence over every royal house, and would not
own an equal, even in the empress of Russia.

Since Austria, deserting its old connection with England,
had allied itself with France, and the two powers had
faithfully fought together in the seven years' war, it would
have seemed at least that the imperial court was bound to
favor its Bourbon ally in the great contest for American
independence ; but we have seen an American agent rebuffed
alike from the foreign office in Vienna and from the saloons
of Kaunitz. The emperor, Joseph II., no less than his
mother, from first to last condemned the rising of the
American people as a wrong done to the principle of supe-
rior power; and his sympathy as a monarch was constant to
England.

Such was the policy of the arch-house and its famous
minister at this period of American history. But Prussia
proved the depth and vigor of its roots by the manner of its
wrestling with the storm ; the Hapsburg alliance with Bour-
bon brought no advantage, and passed away, like every
thing else that is hollow and insincere. Bavaria still stands,
clad in prouder honors than before. Of the thrones on
which the Austrian princesses were placed, all three have
crumbled ; and their families are extinct or in exile. The
fiction of the holy Roman empire has passed away, and its
meaningless shadow figures only in misplaced arms and
devices. The attitude of Austiia to the United States will
appear as our narrative proceeds. Kaunitz and the imperial
house of his day sowed seed that had no life ; and their pol-

t

177a EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 91

icy bore no fruit, delaying for their generation the develop-
ment of the great Austrian state.

In Italy, which by being broken into fragments was reft
of its strength though not of its beauty, the United States
had hoped to find support from the ruler of Florence, to
whom they had commissioned an envoy: the W3rld had
been full of the praises of his code and of his government.
But the hope was altogether vain. The south of Italy fol-
lowed Spain. The pope took no thought of colonies which
were soon to form a republic, with a people far more thor-
oughly Protestant than any nation in Europe. But the
genius of the Italians has always revered the struggles of
patriotism ; and, while the Americans fought for their liber-
ties, Filangieri was preparing the work, in which, with the
applause of the best minds, he claimed for reason its rights
in the governments of men. During the war, the king of
Naples, as one of the Spanish Bourbons, conformed his
commercial policy to that of Spain.

The Turkish empire affected the course of American
affairs both during the war and at its close. The embroil-
ment of the western maritime kingdoms seemed to
leave its border provinces at the mercy of their neigh- ma.
bore ; and there were statesmen in England who wished
peace, in order that their country might speak with authority
on the Bosphorus and within the Euxine.

Of the three northern powers, Russia was for the United
States the most important ; for Great Britain with ceaseless
importunity sought its alliance: but its empress put aside
every request to take an active part in the American con-
test, and repeatedly advised the restoration of peace by the
concession of independence. In 1777, she desired to shut
the cruisers of the United States out of the Baltic, but con-
fidentially assured the Bourbon family that she- would not
interfere in their quarrel, and would even be pleased to see
them throw off the yoke of England. Her heart was all in
the Orient. She longed to establish a Christian empire on
the Bosphorus, and wondered why Christians of the west
should prefer to maintain Mussulmans at Constantinople.
Of England, she loved and venerated the people ; but she

f

92 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXX

had contempt for its king and for his ministry, of which she
noticed the many blunders and foretold the fall. On the
other hand, she esteemed Yergennes as a wise and able
minister, but did not love the French nation.

In Gustavus III. of Sweden, the nephew of Frederic of
Prussia, France might expect a friend. The revolution of
1771, in favor of the royal prerogative, had been aided by
French subsidies and the counsels of Vergennes, who was
selected for the occasion to be the French minister at Stock-
holm. The oldest colonizers of the Delaware were Swedes,
and a natural affection bound their descendants to the
mother country. The adventurous king had the ambition
to possess a colony, and France inclined to gratify his wish.
His people, as builders and owners of ships, favored
1778 the largest interpretation of the maritime rights of
neutrals ; and we shall see their king, who had dash-
ing courage, though not perseverance, now and then show
himself as the boldest champion of the liberty of the seas.

Denmark, the remaining northern kingdom, was itself a
colonial power, possessing small West India islands and a
foothold in the east. Its king, as Duke of Holstein, had
a voice in the German diet at Ratisbon. Its people were of
a noble race ; it is the land which, first of European states,
forbade the slave-trade, and which, before the end of the
century, abolished the remains of serfdom.

In 1778, a half-witted king, every day growing feebler in
mind, yet in name preserving the functions of royalty; a
crown prince of but ten years old, whose mother, divorced
for adultery, had died in her youth an exile ; a council of
state, having the brother of the king for a member, and
divided into two nearly equal factions; a queen-dowager,
benevolent beyond her means, and fond of meddling in
public affairs, — gave no promise of fixedness in the admin-
istration. Count Bernstorf, minister of foreign affairs, a
Hanoverian by birth, professed to believe that the repose,
the strength, and the happiness of civil society depend upon
the principle that a people can never be justified in renounc-
ing fidelity, obedience, and subjection to its lawful gov-
ernment, and declaring itself independent. He watched,

1778. EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 93

therefore, that the Danish government should not favor, or
even seem to favor, any step which promised help to the
Americans. Complying with the suggestion of the English
court, Danish subjects were forbidden to send, even to Danish
West India islands, munitions of war, lest they should find
their way to the United States. The Danish and Norwe-
gian ports were closed against prizes taken by American
privateers. Yet, from its commercial interests, Denmark
was forced to observe and to claim the rights of a neutral.

Freedom has its favorite home on the mountains or by
the sea. Of the two European republics of the last century,
the one had established itself among the head-springs of the
Rhine, the other at its mouth. In Switzerland, which its
mountains kept apart alike from Italy and the north, the
free people preserved their ancient character, and, being con-
tent within themselves, constituted a confederated republic,
which rivalled in age the oldest monarchies, and, by its good
order and industry, morals and laws, proved the stability of
self-government, alike for the Romanic and for the Ger-
manic race. Of the compatibility of extensive popular con-
federacies with modern civilization, it removed every doubt ;
and America sheltered herself under its example. Halde-
mand, a much-trusted brigadier in the British service,
belonged to it by birth; but England was never able to
enlist his countrymen in the rank and file of her armies.
The United States gratefully venerated their fore-
runner, but sought from it no direct assistance. Had 1778.
their cause been lost, Alexander Hamilton would have
retreated with his bride "to Geneva, where nature and
society were in their greatest perfection."

The deepest and the saddest interest hovers over the
republic of the Netherlands, for the war between England
and the United States prepared its grave. Of all the
branches of the Germanic family, that nation, which res-
cued from the choked and shallowed sea the unstable silt
and sands brought down by the Rhine, has endured the
most and wrought the most in favor of liberty of conscience,
liberty of commerce, and liberty in the state. The republic
which it founded was the child of the Reformation. For

94 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXX

three generations the best interests of mankind were aban-
doned to its keeping ; and, to uphold the highest objects
of spiritual life, its merchants, landholders, and traders so
abounded in heroes and martyrs that they tired out brute
force, and tyranny, and death itself, and from war
1778. educed life and hope for coming ages. Their exist-
ence was an unceasing struggle with the ocean which
beat against their dikes ; with the rivers which cut away
their soil ; with neighbors that coveted their territory ; with
England, their ungenerous rival in trade. In proportion to
numbers, they were the first in agriculture and in commerce ;
first in establishing credit by punctuality and probity;
first in seeing clearly that great material interests are fos-
tered best by liberty. Their land remained the storehouse
of renovating political ideas for Europe, and the asylum of
all who were persecuted for their thoughts. In freedom of
conscience they were the light of the world. Out of the
heart of a taciturn, phlegmatic, serious people, inclined to
solitude and reflection, rose the men who constructed the
code of international law in the spirit of justice.

In 1674, after England for about a quarter of a century
had aimed by acts of legislation and by wars to ruin the
navigation of the Netherlands, the two powers consolidated
peace by a treaty of commerce, in which the rights of neu-
trals were guaranteed in language the most precise and the
most intelligible. Not only was the principle recognised
that free ships make free goods ; but, both positively and
negatively, ship-timber and other naval stores were excluded
from the list of contraband.

In 1688 England contracted to the Netherlands the high-
est debt that one nation can owe to another. Herself not
knowing how to recover her liberties, they were restored
by men of the united provinces ; and Locke brought back
from his exile in that country the theory on government
which had been formed by the Calvinists of the continent,
and which made his chief political work the text-book of
the friends of free institutions for a century.

During the long wars for the security of the new English
dynasty, and for the Spanish succession, in all which the

1778. EUROPE AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 95

republic had little interest of its own, it remained the faith-
ful ally of Great Britain. Gibraltar was taken by ships and
troops of the Dutch not less than by those of Eng-
land ; yet its appropriation by the stronger state ms.
brought them no corresponding advantage; on the
contrary, their exhausted finances and disproportionate
public debt crippled their power of self-defence.

For these faithful, unexampled, and unrequited services,
the republic might, at least, expect to find in England a
wall of protection. But during the seven years' war, in dis-
regard of treaty obligations, its ships were seized on the
ground that they had broken the arbitrary British rules of
contraband and blockade. In the year 1758 the losses of
its merchants on these pretences were estimated at more
than twelve million guilders. In 1762, four of its ships,
convoyed by a frigate, were taken, after an engagement ;
and, though the frigate was released, George Grenville, then
secretary of state, announced by letter to its envoy that the
right of stopping Dutch ships with naval stores must be
and would be sustained.

These violences began to wean the Dutch people from
their attachment to England. Could the prizes, which her
courts wrongfully condemned, compensate for the affections
of an ally of a hundred years ? But this was not the worst :
she took advantage of the imperfections in the constitution
of the Netherlands to divide their government, and by influ-
ence and corruption she won the party of the stadholder to
her own uses.

The republic was in many ways dear to the United States.
It had given a resting-place to their emigrant pilgrims, and
dismissed them to the New World with lessons of religious
toleration. It had planted the valley of the Hudson ; and in
New York and New Jersey its sons still cherished the lan-
guage, church rule, and customs of their parent nation. The
Dutch saw in the American struggle a repetition of their own
history ; and the Americans looked to them for the evidence
that a small but resolute state can triumph over the utmost
efforts of the mightiest and wealthiest empire.

96 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXI.

CHAPTER XXXI.

GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES,

1778.

The people who dwelt between the Alps and the north-
ern seas, between France and the Slaves, founded no colo-
nies in America ; but, in part, gave to the rising country its
laws of being. Let us trace in the annals of the German
nation the universal interests which the eternal Providence
confided to their keeping.

We spell the record of our long descent,
More largely conscious of the life that is.

Before Christianity, which is a religion of war against
the sins of the world, became the established religion of the
Roman empire, it found its way, as if by instinct, into the
minds of the Goths. In the life struggle between Islam
and Christianity, between a form of religion bounded by
the material world and the religion which sanctifies the
intuitions of reason, Charles Mattel, a German warrior, lead-
ing into the field men of the Christianized tribes of his
country, rescued civilization by winning the victory for
that side which teaches that the light of ideal truth is ever
present with the human race.

At that time Central and Western Europe knew but two
great forces which could introduce the reign of law and
protect the growth of culture, universal monarchy and Cath-
olic Christianity. At the time when society longed for
regeneration through the establishment of order, the grand-
son of the German who smote the Saracens at Poitiers,
a prince of fellow-feeling with the common man, unclouded
vision, inventive genius, and irresistible will, made his way
with the acclamations of the world to the nearest possible
realization of these two ideas, taking at Rome the crown

Chap. XXXI. GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES. 97

of emperor of the world and supreme lord of the church.
Could Charlemagne, by renewing Roman Caesarism, have
joined dominion over the individual and collective con-
science to the fulness of military, legislative, and adminis-
trative power, a sameness of forms, a stagnant monotony
of thought, and the slumber of creative genius might have
lasted for thousands of years. Justice and truth are the
same, everywhere, at all times, and for every mind. To
make the emperor their authoritative custodian and inter-
preter for a universal monarchy would have been to over-
throw the rights of reason, establish a despotism without
check or barrier, and bring on a ruin of the moral and polit-
ical world, like that state of rest which philosophers of
nature predict for the heavens and the earth, if nothing
exists beyond what the senses reach. " Germany, ordained
by fate to illuminate the nations," could not in this way
spread light and freedom.

A century and a half later, mastery over the church could
still less attend the crowning at Rome by the pope of the
first holy Roman emperor of the German nation. In the
renewed antagonism between the pope and the emperor,
the latter had no mode of directly invoking popular support ;
the pope, through prelates and clergy, who received his
word as infallible, had dominion over conscience alike in
every cottage and every castle, so that he was strong with
and through the people. Two centuries from the corona-
tion of Charlemagne had not passed away, when Gregory
VII. asserted his exclusive right to the investiture of
bishops throughout Christendom ; and, compelling the em-
peror, Henry IV., to do penance at Canossa, extorted
the acknowledgment of all the pretensions of the Roman
see. A little more than a hundred years after this hasty
submissiveness of a young and weak and dissolute ruler,
even Red-Beard, the wise and powerful Frederic I., acqui-
esced in the necessity of giving up the long and fruitless
struggle ; and at Venice, in the maturity of his years, sur-
rendered to the pope.

This victory could not have been won by the Roman
pontitis, unless right had in some degree been on their side,
voi~ vi. 7

98 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXI

In resisting the absolute power of the emperor over con-
science, they were contending for that which God loves
most, --the rights of our race. But the despotism which
they justly snatched from the sceptre was sequestered and
appropriated to their own benefit. When dominion over
the soul was wrested from Caesar, the work was but half
done : the pope should have laid it down at the feet of his
fellow-men, and consummated the emancipation of every
mind. Who now will recover the dearest birthright of
man?

The holy Roman empire of the German nation was be-
come in temporal power a shadow, in spiritual power a sub-
ject ; and he who possessed the fiction of the great name
could initiate no patriotic, all-penetrating reform for the
world. «■

The German nobles took advantage of the period of law-
lessness consequent on the contest between the pope and
the emperor to round off their estates, to wrong their
neighbors, to oppress their tenants, to reduce the free rural
classes to the condition of adscripts to the glebe.

In the troubled centuries when there was no safety for
merchants and artisans but in their own courage and union,
free cities rose up along the Rhine and the Danube in such
numbers that the hum of business could be' heard from the
one to the other. On the sea, free towns leagued together
from Flanders to the Gulf of Finland ; renewing Dantzic ;
carrying colonies to Elbing, Kdnigsberg, and Memel, to
Riga and Reval; stretching into the interior so as to in-
clude G6ttingen, Erfurt, and Magdeburg, Breslau, and Cra-
cow ; having marts alike in London and Novgorod ; shaping
their constitutions after the great house of merchants of
Lubeck, till the consolidated union of nearly eighty cities
became the first maritime power in the commercial world.
As in England, Simon de Montf ort created a place for the
representation of the boroughs in parliament, so free impe-
rial cities had benches in the German diet. In these repub-
lics and other towns, not so directly depending on the empire,
was to be found whatever was best in local self-government,
in orderly industry, in art and science, in wise financial

Chap. XXXI. GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES. 99

administration, in tolerant wisdom drawn from the obser-
vation 'of many religions and many lands, in free inquiry
and intelligence ; but, though they were ripe for instruction,
they had not strength enough to stand alone.

There remained the free rural population of Germany ; a
body of men as ancient as incipient civilization in Central
Asia ; the strength of a nation whose tongue had no word
for slave. Each century saw more and more their numbers
diminished, their rights to the soil impaired, their personal
liberties endangered. Unconnected and without arras, they
were not able to assume even their own defence; but in
them was the life that was to renew the nations.

Grant the theory of the sycophants of the Roman see
that the pope represents on earth the eternal wisdom, it
follows necessarily that he may decide every question of
morals in private and in public life. He is responsible for
every king. He may decree what king is unworthy to
reign ; and his sentence must bind the conscience of all who
accept his infallibility. He must have power to give and to
take away empires, and all possessions of all men ; to release
peoples from their oaths of allegiance; to unbind kings
from their oaths of capitulation; to order the German
princes whom to elect as emperor, and to order them to
elect unanimously ; with his cardinals or alone to elect an
emperor. As the sole oracle of truth, he may assume to con-
trol history itself when it thwarts his purpose ; and, though
the adamantine door of the past is bolted down for ever-
more, he may break it open,

To bind or unbind, add what lacked,
Insert a leaf, or forge a name.
Since reasoning on an accepted dogma is forbid, he may
command an inquisition into the innermost thoughts and
secret places of every mind, and compel assent by fines, im-
prisonment, excommunication, but especially by the sword
and fire. The infallible interpreter of morals may, in un-
bridled licentiousness, order and do what is right in his own
eyes; ruling in all things, and never ruled; judging all
things, and never judged.

In Greece, as may be read in Plato's Republic, " mendi-

100 THE AMERICAN RB VOLUTION. Chap. XXXI.

»

cant diviners went to rich men's doors, persuading them
that they have received from the gods power to absolve a
man himself or his forefathers from sins ; and for the living
and for the dead there are ceremonies which deliver from
pains in the life to come ; but dreadful things await those
neglecting the rite." The method practised on a small
scale by vagabond prophets in Athens was formed by the
papal see, into a system for the world ; and it filled its treas-
ury by an organized traffic in indulgences, and promises of
pardon here and beyond the grave. In a decretal of the
ninth of November, 1518, Pope Leo X. affirmed his power
as the successor of St. Peter and the vicar of Christ to
remit the sins alike of the living and of the dead.

All absolute power brings its holders, first or last, to per-
dition : absolute power over mind, conquered from the
emperor and continued for centuries, at last ruined, and
could not but ruin, the moral and intellectual faculties of
the functionary by whom it was exercised. The earth,
wrapt in thickest darkness, sighed for the dawn.

The son of a miner, of the peasant class in Eisleben,
trained in the school of Paul of Tarsus and the African Au-
gustine, became a light to the world. He taught that no
man impersonates the authority of God ; that the pope is
right in denying the divinity of the emperor, but that he blas-
phemes in arrogating divinity to himself. No power over
souls belongs to a priest ; " any Christian, be it a woman or
a child, can remit sins just as well as a priest ; " clergy and
laity, all are of one condition ; all men are equally priests ;
" a bishop's ordination is no better than an election ; " " any
child that creeps after baptism is an ordained priest, bishop,
and pope." " The priest is nothing but an office-holder."
" The pope" is our school-fellow ; there is but one master,
and his name is Christ in heaven ; " and, collecting all in
one great formulary of freedom, he declared : Justification
is by faith ; by faith alone, " sola fide ; " every man must
work out his own salvation; no other — not priest, nor
bishop, nor pope, no, not all the prophets — can serve for
the direct connection of the intelligent reason of the indi-
vidual with the infinite and eternal intelligence.

Chap. XXXI. GEratANY AND THE UNITED STATES. 101

The principle of justification by faith alone solved every
problem. It is freedom against authority; self-activity
against superstitious trust in other men. It was the knell
of the departing dominion of an alien prince over the
conscience of the peoples. But it was more than the termi-
nation of a strife of seven centuries between pope and
emperor. The truth spoken by Luther assigned to the
pope his true place, as an unconsecrated, fallible, peccant
mortal, holding only an office instituted by bis erring fellow-
mortals, and having no functions and no powers except
what erring mortals can bestow. To discard the pope, and
keep bishops and priests with superhuman authority derived
from ordination, would have been only substituting one
supernatural caste for another. Luther struck superstition
at the root. The popes stripped lordship over conscience
from the emperor ; and Luther stripped it from pope, pre-
lates, and priests. His teaching was the rending of the
veil which divides the past civilization from the future, a
vindication for all mankind of the rights of reason. The
»dea of justification by faith alone was censured as fatalism,
while in truth it is the strongest possible summons to self-
activity. The principle can never be surrendered so long
as the connection between man and eternal truth shall
endure. Well, therefore, did Leibnitz say of Luther:
"This is he who, in later times, taught the human race
hope and free thought."

The mediaeval church had been, in some sort, the pro-
tector of the people. Luther declared reason to be the
u well-spring of law," the rule for reforming national codes.
Further, he demanded that truth should be spread by appeals
to reason alone. "If fire," said he, "is the right cure for
heresy, then the fagot-burners are the most learned doctors
on earth. Nor need we study any more : he that has brute
force on his side may burn his adversary at the stake."
" I will preach the truth, speak the truth, write the truth,
but will force the truth on no one ; for faith must be ac-
cepted willingly and without compulsion."

By reason, too, he desired to restrain arbitrary power.
His words are : " Where a ruler indulges the conceit that

102 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chat. XXXI.

he is a prince, not tor the sake of his subjects, but for the
sake of his beautiful golden hair, he belongs among the
heathen." " A Christian prince is not a person for himself,
but a servant for others." " The prince must think, ' I
belong to the land and the people, and will therefore serve
them with my office.' "

On the right of private judgment, Luther said : " If the
emperor or the princes should command me and say : i Thus
and thus you ought to believe ; ' then I speak : * Dear em-
peror, dear princes, your demand is too high ; ' they say :
* Yes, you must be obedient to us, for we are the higher
powers.' Then I answer : 4 Yes, you are lords over this
temporal life, but not over the eternal life;' they speak
further : * Yes, peace and unity must be preserved ; there-
fore you must believe as the emperor and princes believe.'
What do I hear ? The Turk might as well say : * Listen,
Roman emperor, listen, princes; you ought to believe as
the Turks believe for the sake of peace and unity ; for what
holds good for the one holds good for the other, for the
Turkish emperor and for every nobleman in the village.'
No, dear emperor, dear prince, dear lord, dear lady, it does
not belong to you to make such a demand." And again :
"All bishops that take the right of judgment of doctrine
from the sheep are certainly to be held as murderers and
thieves, wolves and apostate Christians. Christ gives the
right of judgment to the scholars and sheep. St. Paul will
have no doctrine or proposition held, till it has been proved
and recognised as good by the congregation that hears it.
Every Christian has God's word, and is taught of God and
anointed as a priest."

It followed, as the true rule for all Christendom, that the
teacher, " the minister of the word," should be elected by
the congregation itself. This Luther addressed to the em-
peror and Christian nobles of the German nation in 1520.
Three years later, he published proof out of Scripture that
a Christian congregation ought to have the right to call,
induct, and depose teachers. And in like manner, with
strict 'consistency, in May, 1525, he wrote to the peasants of
Suabia : u * The whole congregation should have power to

Chap. XXXI GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES. 103

choose and to depose a pastor;' this article is right."
" You, princes and lords, cannot with any color refuse them
the right to elect a pastor."

But it was not then possible in Europe to reconstruct the
church on the principle of its total separation from tradition
and the state. Did Luther look to the newly discovered
world as the resting-place of his teachings ? He certainly
devised and proposed the rules for emigration. When
the great revelation of truth was made, " a star," said he,
"moved in the sky, and guided the pilgrim wise men to
the manger where the Saviour lay." He advised the op-
pressed country people, taking with them the teacher of
their choice and the open Bible, to follow " the star " of
freedom to lands where religious liberty could find a home.

In October of the following year, the little synod held at
Homberg by the landgrave Philip of Hesse accepted the
propositions of Luther, that all Christians share equally in
the priesthood, that true churches consist in self-organized,
self-governing communities of believers; and that these
communities, thus freely formed, may be associated through
an annual general meeting of ministers and delegates.

The glad lessons of reform went out through all the land,
kindling the poor and humble and afflicted with the promise
of a happier age. Himself peasant-born, and ever mindful
of his lineage, the prophet of German unity and freedom,
Luther wrote for his countrymen in their own tongue as no
one else could. His words touched the hearts and wakened
the thoughts and filled the meditations of all. The man of
the people, in 1521 he says of himself : " Up to this time I
have always made it my rale to get the start of the notions
of the court. Not the half would have come about, if I had
let myself hang on their counsels." Therefore he was able
to transform his nation, which was swayed by his words,
as the chords of the lyre by the touch of the master.

If Charles V. had but accepted the Reformation, free
Germany from the Vosgic mountains would at his bidding
have been reconstructed as one monarchy on a new and
better foundation. The emperor deserted his own stand*
ard, an alien he joined with an alien ; and from that time

104 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXL

the authority of the imperial crown was used for the ag-
grandizement of a separate dynasty.

The principles for which Luther demanded the active co-
operation of every individual struck the deepest root ; yet
their instant and universal application would have bred
civil war rather than wholesome change. A new nation,
free from mediaeval traditions, must grow up to be the
great heir and the bearer of the new system.

Within the empire each separate prince became for his
own dominions the highest overseer of the church of the
Reformation. Luther remained in the land of his birth
and of his love, even though, in the years that followed,
his relations to princes cost him baleful compromises
and unworthy concessions. In the reformed churches of
France, which struggled into being in permanent conflict
with prelates and kings, their constitution grew out of
themselves, according to the teachings of Luther in his
earlier days. It is the common principle on which French-
men first colonized what is now Nova Scotia and Florida,
on which Englishmen and the Dutch planted the states
that lie between Canada and the head of the Chesapeake ;
and it was strongly represented in the settlements further
south. So Germany, which appropriated no territory in
America, gave to the colonies of New Netherland and New
England their laws of being.

The prince that will lead Germany to union must accept
reform in religion, and the canon that he is there not for
himself, but for the land and people. The hopes of the
reformers first rested on Saxony. But one of its electors
refused the imperial crown ; another betrayed the Refor-
mation through fears of ill-directed progress ; a third, by
further concessions to the reaction and to the emperor, and
by consequent indecision, lost for himself army, land, and
freedom, and for his electorate the lead in Germany.

There was better promise from the house which a bur-
grave of Nuremberg, one of the wisest, most right-minded,
and most popular statesmen of his age, and whose days in
his land were long, had transplanted to Brandenburg. In
1613, when the congregation of the pilgrims at Leyden waa

Chat. mnrT GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES. 105

growing by comers from England, and when the king of
England was rejecting the last shred of the Calvinism in
which he had been bred as the religion of republicanism, the
elector of Brandenburg, John Sigismund, after eight years
of reflection, adopted the faith of those who were to plant
Massachusetts, and passed with all formality out of the
church in which so much only of the precepts of Luther
prevailed as the princes of his day could tolerate, into the
more liberal church that had been formed under republican
auspices by Calvin.

In 1618, while the pilgrims were pleading for leave to
emigrate with an English charter, according to the rules of
colonization of Luther, the elector of Brandenburg pledged
himself anew to the Reformation by uniting to his posses-
sions secularized Prussia.

Between all whom one and the same renovating principle
rules, inspires, and guides, there exists an unwritten alliance
or harmony, not registered in the archives of states, show-
ing itself at moments of crisis. Protestantism struggled for
life alike in Germany and in New England, not always with
equal success. With the constitution of Plymouth, which
was signed in Cape Cod harbor, it triumphed in New Eng-
land in the same month in which it was struck down on the
White Mountain of Bohemia. The year in which the Cath-
olic reaction crushed the municipal liberties of Protestant
Rochelle, the Reformation was rescued in Germany by the
relief of Stralsund, and extended in America by the plant-
ing of a regular government in Massachusetts.

The day on which Winthrop sailed into Boston harbor,
Gustavus Adolphus was landing fifteen thousand men in
Pomerania. The thoughts of Germany and of the new
people of America ran together : one and the same element
of life animated them all. The congregations of Massachu-
setts, too feeble to send succor to their European brethren,
poured out their souls for them in prayer. From the free
city of Nuremberg, Gustavus Adolphus, just three weeks
before his fall at Ltltzen, recommended to Germans coloniz-
ation in America as u a blessing to the Protestant world."
In pursuance of the design of the Swedish king, the chan-

106 THE AMERICAN RE VOLUTION. Chap. XXXL

cellor Oxenstiern, in April, 1633, as we have seen, called on
the German people to send from themselves emigrants to
America. In December, the upper four German circles
confirmed the charter, and under its sanction a Protestant
colony was planted on the Delaware. What monument has
Wallenstein left like this on the Delaware to Gustavus ?

The thirty years' war was not a civil war : had the Ger-
mans been left to themselves, the Reformation would have
been peacefully embraced by nine tenths of them. It was
by hordes of other races and tongues that the battle of
Jesuit reaction was fought. While France was rent in
pieces by bloody and relentless feuds, Germany enjoyed a
half century of prosperous peace, and with its kindred in
the Netherlands and Switzerland formed the first nation in
the world. Its universities, relieved from monastic tradi-
tions, taught not theology alone, but the method of the
right use of reason, and sciences pregnant with modern
culture. Kepler, a republican of Weil, the continuator of
Copernicus, the forerunner of Newton, revealed the laws
of the planetary motions. No part of Europe had so many
industrious, opulent, and cultivated free cities ; while the
empire kept in use the forms and developed the language
of constitutional government.

The terrible thirty years' effort to restore the old super-
stition crushed the enlightened middle class of Germany,
destroyed its Hanseatic confederacy, turned its commerce
into other channels, ruined its manufactures, arrested its
progress in the arts, dismembered its public thought, gave
to death one half or even two thirds of its inhabitants,
transformed large districts of its cultivated country into a
wilderness, suspended its unity and imperilled its national
life, which was saved only by the indestructible energy of
its people. From 1630, for more than two centuries, it
showed no flag on any ocean, planted no colony on any
shore ; it had and could have no influence abroad, no for-
eign policy ; it had ceased to be a great power. It lay like
the massive remains of the Roman Colosseum, magnificent
ruins, parcelled out among a crowd of rulers, and offering
to neighboring princes an inviting quarry.

Gup. XXXL GEKMANY AND THE UNITED STATES. 107

For German Protestants there were gleams of light from
America and from Brandenburg. Driven by poverty and
sorrow, the reckless devastation of foreign invasions, and
the oppression of multitudinous domestic petty tyrants, the
Germans, especially of the borders of the Rhine, thronged
to America in such numbers that, in the course of a century,
preserving their love of rural life, they appropriated much
of the very best land from the Mohawk to the valley of
Virginia.

At the close of the thirty years' war, Brandenburg had
for its elector, Prussia for its duke, a prince by birth and
education of the reformed church, trained in the republic of
the Netherlands. "In my rule," said the young man, on
first receiving homage, " I will always bear in mind that it
is not my affair which I administer, but the affair of my
people." " Consciences," he owned, " belong to God ; no
worldly potentate may force them." So, when the revoca-
tion of the edict of Nantes, in October, 1685, drove out ot
France a half million of " the best " of the French nation,
the noble company of exiles found a new country, partly
with the Great Elector, and partly with the Protestant col-
onies in America.

The same Revolution of 1688, which excluded papists
from the throne of England, restored liberty to the colonies
in America, and made it safe for the son of the Great
Elector to crown himself on his own soil as king of Prussia.
As the elector of Saxony had meantime renounced the
Reformation, to ride for a few stormy years on the restless
waves of Polish anarchy, Leibnitz could say with truth :
4 The elector of Brandenburg is now the head of the Prot-
estants in the empire." The pope of the hour, foreshadow-
ing the policy of Kaunitz, denounced his coronation as a
shamelessly impudent deed, and his house as one of which
the dominions ought never to be increased.

The peace of Utrecht called forth the vehement reproba-
tion of Leibnitz, and proved that the house of Hapsburg
was not the proper guardian of Germany ; yet it was full of
good prophecies for the future, and marks the point of time
when, in Europe and in America, the new civilization com*

108 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXI

pelled the recognition of its right to existence. For Eng-
land, it contained the acknowledgment by the Catholio
powers of an exclusively Protestant succession, established
by laws in derogation of legitimacy ; for Italy, the elevation
of the house of Savoy in the north to the rank of an inde-
pendent and hopeful monarchy. For America and for
Prussia* It was the dawn of the new day. In the former,
Protestantism took the lead in the work of colonization and
the appropriation of territory by the spread of settlements.
Founded on the principle of civil freedom, the latter was
received as a kingdom among the powers of the earth.
From the moment when the elector of Brandenburg was
admitted by all Europe to the society of kings as an equal,
the house of Hapsburg knew that it had a rival within
Germany.

When, in the second quarter of the last century, eccle-
siastical intolerance drove the Lutherans of Salzburg into
exile, a part of them found homes on the rivers of America,
a part in .the realm of that strange Prussian king, who, by
simplicity and purity of life, by economy, strict organization
of the government, care for the people and their education,
public thrift, and perfect discipline in the army, bequeathed
to his successor the most efficient state in Germany.

That successor was Frederic II., a prince trained alike in
the arts of war and administration, in philosophy and letters.
It should be incredible, and yet it is true, that, at the mo-
ment of the alliance of the Catholic powers against Protes-
tantism, England, under the second George and a frivolous
minister, was attempting by largesses of subsidies to set the
force of Russia against the most considerable Protestant
power in Germany. In the attempt, England shot so wildly
from its sphere that Newcastle was forced to bend to Wil-
liam Pitt ; and then England and Prussia, and the embryon
United States, — Pitt, Frederic, and Washington, — worked
together for human freedom. The seven years' war ex-
tended the English colonies to the Mississippi and gave
Canada to England. "We conquered America in Ger-
many," said the elder Pitt, ascribing to Frederic a share
in the extension of the Germanic race in the other hemi-

Chap. XXXI. GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES 109

sphere ; and, in like manner, Frederic, in his histories, treats
the English movement in America and his own struggles in
Europe all as one, so long as Pitt was at the helm.

To what end would events have been shaped if Pitt's
ministry had continued, and the bonds between England
and Prussia had been riveted by a common peace? But
here, as everywhere, it is useless to ask what would have
happened if the eternal Providence had for the moment
suspended its rule. The American colonists were now at
variance with the same class of British ministers which had
wronged Frederic in 1762. With which branch of the
Teutonic family would be the sympathy of Germany ? The
influence of Austria leaned to England. Where stood the
true nobility of the empire, the masters of German thought
and language? where its ruling princes? where its one
incomparable king?

In the north-east of Germany, the man who, alone of
Germans, can with Leibnitz take a place among the wise
by the side of Plato and Aristotle, reformed philosophy as
Luther had reformed the church, on the principle of the
qelf-activity of the individual mind. As Luther owned
neither pope nor prelates for any thing more than school-
fellows, so Kant accepted neither Leibnitz nor Hume for a
master, and passed between dogmatism and doubt to the
school of reason. His method was mind in its freedom,
guided and encouraged, moderated and restrained, by the
knowledge of its powers, by free analysis discovering the
unvarying laws of reason, judgment, and action. Skepti-
cism, he said, only strands the ship and leaves it high and
dry to rot : the true inventory of the human faculties is the
chart by which the pilot can take the ship safely wherever
he will. He stopped at criticism as little as the traveller
who waits to count his resources before starting on his
journey, or as the general who musters his troops before
planning his campaign. The analysis of the acts of thought
teaches faith in the intellect itself as the interpreter of
nature. The human mind, having learned the limit of its
faculties, and tolerating neither cowardice nor indolence in
the use of them, goes forth in its freedom to interrogate the

110* THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXI.

moral and material world with the means of compelling an
answer from both. " The forms of Kant's philosophy," says
Schiller, "may change ; its method will last as long as rea-
son itself." And Rosenkranz adds : " He was the herald of
the laws of reason, which nature obeys and which mind
ought to obey."

The method of Kant being that of the employment of
mind in its freedom, his fidelity to human freedom has
never been questioned and never can be. He accepted the
world as it is, only with the obligation that it is to be made
better. His political philosophy enjoins a constant struggle
to lift society out of its actual imperfect state, which is its
natural condition, into a higher and better one, by deciding
evory question, as it arises, in favor of reform and progress,
and keeping open the way for the elimination of all remain-
ing evil.

Accustomed to contemplate nature in the infinity of its
extent as forming one system, governed in all its parts and
in its totality by one law, he drew his opinions on questions
of liberty from elemental truth, and uttered them as if
with the assent of the universe of being. As he condemned
slavery, so he branded the bargaining away of troops by one
state to another without a common cause. " The rights of
man," he said, " are dear to God, are the apple of the eye of
God on earth ; " and he wished an hour each day set aside
for all children to learn them and take them to heart. His
friendship for America was therefore inherent and ineradi-
cable. He was one of the first, perhaps the very first, of the
German nation to defend, even at the risk of his friendships,
the cause of the United States.

Lessing contemplated the education of his race as carried
forward by one continued revelation of truth, the thoughts
of God, present in man, creating harmony and unity, and
leading toward higher culture. In his view, the class of
nobles was become superfluous : the lights of the world were
they who gave the clearest utterance to the divine ideas.
He held it a folly for men of a republic to wish for a mon-
archy: the chief of a commonwealth, governing a free peo-
ple by their free choice, has a halo that never surrounded a

Chap. XXXI. GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES. HI

king. Though he was in the employ of the duke of Bruns-
wick, he loathed from his inmost soul the engagement of
troops in a foreign war, either as volunteers or as sold by
their pripce. "How came Othello," he asks, "into the
service of Venice ? Had the Moor no country ? Why did
he let out his arm and blood to a foreign state?" And
he published to the German nation his opinion that " the
Americans are building in the New World the lodge of
humanity."

At Weimar, in 1 779, Herder, the first who vindicated for
the songs of the people their place in the annals of human
culture, published these words : " The boldest, most godlike
thoughts of the human mind, the most beautiful and great-
est works, have been perfected in republics; not only in
antiquity, but in mediaeval and more modern times, the
best history, the best philosophy of humanity and govern-
ment, is always republican ; and the republic exerts its
influence, not by direct intervention, but mediately by its
mere existence." The United States, with its mountain
ranges, rivers, and chains of lakes in the temperate zone,
seemed to him shaped by nature for a new civilization.

Of the poets of Germany, the veteran Klopstock beheld
in the American war the inspiration of humanity and the
dawn of an approaching great day. He loved the terrible
spirit which emboldens the peoples to grow conscious of
their power. With proud joy he calls to mind that, among
the citizens of the young republic, there were many Ger-
mans who gloriously fulfilled their duty in the war of free-
dom. " By the rivers of America," he wrote, " light beams
forth to the nations, and in part from Germans."

Less enthusiastic, but not less consistent, was Goethe.
Of plebeian descent, by birth a republican, born like Luther
in the heart of Germany, educated like Leibnitz in the cen-
tral university of Saxony, when seven years old he and
his father's house were partisans of Frederic, and rejoiced
in his victories as the victories of the German nation. In
early youth, he, like those around him, was interested in
the struggles of Corsica ; joined in the cry of " Long live
Paoli ! " and gave his heart sympathy to the patriot in

112 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXI.

exile. The ideas of popular liberty which filled his mind
led him, in his twenty-second year or soon after, to select
the theme for his first tragedy from the kindred epoch in
the history of the Netherlands. But the interest of the cir-
cle in which he moved became far more lively when, in a
remote part of the world, a whole people showed signs that
it would make itself free. He classed the Boston tea-party
of 1773 among the prodigious events which stamp them-
selves most deeply on the mind of childhood. Like every
body around him, he wished the Americans success, and
" the names of Franklin and Washington shone and sparkled
in his heaven of politics and war." When to all this was
added reform in France, he and the youth of Germany
promised themselves and all their fellow-men a beautiful
and even a glorious future. The thought of emigrating to
America passed placidly over his imagination, leaving no
more mark than the shadow of a flying cloud as it sweeps
over a garden of flowers.

The sale of Hessian soldiers for foreign money called
from him words of disdain ; but his reproof of the young
Germans who volunteered to fight for the American cause,
and then from f aint-heartedness drew back, did not go be-
yond a smile at the contrast between their zeal and their
deeds. He congratulated America that it was not forced
to bear up the traditions of feudalism ; and, writing or con-
versing, used only friendly words of the United States, as
" a noble country." During all his life coming in contact
with events that were changing the world, he painted them
to his mind in their order and connection. Just before
the French revolution of 1830, he published his opinion
that the desire for self-government, which had succeeded so
well in the colonies of North America, was sustaining the
battle in Europe without signs of weariness ; and, twenty
years before the movements of 1848, he foretold with pas-
sionless serenity that, as certainly as the Americans had
thrown the tea-chests into the sea, so certainly it would
come to a breach in Germany between princes and people,
if monarchy should not reconcile itself with freedom.

Schiller was a native of the part of Germany most in-

Chat. XXXL GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES. 113

clined to idealism; in mediaeval days the stronghold of
German liberty ; renowned for its numerous free cities, the
distribution of land among small freeholders, the total ab-
sence of great landed proprietaries, the comparative extinc-
tion of the old nobility. Equally in his hours of reflection
and in his hours of inspiration, his sentiments were such as
became the poet of the German nation, enlightened by the
ideas of Kant. The victory which his countrymen won
against the Vatican and against error for the freedom of
reason was, as he wrote, a victory for all nations and for
endless time. He was ever ready to clasp the millions of
his fellow-men in his embrace, to give a salutation to the
whole world ; and, glowing with indignation at princes who
met the expenses of profligacy by selling their subjects to
war against the rights of mankind, a few years later he
brought their crime upon the stage.

Under the German kinglings, the sense of the nation
could not express itself freely, but German political interest
centred in America. Translations of British pamphlets on
the war, including "Price upon Liberty," were printed
in Brunswick.

It is known from the writings of Niebuhr that the politi-
cal ideas which in his youth most swayed the mind of
Germany grew out of its fellow-feeling with the United
States in their struggle for independence. The truest and
best representatives of German intelligence, from every
part of the land, joined in a chorus to welcome them to
their place among the nations of the earth.

VOL* YL

114 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXJL

CHAPTER XXXII.

THB BELATIOX8 OF THB TWO NEW POWERS.

1778.

The negotiations of Great Britain with the petty princes,
who transferred the service of their subjects for money,
have been folly related. Duke Ernest of Saxony, culti-
vated by travel in Holland, England, . and France, ruled
his principality of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg with wisdom
and justice. By frugality and simplicity in his court,
he restored the disordered finances of his duchy, and pro-
vided for great public works and for science. Though the
king of England was his near relation, he put aside the
offers of enormous subsidies for troops to be employed in
America. When, ten years later, he was ready to risk his
life and independence in the defence of the unity and the
liberties of Germany, these are the words in which he
theered on his dearest friend to aid in curbing the ambition
of Austria : " All hope for our freedom and the preservation
of the constitution is not lost. Right and equity are on our
side ; and the wise Providence, according to my idea of it,
cannot approve, cannot support, perjury and the suppression
of all rights of citizens and of states. Of this principle the
example of America is the eloquent proof. England met
with her deserts. It was necessary that her piide should
be bowed, and that oppressed innocence should carry off the
victory. Time cannot outlaw the rights of mankind."

The friend to whom these words were addressed was
the brave, warm-hearted Charles Augustus of Saxe- Weimar,
who, in 1776, being then of only nineteen years, refused a
request for leave to open recruiting offices at Ilmenau and
Jena for the English service, but consented to the delivery

Chip.XXXII THE TWO NEW POWERS. H5

of vagabonds and convicts. When, in the last days of
November, 1777, the Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, as the
go-between of the British ministry, made unlimited offers
of subsidies for some of his battalions, the patriot prince
called his ministers to a conference, and, supported by the
unanimous advice of those present, on the third of December,
he answered : " There are, in general, many weighty reasons
why I cannot yield my consent to deliver troops into foreign
service and pay;" and it is minuted on the draft that
44 Serenissimus himself took charge of posting the letter."

The signature of Goethe, the youngest minister of Weimar,
is wanting to the draft, for he was absent on a winter trip
to the Hartz Mountains ; but that his heart was with his
colleagues appears from his writing simultaneously from
Goslar : " How am . I again brought to love that class of
men which is called the lower class, but which assuredly
for God is the highest ! In them moderation, contentment,
straightforwardness, patience, endurance, all the virtues,
meet together."

In like manner, when, in 1775, an overture from England
reached Frederic Augustus the young elector of Saxony,
Count Sacken, his minister, promptly reported his decision :
"The thoughts of sending a part of his army to the remote
countries of the New World touch too nearly his paternal
tenderness for his subjects, and seem to be too much in
contrast with the rules of a healthy policy."

Did the future bring honor to the houses of the princes
who refused to fight against America ? or to those who sold
their subjects to destroy the freedom of the New World ?
Every dynasty which furnished troops to England has
ceased to reign, except one, which has now for its sole
representative an aged and childless man. On the other
hand, the three Saxon families remain ; and in their states
local self-government has continually increased, and the
wisdom and the will of the inhabitants have been consulted
and respected. In Saxe-Weimar, the collision between
monarchy and popular freedom, predicted for Germany by
Goethe, was avoided by the wisdom of its administration.

Nor is the different fate of the princes to be attributed to

116 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIL

accident. The same infidelity to duty, which induced some
of them to support their vices by traffic in their subjects,
colored their career, and brought them in conflict with the
laws of the eternal Providence.

The prince who, next to Joseph of Austria, governed at
that time the largest number of men having the German
for their mother tongue, was Frederic of Prussia, then the
only king in Germany. He united in himself the six quali-
ties of a great regent. Superior to personal and dynastic
influences, he lived with and for the people. Free from
prejudice, he saw things as they were. His prudence
measured his strength correctly, and he never risked ex-
treme danger but for a necessary object. He possessed the
inventive faculty which creates resources ; he had the strong
will that executes with energy, swiftly, and at the right
time ; he had also the truest test of greatness, moderation.

The people bore him no grudge on account of the distri-
bution of employments ; for he never yielded the smallest
fraction of political power to the class of nobles, was frugal
in rewarding their service, and exacted of them the fulfil-
ment of duty as unsparingly as he exacted it from himself.
From an unhappy defect in his education, he never acquired
a mastery of the German tongue, and he slighted German
men of letters ; but they magnanimously forgave his neg-
lect, acted as his allies, and heralded his greatness.

Hardships had shattered his constitution. He was old
and broken ; had outlived friends, of whom the dearest had
fallen near him in battle ; had lost all enjoyment in music,
in building, in the arts, but not the keen sense of duty.
The thought of his campaigns gave him no pleasure, their
marvellously triumphant result no pride : he remembered
them with awe, and even with horror; like one who has
sailed through a long, relentless whirlwind in mid-ocean,
just escaping shipwreck. No one of the powers of Europe
was heartily his ally. Russia will soon leave him for Austria.
His great deeds become to him so many anxieties ; he dreads
the want of perpetuity to his system, which meets with per-
sistent and deadly enmity. He seeks rest ; and strong and
unavoidable antagonisms allow his wasted strength no re-

Chap. XXXII. THE TWO NEW POWERS. 117

pose. He is childless and alone ; his nephew, who will be
his successor, neglects him, and follows other counsels ; his
own brother hopes and prays to Heaven that the king's
days may not be prolonged. Worn by unparalleled labor
and years, he strikes against obstacles on all sides in seeking
to give a sure life to his kingdom ; and his consummate pru-
dence teaches him that he must still dare and suffer and go
on. He must maintain Protestant and intellectual liberty,
and the liberty of Germany against Austria, which uses tho
imperial crown only for its advantage as a foreign power,
and with relentless perseverance aims at the destruction of
his realm.

The impartiality of Frederic extended to the forms of
government. The most perfect he held to be that of a
well-administered monarchy. u But then," he added, u king-
doms are subjected to the caprice of a single man whose
successors will have no common character. A good-for-
nothing prince succeeds an ambitious one ; then follows a
devotee ; then a warrior ; then a scholar ; then, it may be, a
voluptuary ; and the genius of the nation, diverted by the
variety of objects, assumes no fixed character. But re-
publics fulfil more promptly the design of their institution,
and hold out better ; for good kings die, but wise laws are
immortal. There is unity in the end which republics pro-
pose, and in the means which they employ ; and they there-
fore almost never miss their aim." The republic which
arose in America encountered no unfavorable prejudice in
his mind.

The relations of Frederic to England and to France
changed with the changing character of their governments.
Towards the former, a Protestant power, he, as the head
of the chief Protestant power on the continent, naturally
leaned. Against France, whose dissolute king made him-
self the champion of superstition, he had fought for seven
years; but with the France which protected the United
States he had a common feeling. Liberal English states-
men commanded his good-will ; but he detested the policy of
Bute and of North : so that for him and the United States
there were in England the same friends and the same
enemies.

J 18 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXII.

1774. In November, 1774, he expressed the opinion that
the British colonies would rather be buried under

the ruins of their settlements than submit to the yoke

of the mother country. Maltzan, his minister in London,

yielded to surrounding influences, and in February,

1775. 1775, wishing to pave the way for an alliance be-
tween the two powers, wrote : " The smallest attention

would flatter the ministry beyond all expression." " What
motive have 1," answered Frederic, " to flatter Lord North ?
I see none : the love I bear my people imposes on me no
necessity to seek the alliance of England." He was aston-
ished at the apathy and gloomy silence of the British nation
on undertaking a war alike absurd and fraught with hazard.
" The treatment of the colonies," he wrote in September,
" appears to me to be the first step towards despotism. If
in this the king should succeed, he will by and by attempt
to impose his own will upon the mother country."

In October, 1775, the British minister at Berlin reported
of the Prussian king : " His ill state of health threatens him
with a speedy dissolution." It was while face to face with
death that Frederic wrote of the August proclamation of
George III. : " It seems to me very hard to proclaim as
rebels free subjects who only defend their privileges against
tbe despotism of a ministry." While still but half recovered
from a long, painful, and complicated sickness, he explained
the processes of his mind when others thought him dying :
" The more I reflect on the measures of the British govern-
ment, the more they appear to me arbitrary and despotic;
The British constitution itself seems to authorize resistance.
That the court has provoked its colonies to withstand its
measures, nobody can doubt. It invents new taxes ; it
wishes by its own authority to impose them on its colonies
in manifest breach of their privileges : the colonies do not
refuse their former taxes, and demand only with regard to
new ones to be placed on the same footing with England ;
but the government will not accord to them the right to
tax themselves. This is, in short, the whole history of these
disturbances.

" During my illness, in which I have passed many mo-

1776. THE TWO NEW POWERS. H9

ments doing nothing, these are the ideas that occupied
my mind ; and it seems to me that they could not escape
any reasonable Englishman, who is naturally much more
interested than I. Every thing which is taking place in
America can be to me very indifferent in the main ; and I
have no cause to embarrass myself either about the form of
government that will be established there, or the degree of
influence of the party of Bute in the mother country.
But every patriotic Englishman must deplore the turn iro.
which the affairs of his country are taking under the
present administration, and the odious perspective which it
opens before him."

" The court carries its point against all principles of true
patriotism, and treads under foot the rules of sound policy."
" If I had a voice in the British cabinet, I should take ad*
vantage of the good disposition of the colonies to reconcile
myself with them." "In order to interest the nation in
this war, the British court will, it is true, offer conditions of
reconciliation ; but it will make them so burdensome that
the colonies will never be able to accept them." "The
issue of this contest cannot fail to make an epoch in British
annals.9'

" The great question is always whether the colonies will
not And means to separate entirely from the mother country
and form a free republic. The examples of the Netherlands
and of Switzerland make me at least presume that this is
not impossible. It is very certain that nearly all Europe
takes the part of the colonies and defends their cause,
while that of the court finds neither favor nor aid. Persons
who have lately been in England, and with whom I have
spoken, make no secret with me that the higher classes of
the nation are no longer so enthusiastic for their liberty.
From all that I have learned, it appears that the ancient
British spirit is almost totally eclipsed." When the ministry
confessed its inability to reduce the colonies except by the
subvention of foreign troops, he wrote : " The imprudence
of Lord North shows itself in the clearest light ; and surely
he ought not to be at his ease, when he considers that it is
he who has plunged his country into this abyss of embar-
rassment and difficulties."

122 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXII.

declaration of independence and of the articles of Ameri-
can confederation, with the formal expression of the earnest
desire of the United States to obtain his friendship,
1777. and to establish a mutually beneficial free commerce
between their distant countries. The great king re-
ceived from Franklin with unmingled satisfaction the mani-
festo of the republic and its first essay at a constitution.
The victories of Washington at Trenton and Princeton had
already proved to him that the colonies were become a nation.
He supported the rights of neutrals in their fullest extent ;
and, when England began to issue letters of marque, he
stigmatized privateers as " pirates of the sea." But, as to
a direct commerce, he could only answer as before : " I am
without a navy; having no armed ships to protect trade,
the direct commerce could be conducted only under the
flag of the Netherlands, and England respects that flag no
longer. St. Eustatius is watched by at least ninety English
cruisers. Tinker more favorable circumstances, our linens
of Silesia, our woollens and other manufactures, might find
a new market." But, while he postponed negotiations, he,
who was accustomed to utter his commands tersely and not
to repeat his words, charged his minister thrice over in the
same rescript to say and do nothing that could offend or
wound the American people. In the remaining years of
the war, some one of the American agents would ever and
anon renew the same proposition ; but he always in gentle
words turned aside the request which interfered with his
nearer duty to Prussia.

Against the advice of Franklin, and a seasonable hint
from the Prussian minister Schulenburg that the visit
would be premature, Arthur Lee went by way of Vienna
to Berlin. At Vienna, he was kept aloof by Kaunitz,
socially and in the foreign office. In Berlin, he, like every
traveller, was assured of protection. Frederic, though he
refused to see him, showed the agent of the United States
friendly respect, promised his influence to prevent new
treaties by England for German troops, and to troops
destined for America forbade the transit through any part
of his dominions.

1777. THE TWO NEW POWERS. 128

Elliott, then British minister in Berlin, at the cost of
a thousand guineas hired a burglar to steal the papers of
Arthur Lee, but, on his complaint to the police, sent them
back, and spirited the thief out of the kingdom. The rash
envoy attempted to throw upon the oniciousness of a ser-
vant the blame of having stolen the American papers, which
he himself received and read. Against the rules of the
court, he hurried to Potsdam : the king refused to see him ;
and a scornful cabinet order, in his own handwriting, still
preserves his judgment upon Elliott : " It is a case of public
theft, and he should be forbidden the court ; but I will not
push matters with rigor." And to his minister in London
he wrote : " Oh, the worthy pupil of Bute ! In truth, the
English ought to blush for shame at sending such ministers
to foreign courts."

Whoever will understand the penetrating sagacity of the
statesmen of France in the eighteenth century must
search the records of their diplomacy : the vigor of 1777.
the British political mind must be studied in the de-
bates in parliament ; at the courts of foreign powers, Eng-
land in those days did not feel the need of employing able
men.

The people of that kingdom cherished the fame of the
Prussian king as in some measure their own ; not aware
how basely Bute had betrayed him, they unanimously de-
sired the renewal of his alliance ; and the ministry sought
to open the way for it through his envoy in London. Fred-
eric, in his replies, made the most frank avowal of his pol-
icy : " No man is further removed than myself from having
connections with England." " "We will remain on the foot-
ing on which we now are with her." " France knows per-
fectly well that it has absolutely nothing to apprehend from
me in case of a war with England. My indifference for
this latter power can surprise nobody : ' a scalded cat fears
cold water,' says the proverb ; and, in fact, what could be
the union to contract with this crown after the signal expe-
rience that I have had of its duplicity ? If it would give
me all the millions possible, I would not furnish it two
smaL files of my troops to serve against the colonies.

124 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIL

Neither can it expect from me a guarantee of its electorate
of Hanover. I know by the past too well what the like
guarantee has cost me, to have any desire to renew it."
" Although I was then its ally, its conduct towards me was
that of a thorough enemy."

"Never in past ages," he continued, some weeks later,
" has the situation of England been so critical. The nation
itself seems to me to have degenerated. Once so proud and
so jealous of its liberty, it abandons the ship of state to the
caprice of its ministry, which is without men of talent."
" A reconciliation would be the wisest policy for England ;
and, because it would be the wisest policy, it will not be
adopted."

"England will make the sacrifice of thirty-six million
crowns for one campaign." " True, her ministry can find
thirty-six millions more easily than I a single florin." " Bat
the largest sums will not be sufficient to procure the sailors
and recruits she needs ; the storm which is forming between
the courts of England and France will burst forth " u not
later than the next spring." " And a glance at the situar
tion shows that, if she continues to employ the same
1777. generals, four campaigns will hardly be enough to
subjugate her colonies." "All good judges agree
with me that, if the colonies remain united, the mother
country will never subjugate them."

In the interim, Frederic wished the ministry to know
that he had refused to the American emissaries the use of
Embden as abase for troubling British navigation. "You
have only to declare to the British government," so he
instructed his envoy in London, " that my marine is nothing
but a mercantile marine, of which I know the limits too
well to go beyond them." " If the colonies shall sustain
their independence, a direct commerce with them will fol-
low of course."

Having taken his position towards England, he proceeded
to gain the aid of France as well as of Russia against the
annexation of Bavaria to the Austrian dominions ; and in
the breast of the aged Maurepas, whose experience in office
preceded the seven years9 war, there remained enough of the

1777. THE TWO NEW POWERS. 125

earlier French traditions to render him jealous of such an
aggrandizement of the old rival of his country. The vital
importance of the question was understood at Potsdam and
at Vienna. Kaunitz, who made it the cardinal point of Aus-
trian policy to overthrow the kingdom of Prussia, looked
upon the acquisition of Bavaria as the harbinger of success.
When Joseph repaired to Paris to win France for his design
through the influence of his sister, Marie Antoinette, the
Prussian envoy was commanded to be watchful, but to be
silent. No sooner had the emperor retired than Frederic,
knowing that Maurepas had resisted the influence of the
qneen, renewed his efforts; and, through a confidential
French agent sent to him under the pretext of attending
the midsummer military reviews at Magdeburg, the two
kingdoms adjusted their foreign policy, of which the cen-
tral points lay in the United States and in Germany.

France, if she would venture on war with England,
needed security and encouragement from Frederic on the
side of Germany, and his aid to stop the sale of German
troops. He met the overture with joy, and near the end of
July wrote with his own hand : " No ; certainly we have no
jealousy of -the aggrandizement of France : we even put up
prayers for her prosperity, provided her armies are not
found near Wesel or Halberstadt." "You can assure M.
de Maurepas," so he continued in August and September,
u that I have no connection whatever with England, nor do
I grudge to France any advantages she may gain by the war
with the colonies.9' " Her first interest requires the enfee-
blement of Great Britain, and the way to this is to make it
lose its colonies in America. The present oppor-
tunity is more favorable than ever before existed, 1777.
and more favorable than is likely to recur in three
centuries." "The independence of the colonies will be
worth to France all which the war will cost."

As the only way to bridle the ambition of Austria, and
to preserve the existence of his own kingdom and the liber-
ties of Germany, he pressed upon the French council an
alliance of France, Prussia, and Russia. " Italy and Bava-
ria," he said, " would follow, and no alliance would be left

126 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXH

to Austria except that with England. If it does not take
place, troubles are at hand to be decided only by the sword."
In his infirm old age, he felt his own powers utterly unequal
to the renewal of such a conflict ; and he saw no hope for
himself, as king of Prussia, to rescue Bavaria and with it
Germany from absorption by Austria, except in the good-
will of France and Russia.

1777 While Frederic was encouraging France to strike

a decisive blow in favor of the United States, their
cause found an efficient advocate in Marie Antoinette. She
placed in the hands of her husband a memoir which had
been prepared by Count de Maillebois and Count d'Estaing,
and which severely censured the timid policy of his minis-
ters from the very beginning of the troubles in America.
The states of Europe, it was said, would judge the reign of
Louis XVI. by the manner in which that prince will know
how to avail himself of the occasion to lower the pride and
presumption of a rival power. The French council, never-
theless, put off the day of decision. Even so late as the
twenty-third of November, every one of them, except the
minister of the marine and Vergennes, Maurepas above all,
desired to avoid a conflict. Frederic, on his part, all the
more continued his admonitions, through his minister at
Paris, that France had now an opportunity which must be
regarded as unique; that England could from no quarter
obtain the troops which she needed ; that Denmark would be
solicited in vain to furnish ships-of-war and mariners ; that
he himself, by refusing passage through any part of his
dominions to the recruits levied in Germany, had given
public evidence of his sympathy with the Americans ; that
France, if she should go to war with England, might be
free from apprehension alike on the side of Russia and of
Prussia.

So when the news of the surrender of Burgoyne's army
was received at Paris, and every face, even that of the
French king, showed signs of joy, Maurepas prepared to
yield ; but first wished the great warrior who knew so well
the relative forces of the house of Bourbon and England to
express his judgment on the probable issues of a war ; and

1777. THE TWO NEW POWERS. 127

Frederic, renewing assurances of his own good-will and the
non-interference of Russia, replied, " that the chances were
one hundred to one in favor of great advantages to France ;
that the colonies would sustain their independence.'9

Balancing the disasters of Burgoyne with the successes of
Howe, he wrote : u These triumphs of Howe are ephemeral.
The ministry would feel a counter-blow if the English had
not degenerated from their ancient spirit. They may get
funds, but where will they get twenty thousand men ?
Neither Sweden nor Denmark will furnish them ; and, irn.
as she is at variance with Holland, she will find no
assistance there. Will England apply to the small princes
of the empire ? Their military force is already too much
absorbed. I see no gate at which she can knock for aux-
iliaries ; and nothing remains to her but her electorate of
Hanover, exposed to be invaded by France the moment
that she shall leave it bare of troops."

" England made originally an awkward mistake in going
to war with its colonies ; then followed the illusion of being
able to subjugate them by a corps of seven thousand men ;
next, the scattering its different corps, which has caused the
failure of all its enterprises. I am of Chatham's opinion,
that the ill success of England is due to the ignorance, rash-
ness, and incapacity of its ministry. Even should there be
a change in the ministry, the tories would still retain the
ascendency." " The primal source of the decay of Britain
is to be sought in the departure of its present government
in a sovereign degree from the principles of British history.
All the efforts of his Britannic majesty tend to despotism.
It is only to the principles of the tories that the present war
with the colonies is to be attributed. The re-enforcements
which these same ministers design to send to America will
not change the face of affairs ; and independence will always
be the indispensable condition of an accommodation. Every
thing is to be expected from a ministry as corrupt as the
present British ministry. It is entirely a slave to the king,
who will make of it whatever he pleases. "Without patriot-
ism, it will take no measures but false ones, diametrically
contrary to the true interests of the country ; and this will

128 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. iXXH

be the first step towards the decay which menaces the Brit-
ish constitution."

At the same time, Frederic expressed more freely his
sympathy with the United States. The port of Embden
could not receive their cruisers, for the want of a fleet or a
fort to defend them from insult; but he offered them an
asylum in the Baltio at Dantzic. He attempted, though in
vain, to dissuade the Prince of Anspach from furnishing
troops to England; and he forbade the subsidiary troops
both from Anspach and Hesse to pass through his domin-
ions. The prohibition, which was made as publicly as pos-
sible, and just as the news arrived of the surrender of
Burgoyne, resounded throughout Europe ; and he announced
to the Americans that it was given " to testify his good-will
for them." Every facility was afforded to the American
commissioners to purchase and ship arms from Prussia.
Before the end of 1777, he promised not to be the last to

recognise the independence of the United States;
j™J; and in January, 1778, his minister, Schulenburg,

wrote officially to one of their commissioners in
Paris: "The king desires that your generous efforts may
be crowned with complete success. He will not hesitate to
recognise your independence, when France, which is more
directly interested in the event of this contest, shall have
given the example.9'

1777. THE RETREAT FROM PENNSYLVANIA. 129

CHAPTER XXXIII.

THE BRITISH RETREAT FROM PENNSYLVANIA.

Mat— June, 1778.

The rescript of France, which announced to the British
ministry her acknowledgment of American indepen-
dence, assumed as a principle of public law that a j£™'
nationality may, by its own declaration, speak itself
into being. The old systems of the two governments were
reversed. The British monarchy, which from the days of
William of Orange had been the representative of toleration
and liberty, put forth its strength in behalf of unjust
authority; while France became the foster-mother of re-
publicanism. In one respect, France was more suited than
Britain to lead the peoples of Europe in the road to freedom.
On the release of her rural population from serfdom, a large
part of them retained rights to the soil ; and, though bowed
down under grievous burdens and evil laws, they had a
shelter and acres from which they could not be evicted.
The saddest defect in English life was the absence of a
class of small freeholders, the class which constituted the
strength of France, of the most enlightened parts of Ger-
many, and of the states which Great Britain had formed by
colonization. In England and Scotland and Ireland, though
Mthe property by feudal law was strictly in the tenant," the
feudal chiefs had taken to themselves in absolute ownership
nearly all the ground ; the landless people, dependent in the
rural districts on their lords, were never certain of their
to-morrow; and the government was controlled by an
aristocracy which had no political check but in the crown.

On the fourth of May, the treaties of commerce
and alliance with Louis XVI. were unanimously
ratified by congress, with grateful acknowledgments of his

VOL. VI. 9

ISO THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXHL

magnanimous and disinterested conduct, and the "wish
that the friendship so happily commenced between France
and the United States might be perpetuated." The rivalries
of centuries, in which the Americans had been involved
only from their dependence on England, were effaced for
ever; all Frenchmen became their friends, and the king
of France was proclaimed " the protector of the rights of
mankind."

In Washington's camp, Lafayette smiled as he read that
his government dated the independence of America from
the moment of its own declaration, and said prophetically :
" Therein lies a principle of national sovereignty which
one day will be recalled to them at home." On
May e. *^e sixth the alliance was celebrated at Valley Forge.
After a salute of thirteen cannon and a running fire
of all the musketry, the army, drawn up in two lines,
shouted: "Long live the king of France!" and again:
" Long live the friendly European powers ! " and
May 8. the ceremonies were closed by a huzza for the Amer-
ican states.
In an address to the inhabitants of the United States,
congress assumed that independence was secured ; and they
proclaimed the existence of a new people, though they
could not hide its want of a government. They rightly
represented its territory as of all others the most extensive
and most blessed in its climate and productions ; they owned
its financial embarrassments, because no taxes had been
laid to carry on the war ; and they invited their countrymen
to " bring forth their armies into the field," while men of
leisure were encouraged to collect moneys for the public
funds. In return for all losses, they promised " the sweets
of a free commerce with every part of the earth."

On the eighteenth of May a festival was given to
7 General Howe by thirty of his officers, most of them
members of his staff. The numerous company embarked
on the Delaware above the town, and, to the music of one
hundred and eight hautboys, rowed two miles down the
stream in galleys and boats glittering with colors and
streamers. They passed two hundred transport vessels

1778. THE RETREAT FROM PENNSYLVANIA. 131

tricked out in bravery and crowded with lookers-on ; and,
landing to the tune of " God save the King " under salutes
from two decorated ships-of-war, they marched between lines
of cavalry and infantry and all the standards of the army
to a lawn, where, in presence of their chosen ladies raised
on thrones, officers, fantastically dressed as knights and
squires, engaged in a tournament. After this, they pro-
ceeded under an ornamented arch to a splendidly furnished
house, where dancing began ; and a gaming table was
opened with a bank of two thousand guineas. The tickets
of admission described the guest of the night as the setting
sun, bright at his going down, but destined to rise in
greater glory; and fireworks in dazzling letters promised
him immortal laurels. At midnight, a supper of four hundred
and thirty covers was served under the light of twelve
hundred wax candles, and was enlivened by an orchestra
of more than one hundred instruments. Dancing
continued till the sun was more than an hour high. %££%.
Never had subordinates given a more brilliant fare-
well to a departing general ; and it was doubly dear to
their commander, for it expressed their belief that the
ministry had wronged him, and that his own virtue pointed
him out for advancement.

The festival was hardly over, when Howe was informed
that Lafayette, with twenty-five hundred men and eight
cannon, had crossed the Schuylkill, and, twelve miles from
Valley Forge, had taken a post of observation on the range
of Barren Hill. Flushed with the hope of ending his
American career with lustre, he resolved by a swift move-
ment to capture the party. At ten on the night of the
nineteenth, he sent Grant at the head of fifty-three hundred
chosen men, with the best guides, to gain by roundabout
ways the rear of Lafayette. They were followed the
next morning by fifty-seven hundred selected troops, May 2*.
commanded by Howe himself, assisted by Clinton
and Knyphausen, with Lord Howe, to witness the discomfit
of the youthful general, whom he was to ship to England.
At Chestnut Hill they were to meet the American party
after its rout ; but they listened in vain for the sound of

132 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIII

cannon, and at noon Grant came in sight with only his own
detachment. Lafayette had been surprised, and his direct
communication with Valley Forge out off ; but a lower ford
called Matson's, which was nearer to Grant than to him,
remained unoccupied. Sending small parties into the woods,
to present themselves as the heads of attacking columns,
he had deceived his antagonist, and crossed the ford while
Grant was preparing to give battle.

Wayworn and crestfallen, Howe returned to the
MayV c^y« On the twenty-fourth he gave up to Sir Henry
Clinton the command of an army which excelled in
discipline, health, and alertness. Of the officers who at-
tended him to the place of embarkation, the most gallant
shed tears at the parting; and Knyphausen, from deep
emotion, could not finish the address which he began in
their name.

Brave and an adept in military science, Howe had failed
in the conduct of the war from sluggish dilatoriness, want
of earnest enterprise, and love of the pleasures which excite
a coarse nature. On landing near Bunker Hill, he had
sufficient troops to have turned the position of the Ameri-
cans ; but he delayed just long enough for them to prepare
for his attack. He was driven out of Boston from his most
unmilitary neglect to occupy Dorchester Heights, which
overlook the town. He took his troops in midwinter to the
bleak, remote, and then scarcely inhabited Halifax, instead
of sailing to Rhode Island, or some convenient nook on
Long Island within the sound, where he would have found
a milder climate, greater resources, and nearness to the
scene of his next campaign. In the summer of 1776,
marching by night to attack General Putnam in his lines at
Brooklyn, he lost the best chance of success by halting his
men for rest and breakfast. When his officers reported to
him that they could easily storm the American intrench-
ments, he forbade them to make the attempt. His want of
vigilance was so great that he let Washington pass a day
in collecting boats, and a night and morning in retreating
across an arm of the sea, and knew not what was done till
he was roused from slumber after sunrise.

1778. THE RETREAT FROM PENNSYLVANIA. 138

When with his undivided force he might have reached
Philadelphia, he detached four brigades and eleven ships-
of-war to Rhode Island, where the troops remained for
three years in idle uselessness. Failing to cross the Dela-
ware, he occupied New Jersey with insulated detachments,
which Washington was able to cut to pieces in detail. In
1777, instead of an early and active campaign, he lingered
in New York till midsummer, and then negleoted to make
a connection with Burgoyne. He passed the winter in
Philadelphia without once attempting to break up the
American camp at Valley Forge, corrupting his own army
by his example of licentiousness, and teaching the younger
officers how to ruin themselves b^ gaming. The manner
in which he threw up his command was a defiance of his
government, and an open declaration to all Europe that the
attempt of England to reduce its colonies must certainly
fail. The affections of his officers were so won by in-
dulgence, that they parted from such a general as though
they were bidding farewell to a meritorious commander.
Nothing saved him from reprobation in England but that
Lord George Germain had made mistakes still graver than
his own.

Meantime, Lord Howe and Sir Henry Clinton, each im.
acting under Bpecial instructions, separately commu- Junefl-
nicated the three conciliatory acts of parliament to congress,
who received them on the sixth of June, and on the same
day answered : " They have in April last expressed their
sentiments upon bills not essentially different from those acts.
When the king of Great Britain shall be seriously disposed
to end the unprovoked war waged against these United
States, they will readily attend to such terms of peace as
may consist with the honor of independent nations and the
sacred regard they mean to pay to treaties."

On the day of this second rejection of Lord North's
offers, the three British commissioners arrived in Phil-
adelphia. In sailing up the Delaware, they had seen
enough " to regret ten thousand times that their rulers, in-
stead of a tour through the worn-out countries of Europe,
had not finished their education with a visit round the

134 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIIL

coasts and rivers of this beautiful and boundless continent."
The English rivers shrunk for them into rills; they pre-
dicted that in a few years the opulent "village" of Phil-
adelphia, which it seemed to them most melancholy to
desert, would become a magnificent metropolis. The result
of their mission was watched with intense interest through-
out all Europe, especially at Versailles and in the Nether-
lands ; but the creation of their office was a mere device to
aid Lord North in governing the house of commons, and to
u reconcile the people of England to a continuance of the
war." Carlisle, the first commissioner, had in the house of
lords " spoken with warmth upon the insolence of the rebels "
for refusing to treat with the Howes, and had stigmatized
the people of America as " base and unnatural children " of

England. The second commissioner was an under-
1778. secretary, whose chief, a few weeks before, in the

same assembly, had scoffed at congress as a " body
of vagrants." The third was Johnstone, who had lately in
parliament justified the Americans and charged the king
with hypocrisy.

There never was any expectation on the part of the
ministry that the commission would be successful, or it
would have been differently constituted. In the certainty
that it would not be received, Germain had given orders for
the prosecution of the war, and on a different plan, such as
a consciousness of weakness might inspire in a cruel and
revengeful mind. Clinton was ordered to abandon Phil-
adelphia ; to hold New York and Rhode Island ; to curtail
the boundaries of the thirteen states on the north-east and
on the south ; to lay waste Virginia by means of ships-of-
war ; and to attack Providence, Boston, and all accessible
ports between New York and Nova Scotia, destroying
vessels, wharfs, stores, and materials for ship-building. At
the same time, the Indians, from Detroit all along the
frontiers of the west and south to Florida, were to be
hounded on to spread dismay and to murder. No active
operations at the north were expected, except the devasta-
tion of towns on the sea, and raids of the allied savages
on the border. The king, under his sign manual, ordered

1778. THE RETREAT FROM PENNSYLVANIA. 135

Clinton to detach five thousand men for the conquest of the
French island, St. Lucia.

As the commissioners stepped on shore to receive 1778.
the submission of the colonies, and on their subniis- June*
sion to pardon their rebellion, they found to their extreme
surprise and chagrin that orders for the immediate evacu-
ation of Philadelphia had preceded them, and were just be-
ing executed. About three thousand of the most tenderly
bred of the inhabitants were escaping to embark in British
ships. "The commission," it was said, "can do no good
now : if Philadelphia is left to the rebels, independence is
acknowledged and America lost." In the streets that lately
had the air of one continuous market-day, the stillness was
broken by auctions of furniture which lay in heaps on the
sidewalks. Those who resolved to stay roused mournfully
from a delusive confidence in British protection to restless
anxiety. In this strait, the representatives of Britain
thought fit, in a communication to congress sealed with the
image of a fond mother caressing her children, to recognise
the constituency of congress as " states," and pressed them
to accept perfect freedom of legislation and of internal
government, representation in parliament, and an exemption
from the presence of military forces, except with their own
permission ; in short, the gratification of " every wish that
America had expressed." And they insinuated that France
was the common enemy.

These offers, which were made without authority and
were therefore fraudulent, they wrote from a flying army ;
and, before an answer could be received, they had sailed
down the Delaware. The land crowned with stately forests,
and seeming to. them the richest country in the world ; the
river covered with vessels in full sail, crowded with people
leaving the city of their birth and all their property, except
what they could carry with them, and hurrying from an
enemy consisting in part of relations and friends, — pre-
sented a spectacle the most beautiful and the most sad.

Congress resented the letter of the commissioners as an
offence to their own honor and to their ally. They knew
that their wars with France had been but a consequence of

136 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIH

their connection with England; that independence was
peace ; and, by a unanimous vote, they on the seven-
Juufir. teenth made answer as before : " The idea of de-
pendence is inadmissible. Congress will be ready to
enter upon a treaty of peace and commerce, when the king
of Great Britain shall demonstrate a sincere disposition for
that purpose by an explicit acknowledgment of the inde-
pendence of these states, or withdrawing his fleets and
armies." The American officers were of the same mind,
except Lee, who was false, and Gates, who, in the belief
that every thing contended for was granted, wished a con-
ference with the commissioners. Washington, reproving
Johnstone for addressing him a private letter, assured him
that "the voice of congress was the general voice of the
people."

The convention of Saratoga had been broken by the
British, at the time of the surrender, by the concealment
of the public chest and other public property of which the
United States were thus defrauded. In November, 1777,
Burgoyne had written a rash and groundless complaint of
its violation by the Americans, and raised the implication
that he might use the pretended breach to disengage himself
and his government from all its obligations. In January,
1778, congress suspended the embarkation of his army until
his capitulation should be expressly confirmed by the court
of Great Britain. Congress had also made a demand for
lists of all persons comprehended in the surrender ; and a
compliance with this proper and even necessary requisition
had been refused. The commissioners now desired to in-
tervene and negotiate for leave for the captives to return
to Europe. But their powers under their appointment
reached the case only by construction ; and their acts might
be disclaimed by their government as unwarranted. Be-
sides, by their attempts at bribery, they had forfeited every
claim to confidence. Congress, therefore, on the fourth of
September, without a dissentient voice, resolved to detain
the troops till it should receive the most formal and ir-
revocable ratification of the convention by the highest
authority in Great Britain. The British, on their side,

1778. THE RETREAT FROM PENNSYLVANIA. 137

complained that an essential condition of the capitulation
remained unexecuted.

On the night following the seventeenth of June, Sir
Henry Clinton crossed the Delaware with more than seven-
teen thousand effective men. To the loyalists the retreat
appeared as a violation of the plighted faith of the British
king. The winter's revelry waa over; honors and offices
turned suddenly to bitterness and ashes ; papers of protec-
tion were become only an opprobrium and a peril. Crowds
of wretched refugees, with all of their possessions which
they could transport, fled with the army. The sky
sparkled with stars ; the air of the summer night was j^w.
soft and tranquil, as the exiles, broken in fortune and
without a career, went in despair from the only city they
could love.

Had the several states met the requisitions of congress,
the army of Washington would have been the master of
New Jersey; but, while it was pining from their delin-
quency, Lee, then second in command, was treacherously
plotting its ruin. His loud fault-finding was rebuked by
the general for its " very mischievous " tendency. To
secure to the British a retreat "on velvet," he had the
effrontery to assert that, on leaving Philadelphia, they
would move to the south. But the attempt to mislead
Washington was fruitless. In a council on the seventeenth,
Lee advised that it would not be safe to attack the British,
and carried with him all the officers except Greene, Lafay-
ette, Wayne, and Cadwalader. Unmoved by the apathy of
so many, Washington crossed the Delaware sixteen miles
above Trenton, and detaching Maxwell's brigade of nine
hundred to assist a party of a thousand Jersey militia in
destroying the roads, and Morgan with a corps of six hun-
dred to hang upon the enemy's right, he moved with
the main army to Hopewell. There, on the twenty- June 24.
fourth, Lee insisted in council that the Americans
should rather build a bridge for the retreat of their enemies
than attack so well-disciplined an army. Lafayette replied
that it would be shameful to suffer the British to cross New
Jersey with impunity; that, without extreme risk, it was

!

188 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXHL

possible to engage their rear, and to take advantage of any
favorable opportunity : yet Lord Stirling and most of the
brigadiers again sided with Lee. From Allentown the
British general, fearing danger in crossing the Raritan,
decided to march by way of Monmouth to Sandy Hook ;
and Washington followed him in a parallel line, ready to
strike his force at right angles.

1778. The parties in advance, increased by Scott with
June 25. fourteen hundred and forty men, and on the twenty-
fifth by Wayne with a thousand more, composed a third of
the army, and formed a fit command for the oldest major-
general. But Lee refused it, saying that the plans of the
commander in chief must surely fail. Upon this Washing-
ton intrusted it to Lafayette, who marched towards the
enemy with alacrity. Lee now fretted at the wrong which
he pretended was done to himself and to Lord Stirling. As
Washington heard him unmoved, he wrote to Lafayette:
" My fortune and my honor are in your hands : you are too
generous to ruin the one or the other." And this appeal
succeeded.

On the twenty-sixth, Lee was sent forward with two
brigades, to command the whole advance party, with orders

to attack the enemy's rear. Intense heat and heavy
June 27. rains held both armies quiet on the twenty-seventh ;

but, just after noon on that day, Washington, sum-
moning the generals to head-quarters, instructed them to
engage the enemy on the next morning; and he directed
Lee to concert with his officers the mode of attack. But
when Lafayette, Wayne, and Maxwell at the appointed
houi came to Lee, he refused to form a plan, so that none
was made; nor did he attempt to gain knowledge of the
ground on which he was ordered to fight. In the evening,
he was charged by Washington to detach a party of six
or eight hundred skirmishers, to lie very near the enemy,
and delay them, if they should move off at night or early
in the morning. The order was executed too tardily to
have effect.

Informed, at five in the morning of the twenty-
' eighth, that the British had begun their march from

177a THE RETBEAT FROM PENNSYLVANIA. 139

Monmouth, Lee remained inert, till Washington, who was
the first to be in motion, sent him orders to attack the Brit-
ish rear, unless there should be very powerful reasons to the
contrary ; promising to come up rapidly to his support. He
obeyed so far as to move, but languidly, without a plan, and
without any concert with his generals, or of them with one
another. To a proposal of Lafayette, Lee answered : " You
don't know the British soldiers: we cannot stand against
them." Upon this, Lafayette sent to Washington that his
presence on the field was needed ; and twice were similar
messages sent by Laurens. Having orders to attack the
enemy's left, Lafayette received counter orders before he
had proceeded one quarter of the way. Wayne was on the
point of engaging the enemy in earnest, when he was en-
joined only to make a feint. There was marching and
counter-marching, crossing and recrossing a bridge, and a
halt for an hour. To a French officer who expressed
surprise, Lee said : " I have orders from congress and j^fig.
the commander in chief not to engage ; " yet, to ap-
pear to do something, he professed as his object to cut off a
small covering party.

Thus Sir Henry Clinton gained time for preparation.
His baggage, which occupied a line of eight miles or more,
was sent onward, protected by a strong force under Knyp-
hausen. The division of Cornwallis, and a brigade and a
regiment of dragoons from Knyphausen's division, remained
behind. At about eight in the morning, Clinton sent
against Lee two regiments of cavalry with the grenadiers,
guards, and Highlanders. Lee should now have ordered a
retreat ; but he left the largest part of his command to act
for themselves, and then expressed indignation that they
had retreated, confessing in the same breath that this act
alone saved them from destruction. There had been no
engagement, attack, or skirmish ; nor was any thing done to
check the enemy as they followed the Amerioans through
a narrow defile ; nor was an order sent by Lee to any of the
parties to rally, nor a word of all that happened officially
communicated to the commander in chief.

When Washington encountered the fugitives, he, in a

140 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXTO

voice of anger, demanded of Lee : " What is the meaning
of this ? " Abashed and confused, Lee stammered : u Sir —

Sir ; " and to the renewed inquiry answered : " You
June828. know that the attack was contrary to my advice and

opinion." Washington rejoined : " You should not
have undertaken the command, unless you intended to
carry it through." The precipitate flight of Lee, whether
due to necessity, or the want of ability, or treachery, spread
a baleful influence. The flower of the British army, led by
Clinton and Cornwallis and numbering from six to eight
thousand, were hotly chasing an unresisting enemy, when
Washington, with his faculties quickened by the vexations
of the morning and with cheerful "trust in that Provi-
dence which had never failed the country in its hour of
distress," took measures to arrest the retreat. As the
narrow road through which the enemy came on was
bounded on each side by a morass, he swiftly formed two
of the retreating regiments of Wayne's brigade, com-
manded by Stewart and Ramsay, in front of the pursuers
and under their fire; and thus gained time to plant the
troops that were advancing with him upon good ground.
This being done, he again met Lee, who was doing nothing,
" like one in a private capacity ; " and, finding in him no
disposition to retrieve his character,1 ordered him to the
rear. Lee gladly left the field, believing that the Amer-
icans would be utterly beaten. Even Laurens hoped for no
more than an orderly retreat ; and Hamilton's thought was

1 When Botta's admirable history of our war of independence was
translated into English, John Brooks of Massachusetts, who, on the day
at Monmouth, was Lee's aide-de-camp, and on the trial was one of hit
chief witnesses, very emphatically denied the statement that Lee had done
good service on the field after meeting with Washington. (Remarks of
John Brooks on the Battle of Monmouth ; written down by J. Welles.
Compare Autograph Memoirs of Lafayette.) Steuben: "I found Gen-
eral Lee on horseback before a house." Doctor Machenry : " The gen-
eral [Lee] was on horseback, observing to a number of gentlemen who
were standing around, that it was mere folly to make attempts against
the enemy." Hamilton : " I heard no measures directed, nor saw any
taken by him" [Lee], &c. The words of Lee are clear: he says he re-
gar 'led himself as reduced to a private capacity. (Trial of Lee.)

1778. THE RETREAT FROM PENNSYLVANIA. 141

to die on the spot. Bat Washington's self-possession, his
inspiring mien, his exposure of himself to every danger, and
the obvious wisdom of his orders kindled the enthusiasm
of officers and men ; while Lee in the rear, sitting idly on
horseback, explained to bystanders that " the attempt was
madness and coild not be successful." The British cavalry
were easily driven back, and showed themselves no more.
The regiments of foot came up next ; but they could not
turn the left flank, where Stirling commanded, without
exposing their own right to the American artillery. The
attack upon the right where Greene commanded was de-
feated by his battery ; while others encountered the grena-
diers and guards till they turned and fled. As they rallied
and came back to the charge, Wayne with a body of infan-
try engaged them face to face till they were again repulsed,
after great slaughter ; Lieutenant-colonel Monckton falling
at the head of the grenadiers. During the day, the heat
reached ninety-six degrees in the shade ; and many on both
sides, struck by the sun, fell dead without a wound.

The British retreated through the pass by which they had
advanced, and occupied a position accessible in front only
by the narrow road, and protected on both flanks by woods
and morasses which could not be turned before night. Two
American brigades hung on their right, a third on their
left ; while the rest of the army planted their standards on
the field of battle, and lay on their arms to renew the con-
test at daybreak. But Clinton, abandoning his se-
verely wounded and leaving his dead unburied, with- 1778.
drew his forces before midnight ; and at the early
dawn they found shelter in the highlands of Middleburg.
Washington then marched towards the North River; the
British for New York by way of Sandy Hook.

On receiving the English accounts, Frederic of Prussia
replied: " Clinton gained no advantage except to reach
New York with the wreck of his army ; America is proba-
bly lost for England."

Of the Americans who were in the engagement, two
hundred and twenty-nine were killed or wounded ; of the
British, more than four hundred ; and above eight hundred

142 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXHI.

deserted their standard daring their march through the
Jerseys.

In the battle, which took its name from the adjacent
village of Monmouth, the American generals except Lee
did well : "Wayne especially established his fame. The army
and the whole country resounded with the praises of Wash-
ington ; and congress unanimously thanked him " for his
great good conduct and victory ." Nor may history omit
to record that, of the " revolutionary patriots " who on that
day perilled life for their country, more than seven hundred
black Americans fought side by side with the white.

After the battle, Lee was treated from head-
quarters with forbearance ; but in two letters to the
commander in chief he avowed the expectation that the
campaign would close the war, — that is, that the terms of
fered by the British commissioners would be accepted,—
and demanded reparation for injustice and injury. A court,
martial found him guilty of disobedience, misbehavior before
the enemy, and disrespect to the commander in chief, and
all too leniently did but suspend him from command for
twelve months. After long delay, congress confirmed the
sentence, though by a narrow vote. The next year, it cen-
sured Lee for obtaining money through British officers in
New York ; and in January, 1780, provoked by an imperti-
nent letter, dismissed him from the service. From that
time, he no longer concealed his wish for the return of
America to her old allegiance ; and his chosen companions
were the partisans of England. He persisted in advising a
rotation in military office, so that Washington might be re-
moved ; and for the United States he predicted two years
of anarchy, from 1780 to 1782, to be followed by an abso-
lute tyranny. Under the false colors of military genius and
experience in war, he had solicited a command ; after his
appointment, he had given the reins to self-will, so that mis-
fortune overtook his treachery. In October, 1782, sinking
under a fever in a sordid inn at Philadelphia, he died as
he had lived, loving neither God nor man.

177a AMERICA BEFORE THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 143

CHAPTER XXXIV.

ROW FAB AMERICA HAD ACHIEVED INDEPENDENCE AT THE

TIME OF THE FRENCH ALLIANCE.

July — September, 1778.

Confined between ridges three miles apart, the Susqae-
aannah, for a little more than twenty miles, winds
through the valley of Wyoming. Abrupt rocks, rent vm.
by tributary streams, rise on the east, while the west-
ern declivities are luxuriantly fertile. Connecticut, whose
charter from Charles II. was older than that of Pennsylva-
nia, using its prior claim to lands north of the Mamaroneck
River, had colonized this beautiful region and governed it
as its county of Westmoreland. The settlements, begun
in 1754, increased in numbers and wealth till their annual
tax amounted to two thousand pounds in Connecticut cur-
rency. In the winter of 1776, the people aided Washing-
ton with two companies of infantry, though their men were
all needed to protect their own homes. Knowing the alli-
ance of the British with the Six Nations, they built a line
of ten forts as places of refuge.

The Seneca tribe kept fresh in memory their chiefs
and braves who fell in the conflict with the New June.
York husbandmen at Oriskany. Their king, Sucin-
gerachton, was both in war and in council the foremost man
in all the Six Nations. Compared with him, the Mohawk,
Brant, who had been but very lately known upon the war-
path, was lightly esteemed. His attachment to the English
increased to a passion on the alliance of America with the
French, for whom he cherished implacable hate. Through
his interest, and by the blandishments of gifts and pay and

1

144 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXTV

chances of revenge, Colonel John Butler lured the Seneca
warriors to cross the border of Pennsylvania under the
British flag.
The party of savages and rangers, numbering between

five hundred and seven hundred men, fell down the
jnnefao. Tioga River, and on the last day of June hid in the
Juiyi. forests above Wyoming. The next day the two

northernmost forts capitulated. The men of "Wyo-
ming, old and young, with one regular company, in all
hardly more than three hundred, took counsel with one
another, and found no hope of deliverance for their families
but through a victorious encounter with a foe of twice

their number, and more skilful in the woods than
Julys, themselves. On the third of July, the devoted band,

led by Colonel Zebulon Butler, who had just re-
turned from the continental service, began their march up
the river. The horde of invaders, pretending to retreat,
couched themselves on the ground in an open wood. The
villagers of Wyoming began firing as they drew near, and
at the third volley stood within one hundred yards of the
ambush, when the Seneca braves began the attack and
were immediately seconded by the rangers. The Senecas
gave no quarter, and in less than a half hour took two hun-
dred and twenty-five scalps, among them those of two field
officers and seven captains. The rangers saved the lives
of but five of their captives. On the British side, only two
whites were killed and eight Indians wounded. The next
day, the remaining forts, filled chiefly with women and
children, capitulated. The long and wailing procession of
the survivors, flying from their fields of corn, their gardens,
the flames of their cottages, the unburied bodies of their
beloved defenders, escaped by a pass through the hills to
the eastern settlements. Every fort and dwelling was burnt.
The Senecas spread over the surrounding country, adepts
in murder and ruin. The British leader boasted in his re-
port that his party had burnt a thousand houses and every
mill ; Germain in reply extolled their prowess and even
their humanity, and resolved on directing a succession of
similar parties, not only to harass the border, but to waste

Vm AMERICA BEFORE THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 145

tbe older settlements. Yet the marauders came to destroy
and deal deaths, not to recover and hold ; and the ancient
affection for England was washed out in blood. When the
leader of the inroad turned to desolate other scenes, Penn-
sylvania was left in the undisputed possession of her soil.

After the retreat of the British, her government, as well
as that of New Jersey, used the right of bringing to trial
those of their citizens who had been false to their allegiance ;
but Livingston, the governor of New Jersey, pardoned
every one of seventeen who were found guilty. At Phila-
delphia, against his intercession, two men, one of whom had
conducted a British party to a midnight carnage, were con-
victed, and suffered on the gallows. Regret prevailed that
these also had not been forgiven.

Before the co-operation of the arms of France, the Amer-
icans had substantially achieved their existence as a nation.
The treaties of alliance with them had not yet been signed,
when Vergennes wrote " that it was almost physically im-
possible for the English to wrest independence from them ;
that all efforts, however great, would be powerless to recall
a people so thoroughly determined to refuse submission."
On the side of the sea, from Nova Scotia to Florida, the
British occupied no posts except the island of Rhode Island,
and New York city with its environs. No hostile foot
rested on the mainland of New England. The British were
still at Ogdensburg, Niagara, and Detroit ; but the Ameri-
cans held the country from below the Highlands to the
water-shed of Ontario.

The Americans had gained vigor in the conflict : m«.
the love and the exercise of individual liberty, though
they hindered the efficiency of government, made them un-
conquerable. The British soldier had nothing before him but
to be transferred from one of the many provinces of Britain
to another, perhaps to the West Indies, perhaps to India : he
did what he was bound to do with the skill of a veteran ;
but he had no ennobling motive, no prospect of a home, and
no living patriotism. The American looked beyond danger
to the enjoyment of freedom and peace in a family and coun-
try of his own. His service in the camp exalted his moral

VOL. vi. 10

146 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXT7.

character ; he toiled and suffered for the highest ends, and
built up a republic, not for his own land only, but for the
benefit of the human race.

Moreover, the inmost mind of the American people had
changed. The consciousness of a national life had dis-
solved the sentiment of loyalty to the crown of
1778. England. More than three years had elapsed since
the shedding of blood at Lexington ; and these years
had done the work of a generation.

In England a similar revolution had taken place. The
insurgents, losing the name of rebels, began to be called
Americans. Officers, returning from the war, said openly
that "no person of judgment conceived the least hope that
the colonies could be subjected by force." Some British
statesmen thought to retain a political, or at least a com-
mercial, connection ; while many were willing to give them
up unconditionally. Even before the surrender of Bur-
goyne, Gibbon, a member of the board of trade, confessed
that, though England had sent to America the greatest
force which any European power ever ventured to trans-
port into that continent, it was not strong enough to attack
its enemy, nor to prevent them from receiving assistance.
The war " measures " of the administration were therefore
" so repugnant to sound policy that they ceased to be right."
After that surrender, he agreed that, since " the substance
of power was lost, the name of independence might be
granted to the Americans." General Howe coupled his re-
tirement from .active service with the avowal that the dis-
posable resources of his country could produce no decisive
result. " Things go ill, and will not go better," wrote tho
chief of the new commission for establishing peace. The
successor of General Howe reported himself too weak to
attempt the restoration of the king's authority. Germain
had no plan for the coming campaign but to lay the colo-
nies waste. The prime minister, who had been at the head
of affairs from 1770, owned in anguish the failure of his
system, and deplored its continuance. Should the Ameri-
cans ratify the French alliance, Lord Amherst, who was the
guide of the ministry in the conduct of the war, recouv

17& AMERICA BEFORE THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 147

mended the evacuation of New* York and Rhode Island
and the employment of the troops against the French West
Indies.

Bat the radical change of opinion was shown most clearly
by the votes of parliament. In February, 1774, the house
of commons, in a moment of unrestrained passion, adopted
measures for enforcing the traditional absolutism of parlia-
ment by majorities of three to one: corresponding
majorities in February, 1778, reversed its judgment, iro.
repealed the punitive acts, and conceded every thing
which the colonies had demanded.

There was "a general ory for peace." The king, in
January, 1778, confessed to Lord North : " The time may
come when it will be wise to abandon all North America
but Canada, Nova Scotia, and the Floridas ; but then the
generality of the nation must see it first in that light."
Lord Rockingham was convinced, and desired to " convince
the public, of the impossibility of going on with the war."
On the second of February, Fox, going over the whole of
the American business, spoke against its continuance, and
was heard with favor. The ministers said not one word in
reply ; and on the division several tories voted with him.
English opinion had by this time resigned itself to the
belief that the United States could not be reduced ; but as
a massive fountain, when its waters begin to play, rises
slowly to its full height, so parliament needed time to col-
lect it's energies for action. If British statesmen are blamed
for not suffering her colonies to go free without a war, it
must yet be confessed that the war grew by a kind of neces-
sity out of the hundred years9 contest with the crown for
the bulwark of English freedom.

But now Fox would have England " instantly declare
their independence ; " Pownall, who had once defended the
stamp act, urged their recognition; and Conway broke
through his reserve, and said in parliament : " It has been
proved to demonstration that there is no other method of
having peace with them but acknowledging them to be, what
they really are, and what they are determined to remain,
independent states." The house of commons seemed se-

148 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIV.

cretly to agree with him. Tories began to vote against
the ministry. The secretary of war, Lord Barrington,
said to the king: "The general dismay among all ranks
and conditions arises from an opinion that the adminis-
tration is not equal to the times. The opinion is so
universal that it prevails even among those who are most
dependent on the ministers and most attached to them;
nay, it prevails among the ministers themselves." Lord
North was convinced of the ruinous tendency of his
measures, and professed, but only professed, an earnest
wish to resign office. Lord Mansfield deplored the danger
of a war with both houses of the Bourbons. The landed
aristocracy were grown weary of the conflict which they
had brought on, and of which the continuance promised
only increasing taxation and a visible loss of national
dignity and importance. So long as there remained a hope
of recovering America, the ministers were supported, for
they alone would undertake its reduction. The desire to
replace them by statesmen more worthy of a great people
implied the consent to peace on the basis of American
independence. To that end all elements conspired. The
initial velocity of the British attack was exhausted, and
the remainder of the war was like the rebounds of a can-
non-ball before it comes to rest.

1778. On the second of July, the president and several
July 2. memberg 0f congress met once more in Philadelphia.
July 9. On the ninth, the articles of confederation, engrossed
on parchment, were signed by eight states. On the
July 10. tenth, congress issued a circular to the other five,
urging them " to conclude the glorious compact which
was to unite the strength, wealth, and councils of
July 21. the whole." North Carolina acceded on the twenty-
jniytt. first; Georgia, on the twenty-fourth. New Jersey de-
manded for the United States the regulation of trade
and the ownership of the ungranted north-western domain ;
but, after unassisted efforts for a more efficient union, the
state, on the twenty-fifth of the following November, ac-
cepted the confederacy without amendment; and on the
fifth of May, 1779, the delegates of Delaware did the same.

1778. AMERICA BEFORE THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 149

Maryland, which was on all sides precisely limited by its
charter, — while Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York,
Virginia, and at least one of the Carolinas, might claim by
royal grant an almost boundless extension to the north and
west, — alone arrested the consummation of the confederation
by demanding that the public lands north-west of the Ohio
should first be recognised as the common property of all the
states, and held as a common resource to discharge the
debts contracted by congress for the expenses of the war.

On the eighth of July, the French fleet, consisting 177g
of twelve ships of the line and three frigates, after a Jnly 8-
rough voyage of nearly ninety days from Toulon, anchored
in the Bay of Delaware ; ten days too late to intercept the
inferior squadron of Lord Howe and its multitude of trans-
ports on their retreat from Philadelphia. Its admiral, the
Count D'Estaing, a major-general in the French army, had
persuaded Marie Antoinette to propose the expedi-
tion. On the eleventh, congress learned from his Juiyii.
letters that he was "ready to co-operate with the
states in the reduction of the British army and navy." The
first invitation to a concert of measures revealed the inabil-
ity of the American people to fulfil their engagements.
For want of an organized government, congress could do no
more than empower Washington to call upon the six states
north of the Delaware for aids of militia, while its financial
measure was a popular loan to be raised throughout the
country by volunteer collectors.

D'Estaing followed his enemy to the north, and anchored
within Sandy Hook, where he intercepted unsuspecting
British ships bound for New York. The fleet of Lord
Howe was imperfectly manned, but his fame attracted from
merchant vessels and transports a full complement of volun-
teers. The French fleet would nevertheless have gone up
the bay and offered battle, could pilots have been found to
take its largest ships through the channel.

Since New York could not be reached, D'Estaing, igno-
rant of the secret policy of France and Spain, indulged the
dream of capturing the British towns in Newfoundland and
annexing that island to the American republic as a four-

160 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Ciup. XXXIV,

teenth state with representation in congress. Washington
proposed to employ the temporary superiority at sea in the
eapture of Rhode Island and its garrison of six thousand
men. He had in advance summoned Massachusetts, Con*
necticut, and Rhode Island to send quotas of their militia
for the expedition. The council of war of Rhode Island,
exceeding his requirement, called out one half of the effec-
tive force of the state for twenty days from the first of
August, and ordered the remainder to be ready at a minute's
warning. Out of his own feeble army he spared one brigade
from Massachusetts and one from Rhode Island, of one
thousand each, and they were followed by a further detach-
ment. ' Directing Sullivan, who was placed over the district
of Rhode Island, to throw the American troops into two
divisions, he sent Greene to command the one, and Lafay-
ette the other. Young Laurens served D'Estaing as aid
and interpreter. On the twenty-ninth of July, while Clin-
ton was reporting to Germain that he would probably be
under the necessity of evacuating New York and retiring
to Halifax, the French fleet, with thirty-five hundred land
troops on board, appeared off Newport; and the British
saw themselves forced to destroy ten or more armed ships
and galleys, carrying two hundred and twelve guns.

The country was palpitating with joy at the alii-
Xng.'e. ance w*tn France. Congress, on Sunday the sixth of

August, with studied ceremony gave its audience of
reception to Gerard de Rayneval, the French plenipoten-
tiary, listened to his assurances of the affection of his king
for the United States and for " each one " of them, and
" acknowledged the hand of a gracious Providence in rais-
ing them up so powerful a friend." At head-quarters, there
seemed to be a hundred chances to one in favor of capturing
the garrison on Rhode Island, and thus ending British pre-
tensions to sovereignty over America. Robert Livingston
expressed the hope that congress, in treating for peace,
would insist on having Canada, Hudson's Bay, the Floridas,
and all the continent independent.

On the eighth, the French fleet, which a whim of

Sullivan had detained for ten days in the offing, ran

1778. AMERICA BEFORE THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 151

past the British batteries into the harbor of Newport. The
landing had been concerted for the tenth ; but, learning that
the British outpost on the north of the island had
been withdrawn, Sullivan, on the morning of the 2™g.\>.
ninth, without notice to D'Estaing, crossed with his
troops from the side of Tiverton. Scarcely had he done
so, when the squadron of Lord Howe, which had been
re-enforced from England, was seen to anchor near
Point Judith. On the tenth, a strong wind rising Aug. 10.
from the north-east, D'Estaing by the advice of his
officers, among whom were Suffren and De Grasse, sailed
past the Newport batteries, and in order of battle bore
down upon the British squadron. Lord Howe stood to the
southward, inviting pursuit. For two days, D'Estaing was
baffled in the attempt to force an action, while the wind
increased to a hurricane and wrecked and scattered both
fleets. The French ship " Languedoc " lost its rudder and
masts ; the " Apollo," to which the British admiral had
shifted his flag, could not keep at sea.

The same storm flooded Rhode Island with rain, damaged
the ammunition of the American army, overturned their
tents, and left them no shelter except trees and fences.
Many horses were killed, and even soldiers perished. The
British troops, being quartered in the town, suffered less ;
and, on the return of fair weather, Pigot, but for his inert-
ness, might have fallen upon a defenceless enemy.

The squadron of Lord Howe steered for Sandy Hook.
D'Estaing, three of whose ships had severally en-
countered three English ships, appeared on the twen- Aug. 20.
tieth within sight of Newport ; but only to announce
that, from the shattered condition of his fleet, and from want
of water and provisions, after nearly five months' service at
sea, he was compelled by his instructions to sail for Boston.
In general orders, Sullivan censured D'Estaing, and insinu-
ated the inutility of the French alliance ; and then, under
compulsion from Lafayette, in other general orders made
reparation. He should have instantly withdrawn from the
island ; and Washington sent him incessant messages to do
so. On Honyman's Hill he was wasting strength in raising

152 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIV.

batteries which were too remote to be of use, and could be
easily turned ; more than half his army was composed of
militia, who saw that the expedition had failed, and began
to go home. There remained in the American camp less
than six thousand men ; and a retreat had now to be con-
ducted in the presence of regular troops,, superior in num-
bers. It began in the night of the twenty-eighth.

Aug? '29. ^e next ^av> tne British attempted to get round the
American right wing, and thus cut off every chance
of escape. On that side, Greene, almost within sight of his
native town, held the command. Supported by young Lau-
rens, he changed the defence into an attack, and drove the
enemy in disorder back to their strong post on Quaker Hill.
In the engagement, the British lost at least two hundred
and sixty men ; the Americans, forty-nine less. On
Aug. so. the night following the thirtieth, the army of Sulli-
van, evading its sluggish pursuers, withdrew from
the island. Clinton, with a re-enforcement of four
Aug. si. thousand men, landed the day after the escape.

The British general returned to New York, hav-
ing accomplished nothing, except that a detach
ment under Grey set fire to the shipping in New Bedford,
and then levied cattle and money on the freeholders of
Martha's Vineyard. Lord Howe gave up the naval com-
mand to Admiral Byron, and was never again employed in
America.

The people of New England had in twenty days raised
the force of Sullivan to ten thousand effective men; the
total disappointment of their hope of brilliant success
excited criminations and distrust. At Boston, a French
officer lost his life in attempting to quell a riot between his
countrymen and American seamen ; but D'Estaing preserved
unruffled politeness, and really wished well to the United
States.

Notwithstanding the failure of the first expedition from
France, every measure adopted by the British government
or its army to reduce the United States served only to pro-
mote its independence. In 1775, they sought to annihilate
the rebellion by attacking it at its source ; and before many

1778. AMERICA BEFORE THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 153

months they were driven out of Boston. In 1776, the ac-
quisition of New York was to prelude the one last campaign
for crushing all resistance ; in 1777, Philadelphia was taken,
but only to be evacuated in 1778* To a friend in Virginia
Washington wrote in August, as he came again upon White
Plains : " After two years' manoeuvring and the strangest
vicissitudes, both armies are brought back to the very point
they set out from, and the offending party at the beginning
is now reduced to the use of the spade and pickaxe for
defence. The hand of Providence has been so conspicuous
in all this, that he must be worse than an infidel that lacks
faith, and more than wicked that has not gratitude enough
to acknowledge his obligations." " The veil of ordinary
events," thus the governor of Connecticut expressed the
belief of the state, " covers the hand of the Supreme Dis-
poser of them, so that men overlook his guidance. In the
view of the series of marvellous occurrences during the
present war, he must be blind and infatuated who doth not
see and acknowledge the divine ordering thereof." The
faith of the American people in the moral government of
the world sprang, not from irrational traditions or unre-
flecting superstition, but from the deep sentiment of har-
mony between their own active patriotism and the infinite
love which founded all things and the infinite justice which
carries all things forward in continuous progression. The
consciousness of this harmony, far from lulling them into
an indolent expectation of supernatural intervention, bound
them to self-relying diligence in the duty that was before
them. They had the confidence and joy of fellow-workers
with "the divine ordering" for the highest welfare of
mankind:

On the third of October, the commissioners for n78.
restoring peace to the colonies addressed a farewell 0ot- *•
manifesto to the members of congress, the several assem-
blies, and other inhabitants of America, that their persist-
ence in separating from Great Britain would " change the
whole nature and future conduct of this war ; " that " the
extremes of war " should so distress the people and desolate
the country as to make them of little avail to France. Con-

154 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIV.

gress published the paper in the gazettes to convince the
people of the insidious designs of the commissioners. In
the British house of commons, Coke of Norfolk proposed,
an address to the king to disavow the declaration. Lord
George Germain defended it, insisting that the Americans
by their alliance were become French, and should in future
be treated as Frenchmen. Burke pointed out that the
" dreadful menace was pronounced against those who, con-
scious of rectitude, stood up to fight for freedom and
country." " No quarter," said the commissioner Johnstone,
who in changing sides on the American question had not
tamed the fury of his manner, "no quarter ought to be
shown to their congress ; and, if the infernals could be let
loose against them, I should approve of the measure. The
proclamation certainly does mean a war of desolation; it
can mean nothing else." Gibbon divided silently with the
friends of America, who had with them the judgment,
though not the vote, of the house. Three days later, Rock-
ingham denounced the " accursed " manifesto in the house
of lords, saying that " since the coming of Christ war had
not been conducted on such inhuman ideas." Lord Suffolk,
in reply, appealed to the bench of bishops ; on which the
bishop of Peterborough traced the resemblance between
the proclamation and the acts of Butler at Wyoming. He
added : u There is an article in the extraordinaries of the
army for scalping-knives. Great Britain defeats any hope
in the justness of her cause by means like these to support
it." The debate closed well for America, except that Lord
Shelburne was provoked into saying that he never would
serve with any man who would consent to its independence,
when in truth independence was become the only way to
peace.

The menaces of the proclamation were a confession of
weakness. The British army under Clinton could hold no

part of the country, and only ravage and destroy by
Sept. sudden expeditions. Towards the end of September,

Cornwallis led a foray into New Jersey ; and Major-
general Grey with a party of infantry, surprising Baylor's
light-horse, used the bayonet mercilessly against men that

177& AMERICA BEFORE THE FKENCH ALLIANCE. 155

filed for quarter. A band led by Captain Patrick
Ferguson in October, after destroying the shipping qJJ
in Little Egg Harbor, spread through the neighbor-
ing country to burn the houses and waste the lands of the
patriots. On the night of the fifteenth, they surprised light
infantry under Pulaski's command; and, cumbering them-
selves with no prisoners, killed all they could. In
November, a large party of Indians with bands of Not.
tories and regulars entered Cherry valley by an un-
guarded pass, and, finding the fort too strong to be taken,
murdered and scalped more than thirty of the inhabitants,
most of them women and children. The story of these
massacres was repeated from village to village, and strength-
ened the purpose of resistance.

With the year 1778, South Carolina, which for two years
had been unvisited by an enemy, after long deliberation
established a permanent form of government. Immediately
after the general declaration of independence, its citizens,
by common consent, intrusted constituent powers to their
representatives. In January, 1777, a bill for the new con-
stitution was introduced. Hitherto the legislative council
had been chosen by the general assembly. A bold effort
was made, in like manner, to confer the election of the
senate on the assembly, because in that way Charleston,
through its numerous representation, would have controlled
the choice. On this point the country members would not
yield ; but the distribution of the representation in the
general assembly was left unchanged. The bill was then
printed, and submitted for examination to the people
during more than a year. Sure of the prevailing approval,
the legislature, in March, 1778, gave it their final sanction ;
and it was then presented to the president for his confir-
mation. Every one expected that in a few hours it would
be proclaimed, when Rutledge called the council and as-
sembly into the council chamber, and, after a formal speech,
gave it a negative, not only for the change which it would
effect in the manner of choosing one branch of the legis-
lature, but also because it took from the chief of the execu-
live his veto power. The majority, soon recovering from

156 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXI V

their consternation, determined to vote no taxes until the
veto should be reversed. After a three days' adjournment,
which was required by the rules before a rejected bill could
be again brought forward, Rawlins Lowndes, the newly
elected president, gave his sanction to the re-enacted bill.

The new constitution might be altered by legislative au-
thority after a notice of ninety days. None but freeholders
could elect or be elected to office ; and for the higher offices
the possession of a large freehold was required. In any
redistribution of the representation of the state, the number
of white inhabitants and the amount of taxable property
were to be considered. The veto power was taken from
the president. Till this time, the church of England had
been the established church in South Carolina. The tolera-
tion of Locke and Shaftesbury was now mixed with the
religious faith of its people. Not the Anglican or Episcopal
Church, but the Christian Protestant Church, was declared
to be the established religion of the state; and none but
Protestants were eligible to high executive or any legis-
lative office. The right of suffrage was conferred exclu-
sively on every free white man who, having the requisite
age and freehold, acknowledged God and a future state of
rewards and punishments. All persons who so believed,
and that God is publicly to be worshipped, might form
religious societies. The support of religious worship was
voluntary ; the property then belonging to societies of the
church of England, or any other religious societies, was
secured to them in perpetuity. The people were to
1778 enjoy for ever the right of electing their own pastors
or clergy ; but the state was entitled to security for
the due discharge of the pastoral office by the persons so
elected. Of slaves or slavery no mention was made unless
by implication.

The constitution having been adopted on the nineteenth
of March, 1778, to go into effect on the following twenty-
ninth of November, all resident free male persons in the
state above sixteen years, refusing to take the oath to main-
tain it against the king of Great Britain and all other ene-
mies, were exiled; but a period of twelve months after

1778. AMERICA BEFORE THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 157

their departure was allowed them, to dispose of their prop-
erty. In October, 1778, after the intention of the British
to reduce South Carolina became known, death was made
the penalty for refusing to depart from the state, or for
returning without permission.

The planters of South Carolina still partook of their usual
pastimes and cares; while the British ministry, resigning
the hope of reducing the north, indulged the expectation of
conquering all the states to the south of the Susquehannah.
For this end, the British commander in chief at New York
was ordered to despatch before October, if possible,
a thousand men to re-enforce Pensacola and three 1778.
thousand to take Savannah. Two thousand more
were destined as a re-enforcement to St. Augustine. Thus
strengthened, General Prevost would be able to march in
triumph from East Florida across lower Georgia.

The new policy was inaugurated by dissensions between
the minister for America in England and the highest British
officials in America, and was followed by never-ending
complaints. Lord Carlisle and his associate commissioners
deprecated the seeming purpose of enfeebling the establish-
ment at New York by detachments for different and distant
services. " Under these appearances of weakness," so they
reported, "our cause has visibly declined ." Sir Henry
Clinton threatened to evacuate New York and to retire to
Halifax, remonstrated against being " reduced to a starved
defensive," and complained of being kept in command, " a
mournful witness of the debility " of his army ; were he
only unshackled with instructions, he might render serious
service. Every detachment for the southern campaign was
made with sullen reluctance ; and his indirect criminations
offended the unforgiving minister.

158 THE AMERICAN BE VOLUTION. Chap. XXXV.

CHAPTER XXXV.

SPAIN AND THE UNITED STATES*

1778.

Eabxt in the year, Juan de Miralez, a Spanish emissary,
appeared in Philadelphia. Not accredited to con-
ins, gress, for Spain would not recognise that body, he
looked upon the rising republic as a natural enemy
to his country ; and through the influence of the French
minister, with whom he had as yet no authorized connec-
tion, he sought to raise up obstacles on all sides to its
development. He came as a spy and an intriguer ; never-
theless, congress, with unsuspecting confidence, welcomed
him as the representative of an intended ally.

Of all the European powers, Spain was the most consist-
ently and perseveringly hostile to the United States. With
a true instinct, she saw in their success the quickening exam*
pie which was to break down the barriers of her own colo-
nial system ; and her dread of their coming influence shaped
her policy during their struggle. She was willing to en-
courage them so far as to exhaust the resources of Great
Britain by one campaign more ; but she was bent on re-
straining France from an alliance with them, till she should
herself have wrung from their agents at Paris all the con-
cessions which she deemed essential to the security of her
transatlantic dominions, and from France all other advan-
tages that she could derive from the war. She excused her
importunities for delay by the necessity of providing for
the defence of her colonies; the danger that would hang
over her homeward-bound troops and commerce ; the con-
tingency of renewed schemes of conquest on the part of
the Russians against the Ottoman empire; the succession
of Bavaria ; the propriety of coming to a previous under-

OT& SPAIN AND THE UNITED STATES. 159

standi/ig with the Netherlands which were harried by Eng-
land, and with the king of Prussia who was known to favor
the Americans.

Count Montmorin, the successor of D'Ossun as French
ambassador at Madrid, had in his childhood been a playmate
of the king of France, whose friendship he retained, so that
his position was one of independence and dignity. As a
man of honor, he desired to deal fairly with the United
States, and he observed with impartiality the politics of
the Spanish court. On receiving a communication of the
despatch, which embodied the separate determination of
France to support the United States, Florida Blanca quiv-
ered in every limb and could hardly utter a reply. Sus-
piciousness marked his character, as well as that of the
government of Spain, which, for its remote dominions, was
ever haunted by the spectres of contraband trade and of
territorial encroachments. He was appalled at the example
of the Americans as insurgents, at their ambition as repub-
licans, and at the colossal greatness which their independence
foretold ; he abhorred any connection with them as equals,
and would tolerate at most an alliance of protection and
superintendence. With these apprehensions he combined a
subtle jealousy of the good faith of the French, who, as a
colonial power, were reduced to the lowest rank among the
nations of Western Europe, and who could recover their
share in the commerce of the world only through the ruin
of colonial monopoly.

When, therefore, in April, the French ambassador ^g.
pressed Florida Blanca to declare at what epoch AprU*
Spain would take part in the war, the minister, beside him-
self with passion, exclaimed : " I will take the opinion of
the king. Since April of last year, France has gone counter
to our advice. The king of Spain seems to be looked upon
as a viceroy or provincial governor, to whom you put ques-
tions as if for his opinion, and to whom you then send
orders. The American deputies are treated like the Roman
consuls, to whom the kings of the east came to beg support*
The declaration of your treaty with them is worthy of Don
Quixote." He persisted in the reproach that France had

160 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXV.

engaged in a war which had "neither an object for its
beginning nor a plan for its close."

Baffled in her policy by France, Spain next thought
to use Great Britain as her instrument for repressing
the growth of the United States. Her first wish was to
prevent their self-existence, and, as mediator, to dictate the
terms of their accommodation with their mother country ;
but, as this was no longer possible after the intervention of
France, she hoped at the peace to concert with England
how to narrow their domain, and secure the most chances
for an early dissolution of their inchoate union.

No sooner had Louis XVI. and his council resolved to
brave England, than the system which had led to the family
compact of the Bourbons recovered its normal influence ;
for it was through the Spanish alliance that they hoped to
bring the conflict to a brilliant issue. Swayed by the advice
of D'Ossun, they made it their paramount object to reconcile
the Spanish government to their measures. In this way,
doubt arrested their action at the moment of beginning
hostilities. If it was to be waged by France alone, they
held it prudent to risk every thing and make haste to gain
advantages in a first campaign, before the English could
bring out all their strength ; but, if Spain was determined
not to stand aloof, they would put the least possible at
hazard till it should declare itself. Moreover, this persist-
ent deference to the younger branch of the Bourbons
brought with it obstinate contrarieties, both as to the place
of the United States in the conduct of the war, and still
more so in settling the ultimate conditions of peace.

In the conflict between fears and desires, the king of
Spain was spell-bound by indecision. The precipitate alli-
ance of France and America without his consent wounded
his pride and endangered his possessions. His confessor
held it a want of probity and an evil example to fight for
heretics in revolt against lawful authority. On the other
hand, his need of protection, his respect for the elder branch
of his family, and some remnants of rancor against England,
concurred to bind him to the compact between the two
crowns. Moreover, Florida Blanca, who from the drudgery

1778. SPAIN AND THE UNITED STATES. 161

of a provincial attorney had risen to be the chief minister
of a world-wide empire, had a passion to be spoken of in
his time, and to gain a place in history : he, therefore, kept
open the negotiations with France, designing to consent to
a junction only after stipulations for extraordinary and
most unequal advantages. For the recovery of Gibraltar,
he did not rely exclusively on a siege, yet before the end
of March he had collected battering cannon at Seville, and
held at anchor in the bay of Cadiz a greater fleet than Spain
had launched since the days of the Armada.

Avoiding an immediate choice between peace and war,
Florida Blanca disdained the proposal of an alliance with
the United States ; and he demanded the postponement of
active hostilities in European waters, that he might gain free
scope for offering mediation. The establishments of Britain
in all parts of the world were weakly garrisoned ; its home-
ward-bound commerce was inadequately protected ; its navy
was unprepared. The ships of the French, on the contrary,
were ready for immediate action; yet they consented to
wait indefinitely for the co-operation of Spain. After
being swept into war for the independence of America,
they subjected the conduct of that war to the power in
Europe which was the most inveterate enemy to that inde-
pendence. Their favorable chances at the beginning of hos-
tilities were thrown away ; their channel fleet lay idle in the
harbor of Brest ; British ships, laden with rich cargoes from
all parts of the world, returned home unmolested ; and the
dilatory British admiralty gained unexpected time for prep-
aration.

All this while, British armed vessels preyed upon the
commerce of France. To ascertain the strength of the fleet
at Brest, a British fleet of twenty ships of the line put to
sea under Admiral Keppel, so well known to posterity by
the pencil of Reynolds and the prose of Burke. On
the seventeenth of June, meeting two French frig- j^8i7.
ates near the Island of Ouessant, Eeppel gave orders
that they should bring to. They refused. One of them,
being fired into, discharged its broadside and then lowered
voi.. VI. 11

162 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXV.

its flag ; the other, the " Belle Poule," repelled the pursuit
of the " Arethusa," and escaped.
The French government, no longer able to remain in-
active, authorized the capture of British merchant-
jJJJr men ; and early in July its great fleet sailed out of
Brest. After returning to Portsmouth, Keppel put
July 27. to sea once more. On the twenty-seventh, the two
admirals, each having thirty men-of-war in three divi-
sions, and each professing the determination to fight a de-
cisive battle, met off Ouessant. D'Orvilliers was better
fitted for a monastery than the quarter-deck ; and the Brit-
ish admiral wanted ability for so great a command. After
an insignificant action, in which neither party lost a ship,
the French returned to Brest, the British to Portsmouth.
The French admiral ascribed his failure to the disobedience
of the young Duke de Chartres, who had absurdly been
placed over one of his divisions ; Keppel, but only upon an
after-thought, censured both Palliser, his second in com-
mand, and the admiralty; and he declined employment
unless the ministry should be changed. That he was not
punished for mutiny, but that he, Burgoyne, and Howe, all
three members of the house of commons, were suffered to
screen their own incapacity by fighting vigorous battles in
parliament against the administration, shows how faction
had corrupted discipline in the service. Meantime, the
French people were justly proud that, so soon after the
^ total ruin of their navy in the seven years' war, their fleet
equalled that of their great rival, and had won the admira-
tion even of its enemies by its skilful evolutions.

The deeds of the French army for the year consisted in
seeming to menace England with an invasion, by forming
a camp in Normandy under the Count de Broglie, and
wasting the season in cabals, indiscipline, and ruinous lux-
ury. In India, Chandernagor on the Hoogley surrendered
to the English without a blow;, the governor of Pondi-
cherry, with a feeble garrison and weak defences, main-
tained a siege of seventy days in the vain hope of relief.
The flag of the Bourbons was suffered to disappear from
the gulf and sea of Bengal, and from the coast of Malabar.

1778. SPAIN AND THE UNITED STATES. 168

To meet the extraordinary expenses of this frivolous cam-
paign, the kingdom was brought nearer to bankruptcy by
straining the public credit without corresponding taxation.

The diplomacy of Spain during the year proved still
legs effective. Florida Blanea began with the British min-
ister at Madrid, by affecting ignorance of the measures of
the French cabinet, and assuring him " that his Catholic maj-
esty neither condemned nor justified the steps taken by
France ; but that, as they had been entered upon without
the least concert with him, he thought himself perfectly
free from all engagements concerning them." After these
assertions, which were made so directly and so solemnly that
tbey were believed, he explained that the independence of
the United States would overturn the balance of power on
the continent of America; and he proposed, through the
mediation of his court, to obtain a cessation of hostilities in
order to establish and perpetuate an equilibrium. The offer
of .mediation was an offer of the influence of the Bourbon
family to secure to England the basin of the St. Lawrence,
with the territory north-west of the Ohio, and to bound the
United States by the Alleghanies. But Lord Weymouth
held it ignoble to purchase from the wreckers of British
colonial power the part that they might be willing to re-
store; and he answered, "that, while France sup-
ported the colonies in rebellion, no negotiation could 1778.
be entered into." But, as both Great Britain and
Spain were interested in preserving colonial dependency
he invited a closer union between them, and even proposed
an alliance.

At this point in the negotiation, Florida Blanea, who was
devoured by the ambition of making the world ring with
his name, turned to Yergennes ; yet, like his king, fearing
lest at the peace France might take good care of itself and
neglect the interests of Spain, he was determined, before
concluding an irrevocable engagement, to ascertain the
objects which its ally would expect to gain. Spain was
really unprepared for war; her ships were poorly armed;
her arsenals ill supplied; and few of her naval officers
entitled to confidence in their skill : yet he threw out hints

164 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap XXXV.

that he would in October be ready for action, if France
would undertake a descent into England.

'Vergennes, while now more sure than ever of the co-
operation of Spain, replied: "The idea of making a war
on England, like that of the Romans on the Cartha-
1778. ginians, does honor to the minister's elevation of
soul ; but the attempt would require at least seventy
ships of the line, and at least seventy thousand effective
troops, of which ten thousand should be cavalry, beside
transport ships and proportionate artillery, provisions, and
, ammunition."

To the British proposal of an alliance, Florida Blanca
returned a still more formal offer of mediation between the
two belligerents ; excusing his wish to take part in the set-
tlement of England with its insurgent colonies, by his desire
that their ambition should be checked and tied down to
fixed limits through the union of the three nations. Then,
under pretence of seeking guidance in framing the plan, of
pacification, he craftily invited the two courts to remit to
his king the points on which they intended to insist ; at the
same time, he avowed to the British minister that the king
of Spain would be forced to choose his part, if the war
should be continued.

Indifferent to threats, Weymouth in October gave warn-
ing of the fatal consequence to the Spanish monarchy of
American independence ; and from a well-considered policy
refused in any event to concert with other governments the
relations of his country to its colonies. Meantime, Florida
Blanca continued to fill the courts of Europe with declara-
tions that Spain would never precede England in recognis-
ing the separate existence of her colonies.

During this confused state of the relations between the
three great powers, the United States fell upon a wise
measure. Franklin, from the first, had advised his country
against wooing Spain; but the confidence reposed in him
by the French cabinet was not impaired by his caution ;
and they transacted all American business with him alone.
Tired of the dissensions of rival commissioners, congress,
on the fourteenth of September, abolished the joint com-

1778. SPAIN AND THE UNITED STATES. 165

mission of which he had been a member, and appointed him
their minister plenipotentiary at the court of France. It
illustrates the patriotism of John Adams, that, though he
was one of those to be removed from office, he approved
alike the terminating of the commission and the se-
lection of Franklin as sole envoy. In him the inter- ira.
ests of the United States obtained a serene and
wakeful guardian, who penetrated the wiles of the Spanish
government, and knew how to unite fidelity to the French
alliance with timely vindication of the rights of his own
native land.

166 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVI

CHAPTER XXXVI.

A PEOPLE WITHOUT ▲ GOVERNMENT.

August-December, 1778.

Eably in the year, George III. had been advised by Lord

Amherst to withdraw the troops from Philadelphia,

1778. and, in the event of the junction of America with

France, to evacuate New York and Rhode Island;

but the depreciation of the currency, consequent on the

helplessness of a people that had no government, revived

the hope of subjugating them. The United States closed

the campaign of 1778 before autumn, for want of money.

Paper bills, emitted by congress on its pledge of the

1775. faith of each separate state, supported the war in its
earliest period. Their decline was hastened by the
disasters that befell the American armies. Their

1776. value was further impaired by the ignoble stratagem
of the British ministers, under whose authority Lord

Dunmore and others introduced into the circulation of
Virginia and other states a large number of bills, counter-
feited for the purpose in England. In October, 1776, con-
gress, which possessed no independent resources and no
powers on which credit could be founded, opened loan
offices in the several states, and authorized a lottery. In
December, it issued five million dollars more in con-

1777. tinental bills. In January, 1777, when they had sunk
to one half of their pretended value, it denounced

every person who would not receive them at par as a public
enemy, liable to forfeit whatever he offered for sale ; and it
requested the state legislatures to declare them a lawful
tender. This Massachusetts had enacted a month before;
and the example was followed throughout the union.

1773 A. PE01»LE WITHOUT A GOVERNMENT. 167

The loan offices exchanged United States paper money
at par for certificates of debt bearing six per cent interest.
On a hint from Arthur Lee, congress resolved to pay this
interest by drawing on its commissioners in Paris for coin.
The bills were of a very long date ; and, before they became
due, one dollar in coin was worth six in paper.

In the middle of November, 1776, Massachusetts, which
had grown opulent before the war by tolerating no currency
but hard money, proposed a convention of committees from
the several New England states to consider all questions re-
lating to public credit. Connecticut feared the measure would
give umbrage to congress. Upon this, a convention of the
New England states, called by Rhode Island under the name
of " a counoil of war," met on Christmas Day at Providence.
They regulated prices, proposed taxation and loans, and
recommended that the states should issue no more paper,
" unless in extreme cases." Congress liked their doings so
well, that, in January, 1777, it advised similar conventions
of the middle and of the three southernmost states. Striv-
ing for the monopoly of paper money, it asked the states to
call in their bills, and to issue no more.

All the measures hitherto suggested having failed of their
object, Massachusetts once more took the lead ; and on her
invitation the four New England states and New York met,
near the end of July, at Springfield on the Connecticut.
With one voice, they found the root of all financial difficul-
ties in the use of irredeemable paper. As the only remedy,
they proposed to sink all bills of the states, and to provide
alike for their local expenses and those of the war by quar-
ter-yearly taxes. The development of the institutions of
the country was promoted by showing how readily the
people of a group of states could come together by their
delegates for a purpose of reform ; but prices rose and bills
went down with accelerated speed.

The anxious deliberations of the committee of congress
during more than two months at Yorktown, with the report
of the Springfield convention before them, produced
only a recommendation, adopted in November, 1777, not!22.
that the several states should become creditors of the

168 1 HE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVI

United States by raising for the continental treasury five
millions of dollars in four quarterly instalments ; the first
payment to be made on the coming New Year's Day, and
the whole to bear six per cent interest until the final adjust-
ment of accounts, after the confederation should have been
ratified. Of thousands of dollars, Massachusetts was rated
at eight hundred and twenty ; Virginia, at eight hundred ;
Pennsylvania, at six hundred and twenty ; Connecticut, at
six hundred ; New York, rent and ravaged by the war, at
two hundred ; Delaware and Georgia, each at sixty. A
general wish prevailed to respect the recommendation ; but
most of the states retained their quotas to reimburse them-
selves for advances; and, besides, they were all weighed
down by very heavy expenses and obligations of their own.
Shadowy hopes of foreign loans rose before congress. In
December, 1777, in advance of treaties of commerce and
alliance, the American commissioners in France and Spain

were instructed to borrow two million pounds ster-
J2J; ling, to be repaid in ten years; and in February,

1778, the commissioner for Tuscany was charged to
borrow half as much more. Yet the grand duke of Tuscany
would have no relations with the United States; and no
power was so ill disposed towards them as Spain.

To the American people congress wrote in May :

" The reasons that your money hath depreciated are,
because no taxes have been imposed to carry on the war ; "
but they did not as yet venture to ask power to levy taxes.
On obtaining the king of France for their ally, they author-
ized drafts on their commissioners in Paris for thirty-one
and a half millions of livres, at five livres to the dollar, in
payment of loan-office certificates, leaving Franklin and his
colleagues to meet the bills of exchange as they could. Of
continental bills, five millions of dollars were issued in May,
as many more in June, and as many more in July. In
August, congress devoted two days in the week to the con-
sideration of its finances, but with no better result than to
order five millions of dollars in paper in the first week of
September, and ten millions more in the last. Certificates
of the loan offices were also used in great amounts in

1778. A PEOPLE WITHOUT A GOVERNMENT. 169

payment of debts to the separate states, especially to
Pennsylvania.

The legalized nse of paper money spread its never-failing
blight. Trade became a game of hazard. Unscrupulous
debtors discharged contracts of long standing in bills worth
perhaps but a twentieth of their nominal value. The un-
wary ran in debt, while cunning creditors waited for pay-
ment till the continental bills should cease to be a legal
tender.

The name of Richard Price was dear to every lover
of political freedom. He derived his theory of morals
from eternal and immutable principles, and his essay on
" Liberty," which was read in Great Britain, America, and,
through a translation, in Germany, founded the rights of
man on the reality of truth and justice. He had devised a
scheme for the payment of the British debt. Con-
gress, on the sixth of October, invited him to become o^,\
their fellow-citizen, and to regulate their finances.
The invitation was declined by their illustrious friend ; but
he gave the assurance that he "looked upon the United
States as now the hope, and soon to become the refuge, of
mankind.'9

From this time, congress saw no resource but in such
" very considerable loans or subsidies in Europe " as could
be expected only from an ally ; and, before the end of Oc-
tober, they instructed Franklin u to assure his most Christian
majesty they hoped protection from his power and mag-
nanimity." There were those in congress who would not
place their country under " protection ; " but the word was
retained by eight states against Rhode Island and Mary-
land. Samuel Adams and Lovell, of Massachusetts, voted
for it, but were balanced by Gerry and Holten ; Sherman,
of Connecticut, opposed it, but his vote was neutralized by
that of Ellsworth. The people of the United States, in
proportion to their numbers, were more opulent than the
people of France; but they had no means of organizing
their resources. The pride that would not consent
to an efficient union was willing to ask protection Oct
from Louis XVI.

170 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVI.

The country was also looking to the United Prov-
P™; inoes for aid ; and in December Laurens retired from
the office of president of congress, in the expectation
of being appointed to negotiate a loan in the Netherlands.
Till money could be borrowed, paper was the only resource ;
and the wants of November and December required an
emission of rather more than twenty millions. The debt of
the United States, in currency and in certificates, was esti-
mated at one hundred and forty millions. The continental
bills already exceeded one hundred and six millions of dol-
lars, and had fallen in value to twenty for one in silver ; yet
congress maintained "the certainty of their redemption,"
and resolved — Samuel Adams and six others dissenting —
"that any contrary report was false, and derogatory to its
honor." To make good the promise, the states were in-
vited to withdraw six millions of paper dollars annually for
eighteen years, beginning with the year 1780. The measure
was carried by Pennsylvania and the states north of it,
against the southern states; but other opinions ruled be-
fore the arrival of the year in which the absorption of the
currency was to begin.

The expenses of the year 1778, so far as they were de-
frayed by congress, amounted to sixty-two and a sixth mil-
lions in paper money, beside more than eighty-four thousand
dollars in specie. Towards the expenses of the coming
year, nothing further was done than to invite the states to
contribute fifteen millions in paper, equal in specie to seven
hundred thousand dollars ; but, as the payments depended
on the good-will of each separate state, very little of this
moderate assessment reached the national treasury, and
there was no resource but in new emissions of notes and
loan certificates.

Private reports from American refugees, seeking the favor
of the king of England, persuaded Germain that the cause
of the United States would share the wreck of their
finances ; but he knew not how to conciliate provinces that
were weary of war, nor to measure the tenacity of the pas-
sive resistance of a determined people, and he systematically
sought by sanguinary measures to punish and subdue. The

1778. A PEOPLE WITHOUT A GOVERNMENT. 171

refugees, emboldened by the powerlessness of congress and
embittered by its advice to the several states to confiscate
their property, thronged the antechamber of the minister
and fired his vengeful passions by their own. In New York,
there sprung up a double set of counsellors. Clinton re-
pressed the confidence of the secretary of state by faithful
reports of the inadequacy of his forces : on the other hand,
William Franklin, late governor of New Jersey, aiming at
the power and emoluments to be derived from an appoint-
ment as the head of a separate organization of loyalists,
proposed as no difficult task to reduce and retain one of the
middle provinces, by hanging or exiling all its rebels, and
confiscating their estates to the benefit of the friends to
government. Wiser partisans of Great Britain reprobated
" the desire of continuing the war for the sake of war," and
foretold that, should " the mode of devastation be adopted,
the friends of government must bid adieu to all hopes of
ever again living in America."

While it was no longer possible for the Americans to keep
up their army by enlistments, the British gained numerous
recruits from immigrants. Cultivated men of the
Roman ohurch, like Carroll, gave hearty support to cts.
the cause of independence ; but the great mass of its
members, who were then about one in seventy-five of the
whole population of the United States, and were chiefly
new comers in the middle states, followed the influence
of the Jesuits, in whose hands the direction of them still re-
mained, and who alike cherished distrust of the influences of
the American revolution and hatred of France for her share
in the overthrow of their order. In Philadelphia, therefore,
Howe had been able to form a regiment of Roman Catho-
lics. With still better success, Clinton courted the Irish as
Irishmen. They had fled from the prosecutions of inexorable
landlords to a country which offered them freeholds. By
flattering their nationality and their sense of the importance
attached to their numbers, Clinton allured them to a combi-
nation directly adverse to their own interests, and raised for
Lord Rawdon a large regiment in which officers and men
were exclusively Irish. Among them were nearly five hun-
dred deserters from the American army.

1T2 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.XXXVL

Yet the British general lagged far behind the require-
ments of Germain, who counted upon ten thousand prov-
incial levies, and wished " that the war should be carried on
in a manner better calculated to make the people feel their
distresses." The king believed in the " hourly declension
of the rebellion," and that " the colonies must soon sue to
the mother country for pardon." But Clinton well under-
stood the power of the insurgents and the insufficiency of
his own resources; and, obeying peremptory instructions,
before the end of the year he most reluctantly detached
three thousand men for the conquest of Georgia, and ten
regiments for service in the West Indies. His supplies of
meat and bread, for which he depended on Europe, were
precarious ; his military chest was empty ; and the inhabi-
tants of New York, mindful of the hour when the city
would be given up, were unwilling to lend him their
^ specie. " I do not complain," so he wrote in Decem-
ber to the secretary of state ; a but, my lord, do not
let any thing be expected of one circumstanced as I am."

The people of America, notwithstanding their want of
efficient government, set no narrow bounds to their aspira-
tions. From Boston, D'Estaing, in the name of his king,
had summoned the Canadians to throw off British rule;
Lafayette, in December, exhorted " his children, the savages
of Canada," to look upon the English as their enemies.
Thus encouraged, congress, without consulting a single mil-
itary man, formed a plan for the " emancipation of Canada,"
in co-operation with an army from France. One American
detachment from Pittsburg was to capture Detroit ; another
from Wyoming, Niagara ; a third from the Mohawk River,
to seize Oswego ; a fourth from New England, by way of
the St. Francis, to enter Montreal; a fifth, to guard the
approaches from Quebec ; while to France was assigned the
office of reducing Quebec and Halifax. Lafayette would
willingly have used his influence at Versailles in favor of
the enterprise ; but Washington showed how far the part
reserved for the United States went beyond their resources;
and, in deference to his advice, the speculative scheme was
laid aside.

1778. A PEOPLE WITHOUT A GOVERNMENT. 173

The spirit of independence none the less grew in strength.
Almost all parts of the country were free from the ravages
of war ; and the inhabitants had been left to plough and
plant, to sow and reap, their fields without fear. On the
plantations of Virginia labor was undisturbed, and its abun-
dant products were heaped up for exportation along the
banks of her navigable waters. In all New England, seed-
time and harvest had not failed ; and the unmolested ports of
Massachusetts grew opulent by commerce. Samuel Adams,
Uttering the popular sentiment, wrote from Philadelphia :
" I hope we shall secure to the United States Canada,
Nova Scotia, Florida too, and the fishery, by our 1778.
arms or by treaty. We shall never be on a solid
footing till Great Britain cedes to us, or we wrest from
her, what nature designs we should have."

For want of a government, this boundless hope of a young
and resolute people could have no adequate support in
organized forces. The army, of which the head-quarters
were at Middlebrook, was encamped for the winter so as to
form a line of observation and defence from the Connecti-
cut shore of Long Island Sound, by way of West Point, to
the Delaware. For the convenience of forage, the four
regiments of cavalry were distributed among the states
from Connecticut to Virginia. The troops were hutted as
at Valley Forge : they suffered extreme distress for want of
food ; but, through importations from France, they were
better clad than ever before. Officers in great numbers
were quitting the service from absolute necessity, and those
who remained were sinking into poverty ; while the men
grew impatient under their privations and want of pay.
The next campaign would unavoidably prove an inactive
one ; so that the discontented would have leisure to discuss
their hardships and brood over their wrongs.

And yet the British made no progress in recovering their
colonies, and the Americans could not be subdued. An
incalculable amount of energy lay in reserve in the states
and in their citizens individually. Though congress pos-
sessed no effective means of strengthening the regular army,
there coild always be an appeal to the militia, who were

174 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVI.

the people in arms. The strength of patriotism, however
it might seem to slumber, was ready to break forth in every
crisis of danger, as a beam of light ceases to be invisible
when it has something to *hine upon. The people never
lost buoyant self-reliance, nor the readiness to make sacri-
fices for the public good.

The great defect lay in the absence of all means of coer

cion. Yet no member of congress brought forward a
1778. proposition to create the needed authority. The body

representing the nation renounoed powers of compul-
sion, and by choice devolved the chief executive acts upon
the separate states. To them it was left to enforce the em-
bargo on the export of provisions ; to sanction the seizure
of grain and flour for the army at established prices; to
furnish their quotas of troops, and in great part to support
them ; and each for itself to collect the general revenue, so
far as its collection was not voluntary. State governments
were dearer to the inhabitants than the general govern-
ment. The former were excellent ; the latter was inchoate
and incompetent. The former were time-honored and sanc-
tified by the memories and attachments of generations ; the
latter had no associations with the past, no traditions, no
fibres of inherited affection pervading the country. The
states had power which they exercised to raise taxes, to
pledge and keep faith, to establish order, to administer jus-
tice through able and upright and learned courts, to protect
liberty and property and all that is dear in social life;
the chief acts of congress were only recommendations
and promises. The states were everywhere represented by
civil officers in their employ ; congress had no magistrates,
no courts, no executive agents of its own. The tendency
of the general government was towards utter helplessness ;
so that not from intention, but from the natural course of
political development, the spirit and the habit of separatism
grew with every year. In July, 1776, the United States
declared themselves to have called a " people " into being ;
at the end of 1778, congress knew no " people of the United
States," but only " inhabitants." The name of " the United
States " began to give place to that of " the Confederated

177a A PEOPLE WITHOUT A GOVERNMENT. 175

States," even before the phrase could pretend to historic
validity. The attempt to form regiments directly
by the United States completely failed; and each m*.
state maintained its separate lino. There were thir-
teen distinct sovereignties and thirteen armies, with scarcely
a symbol of national unity except in the highest offices.

From the height of his position, Washington was the first
keenly to feel and clearly to declare that efficient power
must be infused into the general government. To the
speaker of the house of delegates of Virginia, he wrote in
December, 1778: "If the great whole is mismanaged, the
states individually must sink in the general wreck; in
effecting so great a revolution, the greatest abilities and
the most honest men our American world affords ought to
be employed." He saw " America on the brink of " destruc-
tion ; her " common interests, if a remedy were not soon to
be applied, mouldering and sinking into irretrievable ruin."
He pleaded for " the momentous concerns of an empire,"
for " the great business of a nation." " The states, sepa-
rately," such were his words, "are too much engaged in
their local concerns." And from this time he never ceased
his efforts, by conversation and correspondence, to train the
statesmen of America, especially of his beloved native com-
monwealth, to the work of consolidating its union.

176 THE AMEBICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVII

CHAPTER XXXVII.

THE KING OF SPAIN BAFFLED BT THE BACKWOODSMEN OF

VIRGINIA.

1778-1779.

While congress unwillingly gave up the hope of dislodg-
ing England from the continent of North America, the
negotiations between the elder and the younger branch of
the house of Bourbon changed the attitude of the belliger-
ent powers.

" I observe with pain," so reported Count Mont*
JJJ?* morin in October, and so he was obliged continually
to report, " that this government singularly fears the
prosperity and progress of the Americans; and this fear,
which was in part the cause of its excessive ill-humor at our
engagements with them, may often turn the scale to the
side of the English. Spain will be much inclined to stipu-
late for such a form of independence as may leave divisions
between England and her colonies."

The cabinet of Versailles rushed into the war to cripple
England. Spain prompted inquiry into the political conse-
quences of American independence. Letters came from
the United States, filled with reports of their ineradicable
attachment to England, which would be sure to show
itself in future European wars; the calm reasonings of
Turgot, that, from habit and consanguinity, their commerce
would return to their mother country, could not be for-
gotten ; doubts of their firmness and fidelity gradually rose
up in the mind of Vergennes. Florida Blanca, who per-
sistently proposed to bridle the dreaded ambition of the
United States, by a balance of power in which England
should hold the post of danger, wished her to retain posses-

1778. SPAIN BAFFLED BY BACKWOODSMEN. 177

sion of Canada and Nova Scotia; for it would prove a
perennial source of quarrels between the British and the
Americans. " On our side," wrote Vergennes simultane-
ously, " there will be no difficulty in guaranteeing to Eng-
land Canada and all other American possessions which may
remain to her at the peace." Spain desired that England
after the peace might hold Rhode Island, New York, and
other places along the sea; but Vergennes inflexibly an-
swered : " To this the king cannot consent without violat-
ing the engagement contracted with the thirteen provinces,
which he has recognised as free and independent states ; for
them only we ask independence, without comprehending
other English possessions. We are very far from desiring
that the nascent republic should remain the exclusive mis-
tress of all that immense continent."

In the same spirit, the French minister at Philadelphia
zealously urged members of congress to renounce every
ambition for an increase of territory. A spirit of modera-
tion manifested itself, especially in the delegation from
New York. Gouverneur Morris was inclined to relinquish
to Spain the navigation of the Mississippi, and, while he
desired the acquisition of Canada and Nova Scotia, asserted
the necessity of a law for setting a limit to the American
dominion. " Our empire," said Jay, the president of con-
gress, " is already too great to be well governed ; and its
constitution is inconsistent with the passion for conquest."
Not suspecting the persistent hostility of Spain, as he
smoked his pipe at the house of Gerard, he loudly com-
mended the triple alliance of France, the United States,
and Spain.

From the study of their forms of government, Vergennes
in like manner represented to Spain that "there was no
ground for seeing in this new people a race of conquerors ; "
and he undervalued American patriotism and firmness.
To quiet the Spanish court, he further wrote in
November: "Examine with reflection, collectively ^JJ;
and in detail, the constitutions which the United
States have given themselves. Their republic, unless they
amend its defects, which from the diversity and even antag

TOls. Tl. 12

178 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXX ViL

onism of their interests appears to me very difficult, will
never be any thing more than a feeble body, capable of
little activity."

But the fears of Florida Blanca could not be allayed.
He hoped security only from further negotiations ; and the
United States, he was persuaded, could never conclude a
peace with Great Britain except under the auspices of
France and Spain, and must submit to any terms which
these two powers might enjoin. But first he would know
what advantages France designed to exact for herself in
the final treaty of peace. For a time, Montmorin kept him
at bay by vague declarations. " In a case like this," said
Florida Blanca, " probability will not suffice ; it is necessary
to be able to speak with certainty." And, without demand-
ing the like confidence from Spain, Vergennes in October
enumerated as the only conditions which France would
require : the treaty of Utrecht wholly continued or wholly
abrogated ; freedom to restore the harbor of Dunquerque ;
the coast of Newfoundland from Cape Bonavista to Cape
St. John, with the exclusive fishery from Cape Bonavista to
Point Riche. The question of a right to fortify the com-
mercial establishment of Chandernagor fell with the surren-
der of that post ; the insinuation of a desire to recover
Canada, Vergennes always repelled as a calumny.

As the horizon began to clear, and Florida Blanca became
sore of his power over Franoe, he could not conceal his joy ;
and, having suffered from the irony of the Spanish ambassa-
dor at Paris, he now exclaimed : u I submit cheerfully to
the satires of Aranda, to gain for myself a reputation that
shall never die." From this time, he was in earnest in wish-
ing Spain to take part in the war. But his demands, in
comparison with the moderation of France, were so extrava-
gant that he was ashamed himself to give them utter-
No7v.8io. ance 5 an<^ m November he requested Vergennes to
suggest to him the advantages which France would
bind itself to secure to Spain before listening to propositions
for peace. A confidential declaration that accompanied his
letter marked his disposition to qualify the independence of
the United States. To raise the price to be offered, the king

1778. SPAIN BAFFLED BY BACKWOODSMEN. 179

of Spain simultaneously wrote to bis nephew, Louis XVI.,
of his desire to avoid any part in the war ; and his minister
announced to the French embassy that Spain could not be
induced to engage in it, except for great objects. " You
know, sir, his projects,'* wrote Montmorin to Vergennes ;
" the only way to bring him to a decision is to appear to
adopt them.'9 The option was embarrassing. " Six months
ago," reasoned Vergennes, " England was unprepared, and
might have consented to purchase peace on conditions pre-
scribed by the Bourbons. Now she has fortified herself
on every side, and God only knows what can be attained."
Tet, rather than remain in a state of isolation, Vergennes
on the day before Christmas, 1778, offered the king of Spain
carte blanche to frame a treaty which the ambassador of
France at Madrid should have full power to sign. But Flor-
ida Blanca reasoned that France would be more strongly
bound by articles of her own proposing, and therefore an-
swered : " The Catholic king will not be behind the king,
his nephew, in confidence. Count Vergennes may draft the
convention as seems good to him, and it will certainly be
signed here as soon as it shall arrive. The heart of the
king, my master, knows how to reciprocate good treat-
ment." To Montmorin he verbally explained his demands
in both hemispheres. As to Europe, he said : " Without
Gibraltar, I will never consent to a peace." " How are yon
to gain the place ?" asked Montmorin ; and he replied : " By
siege it is impossible ; Gibraltar must be taken in Ireland or
in England." Montmorin rejoined : " The English must be
reduced very low before they can cede Gibraltar, unless the
Spaniards first get possession of it." "If our operations
succeed," answered Florida Blanca, " England will be com-
pelled to subscribe to the law that we shall dictate."
At the same time, he declared frankly that Spain im
would furnish no troops for the invasion of Great
Britain ; France must undertake it alone ; even the junction
of the fleets of Brest and Cadiz to protect the landing must
be of short duration.

Vergennes might have hesitated to inaugurate the hard
conditions required; but reflection was lost in joy at the

180 THE AMEBICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVH

prospect of the oo operation of Spain, even though that
power opposed the independence of the new allies of
France, and demanded French aid to dislodge them from
the valley of the Mississippi.

1779. And yet disinterested zeal for freedom had not died

Feb* out in the world. Early in February, 1779, Lafayette,
after a short winter passage from Boston to Brest, rejoined
his family and friends. His departure for America, in the
preceding year, against the command of his king, was atoned
for by a week's exile to Paris, and confinement' to the house
of his father-in-law. The king then received him at Ver-
sailles with a gentle reprimand ; the queen addressed him
with eager curiosity : " Tell us good news of our dear re-
publicans, of our beloved Americans." His fame, his popu-
larity, the social influence of his rank, were all employed in
behalf of the United States. Accustomed to see great in-
terests sustained by small means, he grudged the prodigality
which expended on a single festival at court as much as
would have equipped the American army. " To clothe it,"
said Maurepas, " he would be glad to strip Versailles." He
found a ministry neglecting the main question of American
independence, making immense preparations for trifling
ends, and half unconscious of being at war. Public opinion
in France had veered about, and everybody clamored for
peace, which was to be hastened by the active alliance with
Spain.

All the while, the Spanish government, in its intercourse
with England, sedulously continued its offers of mediation.
Lest their ambassador at London should betray the secret,
he was kept in the dark, and misled ; Grantham, the British
ambassador at Madrid, hoodwinked by the stupendous dis-
simulation of Florida Blanca, wrote home in January, 1779 :
" I really believe this court is sincere in wishing to bring
about a pacification ; " and, at the end of March, the king
of England still confided in the neutrality of the court of
Spain. In London, there was a rumor of peace through
Spanish mediation ; Lord Weymouth, the ablest statesman
in the cabinet, steadily repelled that mediation, unless
France would cease to support the insurgent colonies.

1779. SPAIN BAFFLED BY BACKWOODSMEN. 181

Acting independently and from the consideration of her
own interests alone, Spain evaded the question of American
independence, and proposed her mediation to England on
the basis of a truce of twenty-five or thirty years, to be
granted by the king of England with the concurrence of
Spain and France. This offer, made without consultation
with Yergennes, called forth his most earnest expostula-
tions ; for, had it been accepted by the British ministry, he
must have set himself at variance with Spain, or been false
to his engagements with the United States. But Lord
Weymouth was superior to intrigue and chicane ; and with
equal resolution and frankness he put aside the modified
proposal "as an absolute, if not a distinct, concession of
all the rights of the British crown in the thirteen colonies,
under the additional disadvantage of making it to the
French, rather than to the Americans themselves." If in-
dependence was to be conceded to the new states, Lord
Weymouth held that it must be conceded " directly to con-
gress, that it might be made the basis of all the advantages
to Great Britain which so desirable an object might seem
to be worth." Uncontrolled by entangling connections,
England reserved to itself complete freedom in establishing
its relations with America, whether as dependencies or as
states. This policy was so founded in wisdom that it con-
tinued to be the rule of Great Britain for a little more than
eighty years.

Meantime, Vergennes, on the twelfth of February, m».
forwarded the draft of a convention which yielded Peb-12*
to Spain all that she required, except that its fourth article
maintained the independence of the United States. ' " In
respect to this," he wrote, " our engagements are precise,
and it is not possible for us to retract them. Spain must
share them, if she makes common cause with us." Yet the
article was persistently cavilled at, as in itself useless, and
misplaced in a treaty of France with Spain ; and it was re-
marked with ill-humor how precisely the treaty stipulated
"that arms should not be laid down" till American inde-
pendence should be obtained, while it offered only a vague
promise " of every effort " to procure the objects in which

182 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXV II

Spain was interested. "Efface the difference," answered
Montmorin, "and employ the same expressions for both
stipulations." The Spanish minister caught at the unwary
offer, and in this way it was agreed that peace should not
be made without the restoration of Gibraltar. Fired by the
prospect which now opened before him, the king of Spain
pictured to himself the armies of France breaking in upon
the English at their firesides ; and Florida Blanoa said to
Montmorin : " The news of the rupture must become known
to the world by a landing in England. With union, se-
crecy, and firmness, we shall be able to put our enemies
under our feet ; but no decisive blow can be struck at the
English except in England itself."

All this time, the Spanish minister avoided fixing the
epoch for joint active measures. Towards the end
j2™L °* March, Vergennes wrote impatiently : " How can
he ask us to bind ourselves to every thing that flat-
ters the ambition of Spain, whilst he may make the secret
reserve never to take part in the war but in so far as the
dangers are remote and the advantages certain? in one
word, to reap without having sown ? The difficulty can be
excused only by attributing it to that spirit of -a pettifogger
which formed the essence of his first profession, and which
we have encountered only too often. I cry out less at his
repugnance to guarantee American independence. Nothing
is gratuitous on the part of Spain ; we know from herself
that she wants suitable concessions from the Americans ; to
this we assuredly make no opposition."

Discussing in detail with Montmorin the article relating
to the Americans, Florida Blanca said : " The king, my
master, will never acknowledge their independence, until
the English themselves shall be forced to recognise it by
the peace. He fears the example which he should other-
wise give to his own possessions." " As well acknowledge
their independence as accord them assistance," began Mont-
morin; but the minister cut him short, saying: "Nothing
will come of your insisting on this article."

Now that no more was to be gained, Florida Blanoa him-
self made a draft of a convention, and suddenly presented

1779. SPAIN BAFFLED BY BACKWOODSMEN. 188

it to Montmorin. A few verbal corrections were
agreed upon, and on the evening of the twelfth of ApJ^
April the treaty was signed.

By its terms, France bound herself to undertake the inva-
sion of Great Britain or Ireland; if she could drive the
British from Newfoundland, its fisheries were to be shared
only with Spain. For trifling benefits to be acquired for
herself, she promised to use every effort to recover for
Spain Minorca, Pensacola, and Mobile, the Bay of Honduras,
and the coast of Campeachy; and the two courts bound
themselves not to grant peace, nor truce, nor suspension of
hostilities, until Gibraltar should be restored. From the
United States Spain was left free to exact, as the price of
her friendship, a renunciation of every part of the basin of
the St. Lawrence and the lakes, of the navigation of the
Mississippi, and of all the land between that river and the
Alleghanies.

This convention of France with Spain modified the treaty
between France and the United States. The latter were
not bound to continue the war till Gibraltar should be
taken ; still less, till Spain should have carried out her views
hostile to their interests. They gained the right to make
peace whenever Great Britain would recognise their in-
dependence.

The Mississippi River is the guardian and the pledge of
the union of the states of America. Had they been con-
fined to the eastern slope of the Alleghanies, there would
have been no geographical unity between them, and the
thread of connection between lands that merely fringed the
Atlantic must soon have been sundered. The father of
rivers gathers his waters from all the clouds that break
between the Alleghanies and the furthest ranges of the
Rocky Mountains. The ridges of the eastern chain bow
their heads at the north and at the south; so that, long
before science became the companion of man, nature herself
pointed out to the barbarous races how short portages join
his tributary rivers to those of the Atlantic coast. At the
other side, his mightiest arm interlocks with the arms of
the Oregon and the Colorado, and by the conformation of

I

184 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVII.

the earth itself marshals highways to the Pacific. From
his remotest springs, he refuses to suffer his waters to be
divided; but, as he bears them all to the bosom of the
ocean, the myriads of flags that wave above his head are the
ensigns of one people. States larger than kingdoms flourish
where he passes; and, beneath his step, cities start into
being, more marvellous in their reality than the fabled crea-
tions of enchantment. His magnificent valley, lying in the
best part of the temperate zone, salubrious and wonderfully
fertile, is the chosen muster-ground of the most various
elements of human culture brought together by men, sum-
moned from all the civilized nations of the earth, and joined
in the bonds of common citizenship by tl\> strong, invisible
attraction of republican freedom. Now that science has
come to be the household friend of trade and commerce
and travel, and that nature has lent to wealth and intellect
the use of her constant forces, the hills, once walls of divi-
sion, are scaled or pierced or levelled ; and the two oceans,
between which the republic has unassailably intrenched
itself against the outward world, are bound together across
the continent by friendly links of iron.

From the grandeur of destiny foretold by the possession
of that river and the lands drained by its waters, the Bour-
bons of Spain, hoping to act in concert with Great Britain
as well as France, would have shut out the United States
totally and for ever.

While the absolute monarch of the Spanish dominions
and his minister thought to exclude the republic from the
valley of the Mississippi, a new power emerged from its
forests to bring their puny policy to nought. An enterprise
is now to be recorded, which, for the valor of the actors,
their fidelity to one another, the seeming feebleness of their
means, and the great result of their hardihood, remains for
ever memorable in the history of the world. On the
1776. sixth of June, 1776, the emigrants to the region west
of the Louisa River, at a general meeting in Har-
rodston, elected George Rogers Clark, then midway in his
twenty-fourth year, and one other, to represent them in
the assembly of Virginia, with a request that their settle-

177a SPAIN BAFFLED BT BACKWOODSMEN. 185

ments might be constituted a county. Before they could
©rose the mountains, the legislature of Virginia had declared
independence, established a government, and adjourned. In
a later session, they were not admitted to seats in the house ;
but on the sixth of December the westernmost part of the
state was incorporated as " the county of Kentucky." As
on his return he descended the Ohio, Clark brooded over the
conquest of the land to the north of the river. In the
summer of 1777, he sent two young hunters to recon- 1777.
noitre the French villages in Illinois and on the Wabash.

In the latter part of 1777, Clark took leave of the woods-
men of Kentucky, and departed for the east. To a few
at Williamsburg, of whom no one showed more persistent
zeal than George Mason and Jefferson, he proposed a secret
expedition to the Illinois. Patrick Henry, the governor,
made the plan his own ; and, at his instance, the house of
delegates, by a vote of which " few knew the intent," em-
powered him to aid "any expedition against their
western enemies." On the second of January, 1778, 1778.
Clark received from the governor and council a supply
of money, liberty to levy troops in any county of Virginia,
and written and verbal instructions, clothing him with large
discretionary authority to attack the British dominion on
the Illinois and the Wabash. Hastening to the frontier, he
established recruiting parties from the head of the Ohio to
the Holston. At Redstone-old-fort, with the cordial aid of
Hand, its commander, he collected boats, light artillery, and
ammunition. There he was overtaken by Captain Leonard
Helm, of Fauquier, and by Captain Joseph Bowman, of Fred-
eric, each with less than half a company. These and the
adventurers of his own enlistment, together only one hun-
dred and fifty men, all of a hardy race, self-relying, and
trusting in one another, he was now to lead near a thousand
miles from their former homes against a people who ex-
ceeded them in number and were aided by merciless tribes
of savage allies. At Fort Kanawha, in May, they were
re-enforced by Captain William Harrod and his company.
On the day of an eclipse of the sun, they glided over the
falls of the Ohio, below which they were "joined by a few

186 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVK.

Eentuckians" under John Montgomery. On the twenty-
sixth of Jane, after taking rest but for forty-eight hours,
Clark and his companions, Virginians in the service of Vir-
ginia, set off from the falls, and with oars double-manned
proceeded night and day on their ever memorable enterprise.

From Detroit, Hamilton, the lieutenant-governor, sent
abroad along the American frontier parties of savages,
whose reckless cruelty won his applause ; and he schemed
attempts against the " rebel forts on the Ohio," relying on
the red men of the prairies and the white men of Vin-
cennes. The reports sent to Germain made him believe
that the inhabitants of that settlement, though "a poor
people who thought themselves cast off from his majesty's
protection, were firm in their allegiance to defend it against
all enemies," and that hundreds in Pittsburg remained at
heart attached to the crown.

On the invasion of Canada in 1775, Carleton, to strengthen
the posts of Detroit and Niagara, had withdrawn the small
British garrison from Easkaskia, and the government was
left in the hands of Rocheblave, a Frenchman, who had
neither troops nor money. " I wish," he wrote in February,
1778, "the nation might come to know one of its best pos-
sessions, and consent to give it some encouragement ; " and
he entreated Germain that a lieutenant-governor might be
despatched with a company of soldiers to reside in Illinois.

Apprised of the condition of Easkaskia by a band of
hunters, Clark ran his boats into a creek a mile above Fort
Massac, reposed there but for a night, and struck across the
hills to the great prairie. On the treeless plain, his party,
"in all about one hundred and eighty," could be seen for
miles around by nations of Indians, able to fall on them
with three times their number ; yet they were in the high-
est spirits ; and " he felt as never again in his life a flow of
rage," an intensity of will, a zeal for action. Approaching
Easkaskia on the fourth of July, in the darkness of evening
he surprised the town, and without bloodshed seized Roche-
blave, the commandant. The inhabitants gladly bound
themselves to fealty to the United States. A detachment
under Bowman was despatched to Kahokia, and received

1778. SPAIN BAFFLED BY BACKWOODSMEN. 187

its submission. The people, of 'French origin and few in
number, were averse to the dominion of the English ; and
this disaffection was confirmed by the American alliance
with the land of their ancestors.

In a long conference, Gibault, a Catholic priest, dissuaded
Clark from moving against Vincennes. His own offer of
mediation being accepted, he, with a small party, repaired
to the post ; and its people, having listened to his explana-
tion of the state of affairs, went into the church and took
the oath of allegiance to the United States. The transition
from the condition of subjects of a king to that of integral
members of a free state made them new men. Planning
the acquisition of the whole north-west, they sent to the
Indians on the Wabash five belts : a white one for the
French ; a red one for the Spaniards ; a blue one for Amer-
ica ; and for the Indian tribes a green one as an offer of
.peace, and one of the color of blood if they preferred war,
with this message : " The king of France is come to life.
We desire to pass through your country to Detroit. We
desire you to leave a very wide path for us, for we
are many in number and love to have room enough rrre.
for our march ; for, in swinging our arms as we walk,
we might chance to hurt some of your young people with
our swords."

To dispossess the Americans of the Illinois country and
Vincennes, on the seventh of October Lieutenant-governor
Hamilton left Detroit, with regulars and volunteers, and
three hundred and fifty warriors picked by their chiefs
out of thirteen different nations. On the seventeenth of
December, he took possession of Fort Vincennes without
opposition ; and the inhabitants of the town returned to
their subjection to the British king. After this exploit, he
contented himself for the winter with sending out parties ;
but he announced to the Spanish governor his purpose early
in the spring to recover Illinois ; and, confident of receiving
re-enforoements, he threatened that, if the Spanish officers
should afford an asylum to rebels in arms against their law-
ful sovereign, he would invade their territory and seize the
fugitives.

188 THE AMERICAN BEVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVH

Hamilton was methodical in his use of Indians. He gave
standing rewards for scalps, bat offered none for prisoners.
His continuous volunteer parties, composed of Indians and
whites, spared neither men nor women nor children. In the
coming year, he promised that as early as possible all the
different nations, from the Chickasaws and Cherokees to
the Hurons and Five Nations, should join in the expeditions
against Virginia; while the lake Indians from Mackinaw,
in conjunction with the white men, agreed to destroy the
few rebels in Illinois. Meantime, that he might be prepared
for his summer's bloody work, he sent out detachments to
watch Kaskaskia and the falls of the Ohio, and to intercept
any boats that might venture up that river with supplies for
the rebels. He never doubted his ability to sweep away
the forts on the Kentucky and Kanawha, ascend the Ohio
to Pittsburg, and reduce all Virginia west of the moun-
tains.

Over Clark and his party in Illinois danger hovered from
every quarter. He had not received a single line from the
governor of Virginia for near twelve months ; his force was
too small to stand a siege; his position too remote for
assistance. By his orders, Bowman of Kentucky joined
him, after evacuating the fort at Kahokia, and preparations
were made for the defence of Kaskaskia. Just then Francis
Vigo, by birth an Italian of Piedmont, a trader of St. Louis,
arrived from Vincennes, and gave information that Hamil-
ton had weakened himself by sending out hordes of Indians ;
that he had not more than eighty soldiers in garrison, nor
more than three pieces of cannon and some swivels mounted ;
but that he intended to collect in spring a sufficient number
of men to clear the west of the Americans before the fall.

With a courage as desperate as his situation, Clark in-
stantly resolved to attack Hamilton before he could
Peb.9i. ca^ *n n*8 Indians. On the fourth of February, he
despatched a small galley, mounting two four-pound-
ers and four swivels, and carrying a company of men and
military stores under Captain John Rogers, with orders to
ascend the Wabash, take a station a few miles below Vin-
cennes, suffer nothing to pass, and await further instruo-

177* SPAIN BAFFLED BY BACKWOODSMEN. 189

tions. Of the young men of Illinois, thirty volunteered
to be the companions of Clark; the rest he imbodied to
garrison Kaskaskia and guard the different towns.
On the seventh of February, he began his march p55%.
across the country with one hundred and thirty men.
The inclemency of the season and high water threat*
ened them with ruin. In eleven days, they came Feb. is.
within three leagues of Vincennes, on the edge of
"the drowned lands " of the Wabash River. To
oross these required five days more, during which Feb. ss.
they had to make two leagues, often up to the breast
in water. Had not the weather been mild, they must have
perished ; but the courage and confidence of Clark and his
troop never flagged.

All this time, Hamilton was planning murderous expe-
ditions. He wrote : " Next year there will be the greatest
number of savages on the frontier that has ever been
known, as the Six Nations have sent belts around to
encourage their allies, who have made a general alli-
ance." On the twenty-third, a British gang return- Feb. 23.
ing with two prisoners reported to him that they
had seen the remains of fifteen fires ; and at five o'clock in
the afternoon he sent out one of his captains with twenty
men in pursuit of a party that was supposed to have come
from Pittsburg.

Two hours after their departure, Clark and his compan-
ions got on dry land ; and making no delay, with drum
beating and a white flag flying, they entered Vincennes at
the lower end of the village. The town surrendered without
resistance, and assisted in the siege of the fort, which was
immediately invested. One captain, who lived in the vil-
lage, with two Ottawa chiefs and the king of the Hurons,
escaped to the wood, where they were afterwards joined
by the chief of the Miamis and three of his people. The
moon was new; and in the darkness Clark threw up an
mtrenchment within rifle-shot of the fort. Under this
protection, the riflemen silenced two pieces of cannon.
The firing was continued for about fourteen hours, during
which Clark purposely allowed La Motte and twenty men

190 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XiXVU.

to enter the place. The riflemen aimed 80 well that,
Fob^ML on tne forenoon of the twenty-fourth, Hamilton
asked for a parley. At first, Clark demanded his
surrender at discretion. The garrison declared "they
would sooner perish to the last man ; " and offered to
capitulate on the condition that they might march out
with the honors of war, and return to Detroit. " To that,"
answered Clark, "I can by no means agree. I will not
again leave it in your power to spirit up the Indian na-
tions to scalp men, women, and children.'* About twelve
o'clock, the firing was renewed on both sides ; and, before
the twenty-fourth came to an end, Hamilton and his gar-
rison, hopeless of succor and destitute of provisions, sur-
rendered as prisoners of war.

A very large supply of goods for the British force was
on its way from Detroit. Sixty men, despatched by Clark
in boats well mounted with swivels, surprised the convoy
forty leagues up the river, and made a prize of the whole,
taking forty prisoners. The joy of the party was com-
pleted by the return of their messenger from Virginia, bring-
ing from the house of assembly its votes of October and
November, 1778, establishing the county of Illinois, and
" thanking Colonel Clark and the brave officers and men
under his command for their extraordinary resolution and
perseverance, and for the important services which they had
thereby rendered their country."

Since the time of that vote, they had undertaken a far
more hazardous enterprise, and had obtained permanent
"possession of all the important posts and settlements on
the Illinois and Wabash, rescued the inhabitants from
British dominion, and established civil government " in its
republican form.

The conspiracy of the Indians embraced those of the
south. Early in the year 1779, Cherokees and warriors
from every hostile tribe south of the Ohio, to the number
of a thousand, assembled at Chickamauga. To restrain
their ravages, which had extended from Georgia to Penn-
sylvania, the governments of North Carolina and Virginia
appointed Evan Shelby to command about a thousand

1780. SPAIN BAFFLED BY BACKWOODSMEN. 191

men, called into service chiefly from the settlers beyond
the mountains. To these were added a regiment of
twelve-months men, that had been enlisted for the re-
enforcement of Clark in Illinois. Their supplies and means
of transportation were due to the unwearied and un-
selfish exertions of Isaac Shelby. In the middle of ^pSl
April, embarking in pirogues and canoes at the
mouth of Big Creek, they descended the river so rapidly
aa to surprise the savages, who fled to the hills and forests.
They were pursued, and forty of their warriors fell, their
towns were burnt, their fields laid waste, and their cattle
driven away.

Thus the plans of the British for a combined attack, to
be made by the northern and southern Indians upon the
whole western frontier of the states from Georgia to New
York, were defeated. For the rest of the year, the western
settlements enjoyed peace; and the continuous flow of
emigration through the mountains to Kentucky and the
country on the Holston so strengthened them that they
were never again in danger of being broken up by any
alliance of the savages with the British. The prowess of
the people west of the Alleghanies, where negro slavery
had not yet been introduced and every man was in the full
possession of a wild but self-restrained liberty, fitted them
for self-defence. The men on the Holston exulted in all
the gladsome hopefulness of political youth and enterprise ;
and, in this year, Robertson with a band of hunters took
possession of the surpassingly fertile country on the Cum-
berland River.

Clark could not pursue his career of victories ; for the regi-
ment designed for his support had been diverted, and thus
the British gained time to re-enforce and fortify Detroit.
But Jefferson, then governor of Virginia, gave instructions
to occupy a station on the Mississippi, between the mouth
of the Ohio and the parallel of thirty-six degrees,
thirty minutes ; and, in the spring of 1780, Clark, rrao
choosing a strong and commanding situation five
miles below the mouth of the Ohio, established Fort Jeffer-
son as the watch on the father of rivers.

192 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVII

1778. Meantime, in the summer of 1778, news was re-

ceived of the conquest of the British settlements on
the lower Mississippi. James Willing of Philadelphia, a
captain in the service of the United States, left that city
with about twenty-seven men, who grew to be more than a
hundred at Fort Pitt and on the rivers. On the evening of
Thursday, the nineteenth of February, 1778, they arrived
at the Natchez landing, and early the next morning sent
out several parties, who almost at the same moment made
the inhabitants prisoners of war on parole, hoisted the
colors of the United States, and in their name took posses-
sion of the country. The British agents, who had taken
part in stimulating the south-western savages to prowl on
the American frontiers, had a very narrow escape. One of
the most obnoxious fled in his shirt to the Spanish fort of
Manchac.

The friendly planters, left unprotected, and fearing the
confiscation of their property, waited on the commander
to propose terms of accommodation, to which he readily
agreed. Accordingly, on the twenty-first, they formally
promised on their part in no way to give assistance to the
enemies of America, and in return received the assurance
of protection during their neutrality. From this agreement
were excepted all public officers of the crown of Great
Britain. The property of British officers and non-residents
was confiscated, and all the eastern side of the river was
cleared of loyalists.

From Pittsburg and Kaskaskia to the Spanish boundary
of Florida, the United States were alone in possession of
the Ohio and the left bank of the Mississippi. Could the
will of Charles III. of Spain defeat the forethought of
Jefferson ? Could the intrigues of Florida Blanca stop the
onward wave of the backwoodsmen? The legislature of
Virginia put on record, that " Colonel George Rogers Clark
planned and executed the reduction of the British posts be-
tween the Ohio and Mississippi," and granted "two hun-
dred acres of land to^every soldier in his corps." "The
expedition," wrote Jefferson, " will have an important bear-
ing ultimately in establishing our north-western boundary."

1779. PLAN 07 FBACB. 193

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

PLAN OF PEACK.
1779.

Fob the northern campaign of 1779 two objects presented
themselves to America : the capture of Fort Niagara,
to be followed by that of Detroit ; and the recovery irrt .
of New York city. Bat either of these schemes
would have required an army of thirty thousand men ; while
the fall of the currency, party divisions, and the want of a
central power paralyzed every effort at a harmonious organ-
ization of the strength of all the states. Washington re-
mained more than a month at Philadelphia in consultation
with congress, and all agreed that the country must confine
itself to a defensive campaign.

Measures for the relief of the national treasury were
postponed by congress from day to day, apparently from
thoughtlessness, but really from conscious inability to devise
a remedy ; while it wasted time upon personal and party
interests. Gates was more busy than ever in whispers
against Washington. Most men thought the war near its
end ; the skilfully speculative grew rich by the fluctuations
in prices, and shocked' a laborious and frugal people by their
extravagant style of living. The use of irredeemable paper
poisoned the relations of life, and affected contracts and
debts, trusts and inheritances. Added to this, the British
had succeeded in circulating counterfeit money so
widely, that congress in January was compelled to Jan.
reoall two separate emissions, each of five millions.

Even a defensive campaign was attended with difficulties.
To leave the officers, by the depreciation of the currency,
without subsistence, augured the reduction of the army to

TOL. TI. 18

194 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVUL

a shadow. Few of them were willing to remain on the
existing establishment, and congress was averse to granting
pensions to them or to their widows.

The rank and file were constantly decreasing in number,
and not from the casualties of the service alone. Many
would have the right to their discharge in the coming sum-
mer ; more at the end of the year. To each of them who
would agree to serve during the war, a bounty of two hun-
dred dollars, besides land and clothing, was promised ;
while those who had in former years enlisted for the war
received a gratuity of one hundred dollars. Tet all would
have been in vain but for the character of the people.
Among the emigrants, some mere needy adventurers joined
the English standard ; others of serious convictions, united
with the descendants of the early settlers of the country,
formed the self-reliant, invincible resource of the Americans.
If Washington could not drive the British from New York,
neither could England recover jurisdiction over a foot of
land beyond the lines of her army.
1779. Tardily in March, congress voted that the infantry
March, gho^fl consist of eighty battalions, of which eleven
were assigned to Pennsylvania, as many to Virginia, and
fifteen to Massachusetts. Not one state furnished its whole
quota; the last-named more nearly than any other. In
addition to the congressional bounty, New Jersey paid two
hundred and fifty dollars to each of her recruits. Often in
Massachusetts, sometimes in Virginia, levies were raised by
draft.

Four years of hard service and of reflection had ripened
in Washington the conviction of the need of a national
government. To other states than his native commonwealth
he made appeals for the subordination of every selfish inter-
est to the public good ; so that, in the want of a central
government, each of them might do its utmost for what he
called " our common country, America," " our noble cause,
the cause of mankind." But to the men of Virginia he
unbosomed himself more freely. His was the eloquence of
a sincere, single-minded, and earnest man, whose words
went to the heart from his love of truth and the intensity

1779. PLAN OF PEACE. 195

of his convictions. To one Virginia statesman he wrote:
"Our affairs are now come to a crisis. Unanimity, disinter-
estedness, and perseverance in our national duty are the
only means to avoid misfortunes." In a " letter sent by a
private hand," he drew the earnest thoughts of George
Mason to the ruin that was coming upon the country from
personal selfishness and provincial separatism in these words :
**I view things very differently from what the people in
general do, who seem to think the contest is at an end, and
to make money and get places the only things now remain-
ing to do. I have seen without despondency, even for a
moment, the hours which America has styled her gloomy
ones ; but I have beheld no day, since the commencement
of hostilities, that I have thought her liberties in such emi-
nent danger as at present. Friends and foes seem now to
combine to pull down the goodly fabric we have been rais-
ing at the expense of so much time, blood, and treasure ;
and unless the bodies politic will exert themselves to bring
things back to first principles, correct abuses, and punish
our internal foes, inevitable ruin must follow. Indeed, we
seem to be verging so fast to destruction, that I am filled
with sensations to which I have been a stranger till within
these three months. Our enemies behold with exultation
and joy how effectually we labor for their benefit ; and from
being in a state of absolute despair, and on the point of
evacuating America, are now on tiptoe. Nothing, there-
fore, in my judgment can save us but a total reformation in
our own conduct, or some decisive turn to affairs in Europe.
The former — alas! to our shame be it spoken — is less
likely to happen than the latter.

" Were I to indulge my present feelings, and give a m».
loose to that freedom of expression which my unre-
served friendship for you would prompt me to, I should say
a great deal on this subject. I cannot refrain lamenting,
however, in the most poignant terms, the fatal policy too
prevalent in most of the states, of employing their ablest
men at home in posts of honor and profit, till the great
national interest is fixed upon a solid basis. To me it
agqtears no unjust simile to compare the affairs of this great

196 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chat. XXXVIIL

continent to the mechanism of a clock, each state represent-
ing some one or other of the smaller parts of it, which they
are endeavoring to put in fine order, without considering
how useless and unavailing their labor is, unless the great
wheel or spring which is to set the whole in motion is also
well attended to and kept in good order. As it is a fact too
notorious to be concealed, that congress is rent by party,
no man who wishes well to the liberties of his country and
desires to see its rights established can avoid crying out,
Where are our men of abilities ? Why do they not come
forth to save their country? Let this voice, my dear sir,
call upon you, Jefferson, and others. Do not, from a mis-
taken opinion, let our hitherto noble struggle end in igno-
miny. Believe me, when I tell you there is danger of it.
I shall be much mistaken if administration do not now,
from the present state of our currency, dissensions, and
other circumstances, push matters to the utmost extremity.
Nothing will prevent it but the interposition of Spain, and
their disappointed hope from Russia."

1779. On the eighteenth of May he wrote to another
May is. friencl : " I never was, and much less reason have I
now to be, afraid of the enemy's arms ; but I have no scru-
ples in declaring to you that I have never yet seen the time
in which our affairs, in my opinion, were at as low an ebb
as at the present ; and, without a speedy and capital
change, we shall not be able to call out the resources of
the country."

While Washington reasoned that the British ministers
plainly intended to prosecute the war on American soil,
and to make a permanent conquest of the south, congress
avoided or delayed the expense of proper re-enforcements
of its army, and lulled itself into the belief that hostilities
were near their end. In this quiet, it was confirmed by a
proceeding of the French minister, who had been specially
commanded to ascertain its ultimate demands, and to mould
them into a form acceptable to Spain. Its answer to the
British commissioners in 1778 implied a willingness to treat
with Great Britain on her recognition of American indepen-
dence. " It has but one course to take," wrote Vergennes.

1779. PLAN OP PEACE. 197

before his treaty with Spain ; " and that is to declare dis-
tinctly and roundly that it will listen to no proposition,
unless it has for its basis peace with France as well as with
America." On the report of an able committee on which
are found the names of Samuel Adams and Jay, con- '
gress, on the fourteenth of January, 1779, resolved j^ii.
unanimously "that as neither France nor these United
States may of right, so they will not, conclude either truce
or peace with the common enemy, without the formal con-
sent of their ally first obtained."

The conditions on which it was most difficult for the
Americans to preserve moderation related to boundaries
and to the fisheries. They were to take their place in the
political world as an unknown power, of whose future in-
fluence both France and Spain had misgivings. The latter
longed to recover the Floridas : the United States had no
traditional wish for their acquisition ; and, from the military
point of view, Washington preferred that Spain should
possess the Floridas rather than Great Britain. Here no
serious difference could arise.

Spain wished to extend on the north to the Ohio, on
the east to the Alleghanies ; but the backwoodsmen were
already in possession of the territory, and it would have
been easier to extirpate the game in the forests than to
drive them from their homes.

Spain made the exclusive right to the navigation of the
Mississippi the condition of her endurance of the United
States; and it remained to be seen whether they could be
brought by their necessities to acquiesce in the demand. It
was the wish of both France and Spain that the country
north-west of the Ohio River should be guaranteed to Great
Britain ; but such a proposition could never gain a hearing
in congress. France, renouncing for herself all pretensions
to her old provinces, Canada and Nova Scotia, joined Spain
in opposing every wish of the Americans to acquire them.
In this congress acquiesced, though two states persisted in
demanding their annexation.

With regard to the fisheries, of which the interruption
Conned one of the elements of the war, public law had not

198 THE AMERICAN BE VOLUTION. Chap.XXXVUL

yet been settled. By the treaty of Utrecht, France agreed
not to fish within thirty leagues of the coast of Nova Scotia.;
and by that of Paris, not to fish within fifteen leagues of
Cape Breton. Moreover, New England at the beginning of
the war had by act of parliament been debarred from fish-
ing on the banks of Newfoundland. What right of legisla-
tion respecting them would remain at the peace to the
parliament of England ? Were they free to the mariners
of all nations ? and what limit was set to the coast fisheries
by the law of nature and of nations ? " The fishery on the
high seas,'9 so Yergennes expounded the law of nations, " is
as free as the sea itself, and it is superfluous to discuss the
right of the Americans to it. But the coast fisheries belong
of right to the proprietary of the coast. Therefore, the
fisheries on the coasts of Newfoundland, of Nova Scotia, of
Canada, belong exclusively to the English ; and the Amer-
icans have no pretension whatever to share in them."

But they had hitherto almost alone engaged in the
fisheries on the coast of Nova Scotia and in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence ; deeming themselves to have gained a right
to them by exclusive and immemorial usage. Further, the
New England men had planned and had alone furnished
land forces for the first reduction of Cape Breton, and bad
assisted in the acquisition of Nova Scotia and Canada. The
fisheries on their coasts seemed to them, therefore, a per-
petual joint property. Against this, Vergennes argued that
the conquest had been made for the crown of Great Britain ;
and that the New England men, on ceasing to be the sub-
jects of that crown, lost all right in the coast fisheries.

The necessity of appeals to France for aid promoted obse-
quiousness to its wishes. He that accepts subsidies binds
his own hands, and consents to play a secondary part. A
needy government, reduced to expedients for getting money,
loses some degree of its consideration.

To persuade congress to propitiate Spain by conceding
all her demands, the French minister at Philadelphia sought
interviews with its separate members and with its newly
appointed committee on foreign affairs, which was composed
of one from each state; and insisted with them on the

1779. PLAN OF PEACE. 199

relinquishment of the fisheries, and of the valley and navi-
gation of the Mississippi. It was answered that that valley
was already colonized by men who would soon be received
into the union as a state. He rejoined that personal con-
siderations must give way to the general interests of the
republic ; that the king of Spain, if he engaged in the war,
would have equal rights with the United States to acquire
territories of the king of England ; that the persistence in
asserting a right to establishments on the Ohio and the
Illinois, and at Natchez, would exhibit an unjust desire of
conquest ; that such an acquisition was foreign to the prin-
ciples of the American alliance with France, and of the
system of union between France and Spain, as well as
inconsistent with the interests of the latter power ; and he
formally declared " that his king would not prolong the war
one single day to secure to the United States the possessions
which they coveted."

" Besides, the extent of their .territory rendered already
a good administration difficult : so enormous an increase
would cause their immense empire to crumble under its own
weight." Gerard terminated his very long conversation by
declaring the strongest desire "that the United States
might never be more than thirteen, unless Canada should
one day be received as the fourteenth." The president of
congress, still confiding in the triple alliance, avowed him-
self content with the boundary of the colonies at the break-
ing out of the revolution, and the French minister did not
doubt of success in extorting the concessions required by
Spain.

On the fifteenth of February, Gerard in a private 1779.
audience represented to congress that the price which Feb# 1B>
Spain put upon her friendship was Pensacola and the exclu-
sive navigation of the Mississippi ; if her wishes were not
complied with, Spain and England might make common
cause against America.

Two days after this private interview, congress Feb. 17.
referred the subject of the terms of peace to a special
committee of five, composed of Gouverneur Morris, of New
York; Burke, of North Carolina; Witherspoon of New

200 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVIIL

Jersey; Samuel Adams, of Massachusetts; and Smith, of
Virginia. Of these, Samuel Adams demanded the most
territory ; while Morris would rather have had no increase
than more lands at the south.

1779. On the twenty-third, the committee reported their
Feb. 23. 0pmi011j fa^ the king of Spain was disposed to enter
into an alliance with the United States, and that conse-
quently independence must he finally acknowledged by
Great Britain. This being effected, they proposed as their
ultimatum that their territory should extend from the
Atlantic to the Mississippi, from the Floridas to Canada
and Nova Scotia ; that the right of fishing and curing fish
on the banks and coasts of Newfoundland should belong
equally to the United States, France, and Great Britain ;
and that the navigation of the Mississippi should be free to
the United States down to their southern boundary, with
the benefit of a free port below in the Spanish dominions.
Congress, in committee of the whole, on the nine-
Mar. 19. teenth of March, agreed substantially to the report
on boundaries, yet with an option to adopt westward
from Lake Ontario the parallel of the forty-fifth degree of
latitude. The right to the fisheries was long under
Mar. 22. discussion, which ended with the vote that the com-
mon right of the United States to fish on the coasts,
bays, and banks of Nova Scotia, the banks of Newfoundland
and Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Straits of Labrador and Belle*
Isle, should in no case be given up. On the twenty-
Mar. 24. fourth, ten states against Pennsylvania alone, New
Hampshire and Connecticut being divided, refused
to insert the right to navigate the Mississippi. On that
subject the instructions were silent, for it was a question
with Spain alone ; Great Britain, according to the Ameri-
can intention, was to possess no territory on the Mississippi,
from its source to its mouth.

On the same day, Gerry obtained a reconsideration of the
article on the fisheries. The treaty of Utrecht divided
those of Newfoundland between Great Britain and France,
on the principle that each should have a monopoly of its
own share.

1779* PLAN OF PEACE. 201

Richard Henry Lee brought up the subject anew, and,
avoiding a collision with the monopoly of France, he pro-
posed that the right of fishing on the coasts and banks of
North America should be reserved to the United States as
fully as they enjoyed the same when subject to Great Brit-
ain. This substitute was carried by the vote of Pennsyl-
vania and Delaware, with the four New England states.

But the state of New York, guided by Jay and Gou-
verneur Morris, altogether refused to insist on a right by
treaty to fisheries ; and Gouverneur Morris, on the
eighth of May, calling to mind "the exhausted situa- May's.
tion of the United States, the derangement of their
finances, and the defect of their resources," moved that
the acknowledgment of independence should be the sole
condition of peace. The motion was declared to be out of
order by the votes of the four New England states, New
Jersey, and Pennsylvania, against the unanimous vote of
New York, Maryland, and North Carolina; while Dela-
ware, Virginia, and South Carolina were equally divided.

The French minister now intervened ; and, on the
twenty-seventh of May, congress went back to its May 27.
unmeaning resolve, "that by no treaty of peace
should the common right of fishing be given up."

On the third of June, 6erry, who was from Marble- June 3.
head, again appeared as the champion of the Ameri-
can right to the fisheries on banks or coasts, as exercised
daring their political connection with Great Britain. He
was in part supported by Sherman ; but New Hampshire,
Massachusetts, and Rhode Island alone sustained a right
to the fisheries on the coasts of British provinces; and,
though Pennsylvania came to their aid, the "Gallican party,"
by a vote of seven states against the four, set aside the main
question ; so that congress refused even to stipulate for the
" free and peaceable use and exercise of the common right of
fishing on the banks of Newfoundland."

In the preceding December, Marie Antoinette, after
many years of an unfruitful marriage, gave birth to
a daughter. On the fifteenth of June, congress, con- June is.
gratulating the king of France on the event, asked

202 THE AMERICAN BE VOLUTION. Chap. XXXVilL

for " the portraits of himself and his royal consort, to be
placed in their council chamber, that the representatives of
these states might daily have before their eyes the first
royal friends and patrons of their cause." This was not
merely the language of adulation. The Americans felt the
sincerest interest in the happiness of Louis XVI. An hon-
est impulse of gratitude gave his name to the oity which
overlooks the falls of the Ohio ; and when, in 1781, a son
was born to him, Pennsylvania commemorated the event
in the name of one of its counties. In later years, could
the voice of the United States have been heard, he and his
wife and children would have been saved, and welcomed to
their country as an. asylum. On the same day, congress
solicited supplies from France to the value of nearly three
millions of dollars, to be paid for, with interest, after the
peace.

1779. On the seventeenth, performing a great day's work,
June n. jt wenfc through the remainder of the report of its
committee. The independence or cession of Nova Scotia
was waived ; nor was the acquisition of the Bermudas to be
mooted. A proposal to yield the right to trade with the
East Indies was promptly thrown out. A clause stipulating
not to engage in the slave-trade was rejected by a unani-
mous vote of twelve states, Georgia being absent; Gerry
and Jay alone dissenting.

The committee proposed to bind the United States never
to extend their dominion beyond the limits that might be
fixed by the treaty of peace ; but the article was set aside.
Before the close of the day, every question on the condi-
tions of peace was decided ; the " Gallicans " congratulated
themselves that the long struggle was ended in their favor ;
and Dickinson of Delaware, Gouverneur Morris of New
York, and Marchant of Rhode Island, two of whom were of
that party, were appointed to prepare the commission for
the American minister who should be selected to negotiate
a peace.

Suddenly, on the nineteenth of June, the content*
* ment of the French minister and his friends was dis-
turbed. Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, evading a breach

1779. FLAN OF PEACE. 208

of the roles of congress by a change in form, moved resolu-
tions, that the United States have a common right with the
English to the fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland, and
the other fishing-banks and seas of North America. The
demand was for no more than Vergennes confessed to be-
long to them by the law of nations ; and Geny insisted that,
unless the right received the guarantee of France or the
consent of Great Britain, the American minister should not
sign any treaty of peace without first consulting congress.
A most stormy and acrimonious debate ensued. The friends
of France resisted the resolutions with energy and bitter-
ness, as absurd and dangerous, sure to alienate Spain, and
contrary to the general longing for peace. Four states de-
clared peremptorily that, should such a system be adopted,
they would secede from the confederation ; and they read
the sketch of their protest on the subject. Congress gave
way in part, but by the votes of the four New England
states and Pennsylvania against New York, Maryland, Vir-
ginia, and North Carolina, with New Jersey, Delaware, and
South Carolina divided, they affirmed the common right of
the Americans to fish on the Grand Banks ; and they asked
for that right the guarantee of France in the form of an
explanatory article of existing treaties.

The French minister took the alarm, and sought an 1779.
interview with the president of congress and two
other members equally well disposed to his policy. Finding
them inclined to yield to New England, he interposed that
disunion from the side of New England was not to be feared,
for its people carried their love of independence even to
delirium. He added : " There would seem to be a wish to
break the connection of France with Spain ; but I think I can
say that, if the Americans should have the audacity to force
the king of France to choose between the two alliances, his
decision will not be in favor of the United States ; he will
eertainly not expose himself to consume the remaining re-
sources of the kingdom for many years, only to secure an
increase of fortune to a few shipmasters of New England.
I shall greatly regret on account of the Americans, should
Spain enter into war without a convention with them."

204 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXVIII

The interview lasted from eight o'clock in the evening
till an hour after midnight ; but the hearers of Gerard would
not undertake to change the opinion of congress ; and the
result was, therefore, a new interview on the twelfth
Juiy9i2. °* Juty between him and that body in committee of
the whole. Of the committee on foreign affaire,
eight accepted the French policy. Jay, with other mem-
bers, gained over votes from the " Anti-Gallican " side ;
and, after long debates and many divisions, the question of
the fisheries was reserved to find its place in a future treaty
of commerce with Great Britain. The proposition to stipu-
late a right to them in the treaty of peace was indefinitely
postponed by the votes of eight states against New Hamp-
shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania;
Georgia alone being absent.

The French minister desired to persuade congress to be
willing to end the war by a truce, after the precedents of
the Swiss cantons and the United Netherlands. Burke, of
North Carolina, seconded by Duane, of New York, wished
no more than that independence should be tacitly acknowl-
edged ; but congress required that, previous to any treaty
of peace, the independence of the United States should, on
the part of Great Britain, be " assured."

Further, Gerard wished America to bring about the ac-
cession of Spain to the alliance by trusting implicitly to the
magnanimity of the Spanish king ; otherwise, he said, " you
will prevent his Catholic majesty from joining in our com-
mon cause, and from completing the intended triumvirate.'*
But congress was not ready to give up the navigation and
left bank of the Mississippi. It therefore escaped from an
immediate decision by resolving to send a plenipotentiary
of its own to Spain.

The minister to be chosen to negotiate a peace was, by a
unanimous vote, directed to require " Great Britain to treat
with the United States as sovereign, free, and independent,"
and the independence was to be effectually confirmed by
the treaty. Nova Scotia was desired; but the minister
might leave the north-eastern boundary "to be adjusted
by commissioners after the peace." The guarantee of an

1779. PLAN OF PEACE. 205

equal common right to the fisheries was declared to be
of the utmost importance, but was not made an ultima-
tum, except in the instructions for the treaty of commerce
with England. At the same time, the American minister
at the court of France was instructed to concert with that
power a mutual guarantee of their rights in the fisheries as
enjoyed before the war.

The plan for a treaty with Spain lingered a month
longer. On the seventeenth of September, congress gjp^ij.
offered to guarantee to his Catholic majesty the
Floridas, if they should fall into his power, "provided
always that the United States shall enjoy the free naviga-
tion of the Mississippi, into and from the sea." The great
financial distress of the states was also to be made known
to his Catholic majesty, in the hope of a subsidy or a guar-
antee of a loan to the amount of five millions of dollars.

On the twenty-sixth of September, congress pro-
ceeded to ballot for a minister to negotiate peace;
John Adams being nominated by Laurens, of South Carolina,
while Smith, of Virginia, proposed Jay, who was the can-
didate favored by the French minister. On two ballots, no
election was made. A compromise reconciled the
rivalry ; Jay, on the twenty-seventh, was elected en- Sept. 27.
voy to Spain. The civil letter in which Vergennes
bade farewell to John Adams on his retiring from Paris
was read in congress in proof that he would be most ac-
ceptable to the French ministry ; and, directly contrary to
its wishes, he was chosen to negotiate the treaty of peace
as well as an eventual treaty of commerce with Great
Britain.

206 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. yyttt.

CHAPTER XXXIX.

TBB WAB IN THB NORTHERN DEPARTMENT.

1779.

I

While congress employed the summer in debates on the
conditions of peace, the compulsory inactivity of the
1779. British army at the north encouraged discontent and
intrigues. There rose up in rivalry with Clinton a
body styling themselves "the loyal associated refugees,"
who were impatient to obtain an independent organization
under Tryon and William Franklin. Clinton wrote that
his resources were insufficient for active operations: the
refugees insisted that more alertness would crush the rebel-
lion ; they loved to recommend the employment of hordes
of savages, and to prepare for confiscating the property of
wealthy rebels by their execution or exile.

The Virginians, since the expulsion of Lord Dunmore,
free from war within their own borders; were enriching
themselves by the unmolested culture of tobacco, which
was exported through the Chesapeake ; or, when that high-
way was unsafe, by a short land carriage to Albemarle
May 9. Sound. On the ninth of May, two thousand men
under General Matthew, with five hundred marines,
anchored in Hampton Roads. The next day, after occu-
pying Portsmouth and Norfolk, they burned every house
but one in Suffolk county, and plundered or ruined all
perishable property. The women and unarmed men were
given over to violence and death. Parties from a sloop
of war and privateers entered the principal waters of the
Chesapeake, carried off or wasted stores of tobacco heaped
on their banks, and burned the dwellings of the planters.
Before the end of the month, the predatory expedition.

1779. THE WAR IN THE NORTHERN DEPARTMENT. 207

having destroyed more than a hundred vessels, arrived at
New York with seventeen prizes and three thousand hogs-
heads of tobacco.

The legislature of Virginia, which was in session at Wil-
liamsburg during the invasion, retaliated by confiscating
the property of British subjects within the commonwealth.
An act of a previous session had directed debts due to
British subjects to be paid into the loan-office of the state.
To meet the public exigencies, a heavy poll-tax was laid on
all servants or slaves, as well as a tax payable in cereals,
hemp, inspected tobacco, or the like commodities ; and the
issue of one million pounds in paper money was authorized.
Every one who would serve at home or in the continental
army during the war was promised a bounty of seven hun-
dred and fifty dollars, an annual supply of clothing, and
one hundred acres of land at the end of the war ; pensions
were promised to disabled soldiers and to the widows of
those who should find their death in the service ; half-
pay for life was voted to the officers. Each division ms.
A the militia was required to furnish for the service
one able-bodied man out of every twenty-five, to be drafted
by fair and impartial lot.

The law defining citizenship will be elsewhere explained ;
the code in which Jefferson, Wythe, and Pendleton adapted
the laws of Virginia to reason, the welfare of the whole
people, and the republican form of government, was laid
before the legislature. The law of descents abolished the
rights of primogeniture, and distributed real as well as per-
sonal property equally among brothers and sisters. The
punishment of death was forbidden, except for treason and
murder. A bill was brought in to organize schools in every
county, at the expense of its inhabitants, in proportion to
the general tax-rates ; but in time of war, and in the scat-
tered state of the inhabitants, it was not possible to intro-
duce a thorough system of universal education.

The preamble to the bill for establishing religious free-
dom, drawn by Jefferson, expressed the ideas of America :
"that belief depends not on will, but follows evidence ; that
God hath created the mind free ; that temporal punishment

208 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIX.

or civil incapacitations only beget hypocrisy and meanness ;
that the impious endeavor of fallible legislators and rulers
to impose their own opinions on others hath established and
maintained false religions; that to suffer the civil magis-
trate to intrude his powers into the field of opinion destroys
all religious liberty ; that truth is the proper and sufficient
antagonist to error, and has nothing to fear from the con-
flict, unless by human interposition disarmed of her natural
weapons, free argument and debate ; errors ceasing to be
dangerous when it is permitted freely to contradict them.*'

It was therefore proposed to be enacted by the general
assembly : " No man shall be compelled to frequent or sup-
port any religious worship, place, or ministry, nor shall be
enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or
goods, nor shall otherwise suffer, on account of his belief ;
but all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to
maintain, their opinion in matters of religion ; and the same
shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capac-
ities. And we do declare that the rights hereby asserted
are of the natural rights of mankind."

These enunciations of Jefferson on the freedom of con-
science expressed the forming convictions of the people of
the United States ; the enactment was delayed that the
great decree, which made the leap from an established
church to the largest liberty of faith and public worship,
might be adopted with the solemnity of calm deliberation
and popular approval. Who would wish that a state which
used its independent right of initiating and establishing
laws, by abolishing the privileges of primogeniture, by cut-
ting off entails, by forbidding the slave-trade, and by pre-
senting the principle of freedom in religion as the inherent
and inalienable possession of spiritual being, should have
remained without the attribute of original legislation?
1779. The British expedition to the Chesapeake, after its
May 80. return to New York, joined a detachment conducted
by Clinton himself forty miles up the Hudson to gain pos-
session of Stony Point and Verplanck's Point. The garrison
withdrew from their unfinished work at Stony Point. The
commander at Verplanck's Point, waiting to be closely

1779. THE WAR IN THE NORTHERN DEPARTMENT. 209

invested by water, on the second of June made an 1779
inglorious surrender. The British fortified and gar- June 2-
risoned the two posts which commanded King's ferry, and
left the Americans no line of communication between New
York and New Jersey, south of the highlands.

A pillaging expedition, sent to punish the patriotism of
Connecticut, was intrusted to Try on. The fleet and trans-
ports arrived off New Haven; and, at two in the
morning of the fifth of July, one party landed sud- Julys,
denly on the west of the town, another on the east.
Every thing was abandoned to plunder : vessels in the har-
bor, public stores, and the warehouses near the sound, were
destroyed by fire. The soldiers, demoralized by
license, lost all discipline, and the next morning July e.
retired before the Connecticut militia, who left them
no time to execute the intention of General Smith to burn
the town. At East Haven, where Tryon commanded,
dwelling-houses were fired and cattle wantonly killed ; but
his troops were in like manner driven to their ships. Some
unarmed inhabitants had been barbarously murdered, others
carried away as prisoners. The British ranks were debased
by the large infusion of convicts and vagabonds recruited
from the jails of Germany.

On the afternoon of the seventh, the expedition July 7.
landed near Fairfield. The village, a century and a
quarter old, situated near the water, with a lovely country
for its background, contained all that was best in a New
England community: a moral, well-educated, industrious
people ; modest affluence ; well-ordered homes ; many free-
holders as heads of families ; all of unmixed lineage, speak-
ing the language of the English Bible. Early Puritanism
had smoothed its rugged features under the influence of a
region so cheerful and benign ; and an Episcopal church,
that stood by the side of the larger meeting-house, proved
their toleration. A parish so prospering, with inhabitants
so cultivated, had not in that day its parallel in England.
The husbandmen who came together were too few to with-
stand the unforeseen onslaught. The Hessians were the
first who were let loose to plunder, and every dwelling was
vol. vi. 14

210 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIX.

given up to be stripped. Just before the sun went down,
the firing of houses began, and was kept up through the
night with little opposition, amidst the vain " cries of dis-
tressed women and helpless children." Early the
/u?y*8. next morning, the conflagration was made general.
When at the return of night the retreat was sounded,
the rear-guard, composed of Germans, set in flames the
meeting-house and every private habitation that till then
had escaped. At Green Farms, a meeting-house and all
dwellings and barns were consumed.

11 ^n tne eleventh, the British appeared before Nor-
walk, and burned its houses, barns, and places of
public worship. Sir George Collier and Try on, the British
admiral and general, in their address to the inhabitants of
Connecticut, said : " The existence of a single habitation on
your defenceless coast ought to be a constant reproof to
your ingratitude." The British had alr.eady lost nearly a
hundred and fifty men, but the survivors were gorged with
plunder.

The town of New London was selected as the next
victim; but Tryon was recalled to New York by a dis-
aster which had befallen the British. No sooner had they
strongly fortified themselves at Stony Point, than Washing-
ton, after ascertaining exactly the character of their works,
formed a plan for carrying them by surprise. Wayne, of
whom he made choice to lead the enterprise, undertook the
perilous office with alacrity, and devised improvements in
the method <of executing the design.

Stony Point, a hill just below the Highlands, projects
into the Hudson, which surrounds three fourths of its base ;
the fourth side was covered by a marsh, over which there
lay but one pathway ; where this road joined the river, a
sandy beach was left bare at low tide. The fort, which was
furnished with heavy ordnance and garrisoned by six hun-
dred men, crowned the hill. Half-way between the river
and the fort there was a double row of abattis. Breast-
works and strong batteries could rake any column which
might advance over the beach and the marsh. From the
river, vessels of war commanded the foot of the hill. Con-

1TF9 THE WAB IN THB NORTHERN DEPARTMENT. 211

ducting twelve hundred chosen men in single file over
mountains and through morasses and narrow passes, Wayne
halted them at a distance of a mile and a half from the
enemy, while with the principal officers he reconnoitred the
works. About twenty minutes after twelve on the
morning of the sixteenth, the assault began, the j™*18.
troops placing their sole dependence on the bayonet.
Two advance parties of twenty men each, in one of which
seventeen out of the twenty were killed or wounded, re-
moved the abattis' and other obstructions. Wayne, leading
on a regiment, was wounded in the head, but, supported by
his aids, still went forward. The two columns, heedless of
musketry and grape-shot, gained the centre of the works
nearly at the same moment. On the right, Fleury struck
the enemy's standard with his own hand, and was instantly
joined by Stewart, who commanded the van of the left.
British authorities deelare that the Americans " would have
been fully justified in putting the garrison to the sword ; "
but continental soldiers scorned to take the lives of a van*
quished foe begging for mercy, and " not one man was put
to death but in fair combat." Of the Americans, but fifteen
were killed ; of the British, sixty-three ; and five hundred
and forty-three officers and privates were made prisoners.
The war was marked by no more brilliant achievement.

The diminishing numbers of the troops with Washington
not permitting him to hold Stony Point, the cannon and
stores were removed and the works razed. Soon afterwards
the post was reoccupied, but only for a short time, by a
larger British garrison.

The enterprising spirit of Major Henry Lee, of Virginia,
had already been applauded in general orders; and his
daring proposal to attempt the fort at Paulus Hook, now
Jersey City, obtained the approval of Washington. The
place was defended by a ditch, which made of it an island,
and by lines of abattis, but was carelessly guarded. The
party with Lee was undiscovered, until, in the morn-
ing of the nineteenth of August, before day, they Aug. it.
plunged into the canal, then deep from the rising
tide. Finding an entrance into the main work, and passing

212 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIX

through a fire of musketry from block-houses, they gained
the fort before the discharge of a single piece of artillery.
This they achieved within sight of New York, and almost
within the reach of its guns. After daybreak, they with-
drew, taking with them one hundred and fifty-nine pris-
oners.

Moved by the massacres ;>f Wyoming and Cherry valley,
congress, on the twenty-fifth of February, had directed
Washington to protect the inland frontier and chastise the
Seneca Indians. Of the two natural routes to their country,
both now traversed by railroads, that of the Susquehannah
was selected for three thousand men of the best continental
troops, who were to rally at Wyoming ; while one thousand
or more of the men of New York were to move from the
Mohawk River.

Before they could be ready, a party of five or six hundred
men, led by Van Schaick and Willet, made a swift march
of three days into the country of the Onondagas, and,
without the loss of a man, destroyed their settlement.

The great expedition was more tardy. Its command,
which Gates declined, devolved on Sullivan, to whom
jjjjj; Washington in May gave repeatedly the instruction :
" Move as light as possible even from the first onset.
Should time be lost in transporting the troops and stores,
the provisions will be consumed, and the whole enterprise
may be defeated. Reject every article that can be dispensed
with ; this is an extraordinary case, and requires extraordi-
nary attention." Yet Sullivan made insatiable demands on
the government of Pennsylvania.

While he was wasting time in finding fault and writing
strange theological essays, the British and Indian partisans
near Fort Schuyler surprised and captured twenty-nine
mowers. Savages under Macdonell laid waste the country
on the west bank of the Susquehannah, till " the Indians,"
by his own report, " were glutted with plunder, prisoners,
and scalps." Thirty miles of a closely settled country were
burnt. Brant and his crew consumed with fire all the
settlement of Minisink, one fort excepted. Over a party
of a hundred and fifty men, by whom they were pursued,

1779. THE WAR IN THE NORTHERN DEPARTMENT. 213

they gained the advantage, taking more than forty scalps
and one prisoner.

The best part of the season was gone when Sul-
livan, on the last of July, moved from Wyoming. }%*]
His arrival at Tioga sent terror to the Indians. Sev-
eral of their chiefs said to Colonel Bolton in council:
" Why does not the great king, our father, assist us ? Our
villages will be cut off, and we can no longer fight his
battles."

On the twenty-second of August, the day after he Aug. 22
was joined by New York troops under General James
Clinton, Sullivan began his march up the Tioga into the
heart of the Indian country. On the same day, Little
David, a Mohawk chief, delivered a message from himself
and the Six Nations to Haldimand, then governor of Can-
ada : " Brother ! for these three years past the Six Nations
have been running a race against fresh enemies, and are
almost out of breath. Now we shall see whether you are
our loving, strong brother, or whether you deceive us.
Brother ! we are still strong for the king of England, if you
will show us that he is a man of his word, and that he will
not abandon his brothers, the Six Nations."

The savages ran no risk of a surprise \ for, during all the
expedition, Sullivan, who delighted in the vanities of com-
mand, fired a morning and evening gun. On the
twenty-ninth, he opened a distant and useless can- Aug. ».
nonade against breastworks which British rangers
and men of the Six Nations — in all about eight hundred —
had constructed at Newtown ; and they took the warning
to retire, before a party which was sent against them could
strike them in the rear.

The march into the country of the Senecas on the left
extended to Genesee; on the right, detachments reached
Oayuga Lake. After destroying eighteen villages and their
fields of corn, Sullivan, whose army bad suffered for want
of supplies, returned to New Jersey. Meantime, a small
party from Fort Pitt, under command of Colonel Brodhead,
broke up the towns of the Senecas upon the upper branch
of the Alleghany. The manifest inability of Great Britain

214 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXTX.

to protect the Six Nations inclined them at last to desire
neutrality.

m9 In June, the British general Maclean, who corn-

June, manded in Nova Scotia, established a British post of
six hundred men at what is now Castine, on Penobscot Bay.
To dislodge the intruders, the Massachusetts legislature sent
forth nineteen armed ships, sloops, and brigs ; two of them
continental vessels, the rest privateers or belonging to the
state. The flotilla carried more than three hundred guns,
and was attended by twenty-four transports, having on board
nearly a thousand men. So large an American armament had
never put to sea. A noble public spirit roused all the towns
on the coast, and they spared no sacrifice to insure a victory.
But the troops were commanded by an unskilled militia

general; the chief naval officer was self-willed and
July 25. incapable. Not till the twenty-fifth of July did the

expedition enter Penobscot Bay. The troops, who
July 28. on the twenty-eighth gallantly effected their landing,

were too weak to carry the works of the British by
storm; the commodore knew not how to use his mastery

of the water ; and, while a re-enforcement was on the
Aug. 14. way, on the fourteenth of August Sir George Collier

arrived in a sixty-four gun ship, attended by five
frigates. Two vessels of war fell into his hands ; the rest
and all the transports fled up the river, and were burnt by
the Americans themselves, who escaped through the woods.
The British were left masters of the country east of the
Penobscot.

Yet, notwithstanding this signal disaster, the main result
of the campaign at the north promised success to America.
For want of re-enforcements, Clinton had evacuated Stony
Point and Rhode Island. All New England, west of the
Penobscot, was free from an enemy. In Western New
York, the Senecas had learned that the alliance with the
English secured them gifts, but not protection. On the
Hudson River, the Americans had recovered the use of
King's ferry, and held all the country above it. The con-
dition of die American army was indeed more deplorable
than ever. The winter set in early and with unwonted

1779. THE WAR IN THE NORTHERN DEPARTMENT. 215

severity. Before the middle of December, and long before
log huts could be built, the snow lay two feet deep in New
Jersey, where the troops were cantoned ; so that they saved
themselves with difficulty from freezing by keeping up large
fires. Continental money was valued at no more than thirty
for one, and even at that rate the country people took it
unwillingly. The credit of congress being exhausted, there
could be no regularity in supplies. Sometimes, the army
was five or six days together without bread ; at other times,
as many without meat; and, once or twice, two or three
days without either. It must have been disbanded, but
that such was the honor of the magistrates of New Jersey,
such the good disposition of its people, that the requisitions
made by the commander in chief on its several counties
were punctually complied with, and in many counties ex-
ceeded. For many of the soldiers, the term of service
expired with the year ; and shorter enlistments, by which
several states attempted to fill their quotas, were fatal to
compactness and stability. Massachusetts offered a bounty
of five hundred dollars to each of those who would enlist
for three years or the war, and found few to accept the
offer. The Americans wanted men and wanted money,
and yet could not be subdued. An incalculable strength
lay in reserve in the energy of the states and of their citi-
zens individually. Though congress possessed no power of
coercion, there could always be an appeal to the militia,
who were the people themselves; and their patriotism,
however it might seem to slumber, was prepared to show
itself in every crisis of danger. The buoyancy of hope, and
the readiness to make sacrifices for the public good, were
never lost ; and neither congress nor people harbored a
doubt of their ultimate triumph. All accounts agree
that, in the coldest winter of the century, the virtue 1779.
of the army was put to the severest trial ; and that
their sufferings for want of food and of clothes and blank-
ets were borne with the most heroic patience.

In this hour of affliction, Thomas Pownall, a member of
parliament, who, from observation, research, and long civil
service in the central states and as governor of Massachu-

216 THB AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIX

setts, knew the United States as thoroughly as any man
in Britain, published in England, in the form of a memorial
to the sovereigns of Europe, these results of his experi-
ence : —

1780. " The present crisis may be wrought into the great*

Jan* est blessing of peace, liberty, and happiness, which
the world hath ever yet experienced." "The system of
establishing colonies in various climates, to create a mon-
opoly of the peculiar product of their labor, is at end." " It
has advanced, and is every day advancing, with a steady
and continually accelerating motion, of which there has
never yet been any example in Europe." "Nature hath
removed her far from the Old World and all its embroiled
interests and wrangling politics, without an enemy, or a
rival, or the entanglement of alliances." " This new system
has taken its equal station with the nations upon earth."
" Negotiations are of no consequence, either to the right or
the fact." " The independence of America is fixed as fate."

" The government of the new empire of America is liable,
indeed, to many disorders ; but it is young and strong, and
will struggle by the vigor of internal healing principles of
life against those evils, and surmount them. Its strength
will grow with its years, and it will establish its constitu-
tion."

"Whether the West Indies are naturally parts of thia
North American communion is a question of curious spec-
ulation, but of no doubt as to the fact. The European
maritime powers may by force, perhaps for an age longer,
preserve the dominion of these islands. The whole must in
the course of events become parts of the great North Amer-
ican dominion."

" The continent of South America is much farther ad-
vanced to a natural independence of Europe as to its state
of supply than the powers of Europe or its own inhabitants
are conscious of." "Whatever sovereignty the Spanish
monarch holds is a mere tenure at good-will. South Amer-
ica is growing too much for Spain to manage : it is in
power independent, and will be so in act as soon as any
occasion shall call forth that power."

U80. THE WAR IN THE NORTHERN DEPARTMENT. 217

" In North America, the civilizing activity of the human
race forms the growth of state." " In this New World,
we see all the inhabitants not only free, but allowing J2£
an universal naturalization to all who wish to be so."
" In a country like this, where every man has the full and free
exertion of his powers, an unabated application and a perpet-
ual struggle sharpens the wits, and gives constant training to
the mind." " The acquirement of information gives the mind
thus exercised a turn of inquiry and investigation, which
forms a character peculiar to these people. This inquisi-
tiveness, which, when exerted about trifles, goes even to a
degree of ridicule, is yet in matters of business and com-
merce most useful and efficient. Whoever has viewed these
people in this light will consider them as animated with the
spirit of the new philosophy. Their system of life is a
course of experiments ; and, standing on that high ground
of improvement up to which the most enlightened parts of
Europe have advanced, like eaglets they commence the first
efforts of their pinions from a towering advantage."

" America is peculiarly a poor man's countiy. The wis-
dom and not the man is attended to. In this wilderness of
woods, the settlers move but as nature calls forth their
activity." " They try experiments, and the advantages of
their discoveries are their own. They supply the islands of
the West Indies, and even Europe itself. The inhabitants,
where nothing particular directs their course, are all land-
workers. One sees them laboring after the plough, or with
the spade and hoe, as though they had not an idea beyond
the ground they dwell upon ; yet is their mind all the while
enlarging all its powers, and their spirit rises as their im-
provements advance. This is no fancy drawing of what
may be: it is an exact portrait of what actually exists.
Many a real philosopher, a politician, a warrior, emerge out
of this wilderness, as the seed rises out of the ground where
it hath lain buried for its season."

" In agriculture, in mechanic handicrafts, the New World
hath been led to many improvements of implements, tools,
and machines, leading experience by the hand to many a
new invention. This spirit of thus analyzing the mechanic

218 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXXIX

powers hath established a kind of instauration of science in
that branch. The settlers find fragments of time in which
they make most of the articles of personal wear and house-
hold use for home consumption. Here, no laws frame con-
ditions on which a man is to exercise this or that trade.
Here, no laws lock him up in that trade. Here are no op-
pressing, obstructing, dead-doing laws. The moment that
the progress of civilization is ripe for it, manufactures will
grow and increase with an astonishing exuberancy."
1780. " The same ingenuity is exerted in ship-building ;

Jan< their commerce hath been striking deep root." " The
nature of the coast and of the winds renders marine naviga-
tion a perpetually moving intercourse of communion ; and
the nature of the rivers renders inland navigation but a fur-
ther process of that communion ; all which becomes, as it
were, a one vital principle of life, extended through a one
organized being, one nation." " Will that most enterpris-
ing spirit be stopped at Cape Horn, or not pass the Cape of
Good Hope? Before long, they will be found trading in
the South Sea, in Spice Islands, and in China."

"This fostering happiness in North America doth pro-
duce progressive population. They have increased nearly
the double in eighteen years."

" Commerce will open the door to emigration. By con-
stant intercommunion, America will every day approach
nearer and nearer to Europe." "Unless the great poten-
tates of Europe can station cherubim at every avenue with
a flaming sword that turns every way, to prevent man's
quitting this Old World, multitudes of their people, many
of the most useful, enterprising spirits, will emigrate to the
new one. Much of the active property will go there also."

" North America is become a new primary planet, which,
while it takes its own course in its own orbit, must shift
the common centre of gravity."

"Those sovereigns of Europe, who shall find this new
empire crossing all their settled maxims and accustomed
measures, will call upon their ministers and wise men:
* Come, curse me this people, for they are too mighty for
me.' These statesmen will be dumb, but the spirit of truth

1780. THE WAB IN THE NORTHERN DEPARTMENT. 219

will answer: 'How shall I curse whom God hath not
cursed.' "

"Those sovereigns of Europe, who shall call upon their
ministers to state to them things as they really do exist in
nature, shall form the earliest, the most sure and natural
connection with North America,* as being, what she is, an
independent state." " The new empire of America is like
a giant ready to run its course. The fostering care with
which the rival powers of Europe will nurse it insures its
establishment beyond all doubt or danger."

So prophesied Pownall to the English world and 1730.
to Europe in the first month of 1780. Since the issue Jan*
of the war is to proceed in a great part from the influence
of European powers, it behooves us now to study the
course of their intervention.

220 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XL,

CHAPTER XL.

PROGRESS OF THE WAR IK EUROPE.

1779.

Frederic of Prussia had raised the hope that he would
follow France in recognising the independence of the
1779. United States; hut the question of the Bavarian suc-
cession, of which the just solution also affected the
cause of human progress, compelled him to stand forth as
the protector of his own dominions against mortal danger,
and as the champion of Germany; so that in his late old
age, broken as he was in every thing hut spirit, he joined
with Saxony to stay the aggressions of Austria on Bavarian
territory. " At this moment," wrote he to his envoys, " the
affairs of England with her colonies disappear from
ins. my eyes." To William Lee, who in March, 1778,
importuned his minister Schulenhurg for leave to
reside at Berlin as an American functionary, he minuted
this answer : " We are so occupied with Germany that we
cannot think of the Americans : we should be heartily glad
to recognise them ; but at this present moment it could do
them no good, and to us might be very detrimental."

The unseasonable importunities of Lee in the year of war
continued till he was dismissed from office by congress.
Their effect was only to make Frederic more reserved.
From his camp he always put them aside, yet with gentle*
ness and caution. He could not receive the prizes of the
Americans at Embden, because he had no means to protect
that harbor against aggression : they might purchase in his
dominions munitions of war ; and their merchants would be
received in his ports on the same terms as the merchants of
all other countries.

1778. PROGRESS OF THE WAR IN EUROPE. 221

Meantime, the British ministry, abandoning the scheme of
destroying Prussian influence at Petersburg, sought rather
to propitiate Frederic, as the best means of gaining favor
in Russia ; and authorized its minister at Berlin to propose
an alliance. But Frederic saw that the influence which had
ruled England in 1762 was still paramount, and that the
offers of friendship were insincere. " I have no wish to dis-
semble," so he answered in January, 1778 ; " whatever pains
may be taken, I will never lend myself to an alliance with
England. I am not like so many German princes, to be
gained by money. My unalterable principle is not to con-
tract relations with a power which, like England in the last
war, has once deceived me so unworthily."

Nevertheless, the British cabinet persisted in seeking aid
from Russia and the friendship of the king of Prussia. But
from Petersburg Harris wrote : " They never will be brought
to subscribe to any stipulations in favor of our contest with
the colonies." " Our influence, never very high, has quite
vanished." Frederic relented so far as to allow a few re-
cruits for the English army to pass through his dominions ;
and, as a German prince, he let it be known that he would
save Hanover from French aggression ; but proposals for
closer relations with England were inflexibly declined.
" He is hostile," wrote Suffolk, " to that kingdom to whose
liberal support in the last war he owes his present
existence amongst the powers of Europe ; " and the ms.
British ministry of that day looked upon the aid
which he had received in the time of the elder Pitt as a very
grave mistake. Prussia should have been left to perish.

Through his minister in France, Frederic sent word to
Manrepas and Yergennes : " All the pains which the king
of England may take to make an alliance with me will be
entirely thrown away. The interests of the state and my
own views turn in another direction." " Peace is as dear
and precious to me as to the ministry of Versailles ; but, as
nothing less is at stake than the liberty and constitutions
of all the Germanic body, I, one of their principal bulwarks,
should fail in duty as an elector, if I were willing to acqui-
esce in the despotism of Austria. Rather than be guilty of

222 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XL.

such weakness, I should prefer eternal war to peace." tt Now
is the moment," he warned his minister, " to exert all your
power : the deaf must hear ; the blind see ; the lethargic
wake up." " Last year," he continued, u I saw that France
could not avoid war with England ; I offer my vows for
the success of the French ; " and he added in his own hand '
" The Austrians wish openly to subjugate the empire, abolish
the constitutions, tyrannize the liberty of voices, and estab-
lish their own absolute and unlimited power on the ruins of
the ancient government. Let him who will bear such vio-
lences: I shall oppose them till death closes my eyes."
Since France would not fulfil her guarantee of the peace of
Westphalia, Frederic desired at least a formal and positive
assurance of her neutrality. " As to the French ministers,"
said he, " I admire their apathy ; but, if I were to imitate
it, I should surely be lost." The queen of France besought
her husband, even with tears, to favor the designs of the
court of Vienna, and bitterly complained that neutrality
had been promised by his cabinet; but the king turned
aside her entreaties, remarking that these affairs ought
never to become the subject of their conversation. The
interference made the ministry more dissembling and more
inflexible. For himself, Louis XVI. had no partiality for
Austria; and Maurepas retained the old traditions of the
French monarchy. Moreover, he was willing to see Prussia
and Austria enfeeble each other, and exhibit to the world
France in the proud position of arbiter between them.

The promptness with which Frederic interposed for the
rescue of Bavaria, his disinterestedness, the fact that he had
justice as well as the laws of the empire on his side, and his
right by treaty to call upon his ally, Russia, for aid,
t779 enabled him under the mediation of France and
Russia to bring his war with Austria to an end, almost
before France and Spain had come to an understanding.

Joseph of Austria, like Frederic, had liberal aspirations,
but with unequal results. The one was sovereign over men
substantially of one nationality. The other was a monarch
not only over Germans, but over men of many languages
and races. Frederic acted for and with his people; and

1779. PROGRESS OF THE WAR IN EUROPE. 228

what he accomplished was sure to live, for it had its root
in them. The reforms of Joseph were acts of power which
had their root only in his own mind, were never identified
with his subject nations, and therefore, for the most part,
had not a life even as long as his own. Frederic bounded
his efforts by his means ; Joseph, by his desires. Frederic
attempted but one thing at once, and for that awaited the
favoring moment; the unrest of Joseph stirred up every
power to ill wishes, by seeking to acquire territory alike
from German princes, in Italy, on the coast of the Adriatic,
and on the Danube ; and he never could abide his oppor-
tunity, and never confine himself to one enterprise long
enough for success. He kept up, at least in name, his alli-
ance with France ; while he inclined to the ancient connec-
tion of the Hapsburgs with England, and was pleased at
the insignificance of the successes of the Bourbons. Ver-
gennes, on the other side, aware of his insincerity, pro-
nounced Austria to be in name an ally, in fact a rival.
Austria and Prussia resumed their places among European
powers, each to have an influence on American affairs : the
former to embarrass the independence of the United States ;
the latter to adopt the system of neutrality, just when that
system could benefit them most. The benefit, however,
came not from any intention of Frederic to subordinate the
interests of his own dominions to those of a republic in
another hemisphere, but from the coincidence of the inter-
ests of the two new powers.

With the restoration of peace, Austria and Russia 1779
contested the honor of becoming mediators between
the Bourbons and England. Their interference was desired
by neither party ; yet both France and England were un
willing to wound the self-love of either of them. Austria,
though the nominal ally of France, excluded the question
of American independence ; on the contrary, Catharine, in
whose esteem Fox and the English liberal party stood higher
than the king and the ministry, inclined to propositions
friendly to America. Maria Theresa, who truly loved peace,
was the first to declare herself. On the fifteenth of May, she
wrote in her own hand to Charles III. of Spain, in the hope

224 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XL.

Btill to be able to hold him back from war ; and she sent a
like letter to her son-in-law at Versailles. Kaunitz followed
with formal proposals of mediation to France and England.
In an autograph letter, the king of Spain put aside the
interference of the empress, under the plea that the conduct

of England had made his acceptance of it inconsistent
June ie. w*tn his honor : and on the sixteenth of June, between

twelve and one o'clock, his ambassador in London
delivered to Lord Weymouth a declaration of war; but
neither there nor in his manifesto was there one word relat-
ing to the war in America.

Now that Great Britain, without a single ally, was to
confront Spain and France and the" United States, no man
showed more resoluteness than its king. He was impatient
at the " over-caution " of his admirals, and sought to breathe
his own courage into his ministers. Spain stood self-
condemned ; for an offer of mediation implies impartiality,
and her declaration of war showed the malice of a pre-
determined enemy. In reply to that declaration, Burke,
Fox, and their friends, joined in pledging the house of
commons and the nation to the support of the crown.
Fifty thousand troops defended the coasts, and as many
more of the militia were enrolled to repel invasion. The
oscillation of the funds did not exceed one per cent. But
opinion more and more condemned the war of England
with her children, denied to parliament the right of taxing
unrepresented colonies, and prepared to accept the necessity
of recognising their independence. In the commons, Lord
John Cavendish, true to the idea of Chatham, moved for
orders to withdraw the British forces employed in America ;
to the lords, the Duke of Richmond proposed a total change
of measures in America and Ireland ; and both were sup-
ported by increasing numbers. The great land-owners
were grown sick of taxing America. Lord North was fre-
quently dropping hints to the king that the advantage to be
gained by continuing the contest would never repay the
expenses ; and the king, though unrelenting in his purpose
of reducing the colonies to obedience, owned that the man
who should approve the taxing of them in connection with

1779. PROGRESS OF THE WAR IN EUROPE. 225

all its consequences was more fit for a mad-house than for a
seat in parliament.

On the twenty-first of June, he summoned his min- 1779.
isters to his library; and at a table, at which aUJano21"
were seated, he expressed to them in a speech of an hour
and a half " the dictates of his frequent and severe self-ex-
amination." Inviting the friends of Grenville to the support
of the administration, he declared his unchanging resolution
to carry on the war against America, France, and Spain.
Before he would hear of any man's readiness to come into
office, he would expect to see it signed under his hand, that
he was resolved to keep the empire entire, and that conse-
quently no troops should be withdrawn from America nor
its independence ever be allowed. " If his ministers would
act with vigor and firmness, he would support them against
wind and tide." Yet the ministry was not united ; and, far
from obtaining recruits from the friends of Grenville, it was
about to lose its members of the Bedford connection. The
chief minister, cowering before the storm, and incapable
of forming a plan for the conduct of the war, repeatedly
offered his resignation, as an excuse for remaining in office
without assuming the proper responsibility of his station.
Confiding in the ruin of the American finances and in re-
cruiting successfully within the states, the king was certain
that, but for the intervention of Spain, the colonies would
have sued to the mother country for pardon ; and " he did
not despair that, with the activity of Clinton and the Indians
in their rear, the provinces would even now submit." But
his demands for an unconditional compliance with his Amer-
ican policy riveted every able statesman in a united opposi-
tion. He had no choice of ministers but among weak men.
So the office made vacant by the death of Lord Suffolk,
the representative of the Grenville party, was reserved for
Hillsborough. " His American sentiments," said the king,
"make him acceptable to me." Yet it would have been
hard to find a public man more ignorant or more narrow,
more confused in judgment or faltering in action ; nor was
he allowed to take his seat till Weymouth had withdrawn.
To unite the house of Bourbon in the war, France had

VOL. VI. 16

226 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XI*.

bound herself to the invasion of England. True to her
covenant, she moved troops to the coasts of Normandy and
Brittany, and engaged more than sixty transport vessels of
sixteen thousand tons' burden. The king of Spain would
not listen to a whisper on the hazard of the undertaking,
for which he was to furnish no contingent, and only the
temporary use of twenty ships to help in crossing the chan-
nel. Florida Blanca, who dared not dispute his unreasoning
impatience, insisted on an immediate descent on England
without regard to risk. Vergennes, on the other hand, held
the landing of a French army in England to be rash, until
a naval victory over the British should have won the domin-
ion of the water.

The fitting out of the expedition had been intrusted to
Sartine, the marine minister, and to D'Orvilliers, its com*
mander. Early in June, the French fleet of thirty-one ships
of the line yielded to Spanish importunities, and, before
they could be ready with men or provisions, put to sea from
Brest ; and yet they were obliged to wait off the coast of
Spain for the Spaniards. After a great loss of time in the
best season of the year, a junction was effected with more
than twenty ships-of-war under the separate command of
Count Gaston ; and the combined fleet sailed for the British
channel. Never before had so large a force been seen afloat ;
and in construction the Spanish ships were equal or superior
to the English. Charles of Spain pictured to himself the
British escaping in terror from their houses before the
invaders. King George longed to hear that Sir Charles
Hardy, who had under his command more than forty ships
of the line, had dared with inferior numbers to bring the
new armada to battle. " Every thing," wrote Marie Antoi-
nette, " depends on the present moment. Our fleets being
united, we have a great superiority. They are in the chan-
nel; and I cannot think without a shudder that, from one
moment to the next, our destiny will be decided."

The united fleet rode unmolested by the British: Sir
Charles Hardy either did not or would not see them.
Aog9i8. ^n tine sizteenth of August, they appeared off Ply-
mouth, but did not attack the town After two idle

1779.

PROGRESS OF THE WAR IN EUROPE. 227

days, a strong wind drove them to the west. Montmorin
had written to Vergennes: "I hope the Spanish marine
will fight well ; but I should like it better if the Eng-
lish, frightened at their number, would retreat to their nwt
own harbors without fighting." When the gale had
abated, the allies rallied, returned up the channel, and the
British retreated before them.

No harmony existed between the French and Spanish
officers. A deadly malady ravaged the French ships and
infected the Spaniards. The combined fleet never had one
chief. The French returned to port, where they remained ;
the Spaniards, under their independent commander, sailed
for Cadiz, execrating their allies. The wrath of their ad-
miral was so great that he was ready to give his parole of
honor never to serve against England, while he would with
pleasure serve against France. It was the sentiment of
them all.

The immense preparations of the two powers had not
even harmed British merchant vessels on their homeward
voyages. The troops that were to have embarked for Eng-
land were wasted by dysentery in their camps in Normandy
and Brittany. There was a general desolation. The French
public complained relentlessly of D'Orvilliers. " The doing
of nothing at all will have cost us a great deal of money,"
wrote Marie Antoinette to her mother. There was nothing
but the capture of the little island of Grenada for which a
Te Deum could be chanted in Paris. Maria Theresa con-
tinued to offer her mediation, whenever it should best suit
the king. " We shall feel it very sensibly if any other offer
of mediation should be preferred to ours." So she wrote
to her daughter, who could only answer : " The nothingness
of the campaign removes every idea of peace."

During the attempt at an invasion of England, the allied
belligerents considered the condition of Ireland. " To sep-
arate Ireland from England, and form it into an indepen-
dent government like that of America," wrote Vergennes,
"I would not count upon the Catholics, although they form
the largest and the most oppressed part of the nation. But
the principle of their religion attaches them specially to the

228 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XL.

monarchical system. It is otherwise with the numerous
Presbyterians who inhabit the north of Ireland. Their
fanaticism makes them enemies of all civil or religious
authority concentrated in a chief. They aspire to nothing
but to give themselves a form of government like that of
the united provinces of America.'1 " It is not easy to find
a suitable emissary. Irishmen enough press around me ;
but, being all Catholics, they have no connection except
among their countrymen of their own communion, who
have not energy enough to attempt a revolution. The
Presbyterians, being by their principles and by their char-
acters more enterprising, more daring, more inimical to
royal authority, and even more opposed to us, it is to them
that I ought to address myself ; for, if they determine to
rise, our hand will not be recognised in the work." An
American was selected as the agent of France, and in-
structed to form close relations with the principal Presby-
terians, especially with the ministers. After gaining their
confidence, he might offer to become their mediator with
France.

<._~ The French ambassador at Madrid advised Florida

Blanca to send an agent to the Irish Catholics. At the
same time, he reported to his government wisely : u The
troubles in Ireland can be regarded only as a diversion, use-
ful by dividing the attention of England. An insurrection in
Ireland cannot have success as in America." The emissary
selected in Spain was a Catholic priest, who was promised
a bishopric if he should succeed in his undertaking. He
could have no success. After the first shedding of Ameri-
can blood in 1775, one hundred and twenty-one Irish Cath-
olics, having indeed no formal representative authority, yet
professing to speak not for themselves only, but " for all
their fellow Roman Catholic Irish subjects," had addressed
the English secretary in Ireland, " in proof of their grateful
attachment to the best of kings, and their just abhorrence
of the unnatural American rebellion," and had "made a
tender of two millions of faithful and affectionate hearts
and hands in defence of his person and government in any
part of the world."

1779. PBOGRESS OF THE WAB IN EUROPE. 229

Vergennes learned from his agent, as well as from other
sources, that the Irish association aimed only to extort the
concession of free trade, and was combined with readiness
to oppose foreign invasion. " The movements of the Irish,"
he wrote, towards the close of the year, "are those of a
people who wish to profit by circumstances to redeem them-
selves from oppressions ; but there is no design of separat-
ing from the crowd of England." " The Irish nation seems
to wish to depend on the royal prerogative alone, and to
throw off the yoke of the British parliament. This is aim-
ing at independence, not by breaking all bonds as America
has done, but by making them so weak that they become
precarious. The irreconcilable interests of the two peoples
can but keep them in a continual state of rivalry and even
of quarrel. It will be difficult for a king of Great Britain
to hold the balance even ; and, as the scale of England will
be the best taken care of, the less favored people will nat-
urally tend to a complete secession. We have nothing
better to do than tranquilly to watch the movement."

Greater energy was displayed by Spain in her separate
acts. As. soon as the existence of war between that power
and Great Britain was known at New Orleans, Galvez, the
governor of Louisiana, drew together all the troops under
his command to drive the British from the Mississippi.
Their posts were protected by less than five hundred men ;
lieutenant-colonel Dickson, abandoning Manchac as unten-
able, sustained a siege of nine days at Baton Rouge,
and on the twenty-first of September made an honor- 1770.
able capitulation. The Spaniards planned the recov-
ery of East Florida, prepared to take the posts of Pensacola
and Mobile, and captured or expelled from Honduras the
British logwood cutters. In Europe, their first act was the
siege of Gibraltar.

Still more important were the consequences of the impe-
rious manner in which Great Britain violated the maritime
rights of neutrals, substituting its own will alike for its
treaties and the law of nations. But these events, which
for half a century scattered the seeds of war, need to be
explained at large.

230 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLI.

CHAPTER XLI.

THE ABMSD NEUTRALITY,
1778-1780.

The immunity of neutral flags is unknown to barbarous
powers. The usages of the middle ages condemned as law-
ful booty the property of an enemy, though under the flag
of a friend ; but spared the property of a friend, though
under the flag of an enemy. Ships, except they belonged
to the enemy, were never confiscated. When the Dutch
republic took its place among the powers of the earth,
crowned with the honors of martyrdom in the fight against
superstition, this daughter of the sea, whose carrying trade
exceeded that of any other nation, became the champion of
the more humane maritime code, which protected the neu-
tral flag everywhere on the great deep. In the year 1646,
these principles were imbodied in a commercial treaty
between the republic and France. When Cromwell was
protector, when Milton was Latin secretary, the rights of
neutrals found their just place in the treaties of England,
in 1654 with Portugal, in 1655 with France, in 1656 with
Sweden. After the return of the Stuarts, they were rec-
ognised, in 1674, in their fullest extent by the commercial
convention between England and the Netherlands.

In 1689, after the stadholder of the United Provinces
had been elected king of England, his overpowering influ-
ence drew the Netherlands into an acquiescence in a decla-
ration that all ships going to or coming from a French port
were good prizes; but it was recalled upon the remon-
strance of neutral states. The rights of neutral flags were
confirmed by France and England in the peace of Utrecht.
The benefits of the agreement extended to Denmark, as

1778. THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 231

entitled to all favors granted to other powers. Between
1604 and 1713, the principle had been accepted in nearly
twenty treaties. When, in 1745, Prussian ships, laden with
wood and corn, were captured on the high seas and con-
demned in English courts, Frederic, without a navy and
even without one deep harbor, without a treaty, resting
only on the law of nations, exacted full indemnity from
England. The neutral flag found protection in the* com-
mercial treaty negotiated in 1766 by the Rockingham min-
istry with Russia, whose interests as the chief producer of
hemp required the strictest definition of contraband. Of
thirty-seven European treaties made between 1745 and 1780,
but two have been found which contain conditions contra-
vening neutral rights.

In 1778, after France became connected with the ins.
United States, England looked to Russia for aid, the
United States to the Dutch republic for good-will. The
former, though aware of the disinclination of Russia and of
Frederic, was so anxious to counterbalance the family com-
pact of the Bourbons that it risked the proposal of an offen-
sive and defensive alliance with them both. Count Pan in,
the only statesman much listened to by the empress in the
discussion of foreign affairs, " was beyond the reach of cor-
ruption, and, in all transactions where he moved alone, acted
with integrity and honor." To the renewed overture of
Harris, he frankly replied that Russia never would stipulate
advantages to Great Britain in its contest with its colonies,
and " never would guarantee its American dominions."

After the avowal by France of its treaties with the colo-
nies, the British minister at Petersburg asked an audience
of the empress; his request was refused, and all his com-
plaints of the " court of Versailles drew from her only civil
words and lukewarm expressions of friendship." But when,
in the summer, the " General Mifflin," an American priva-
teer, hovered off the North Cape, and took seven or more
British vessels bound for Archangel, Panin informed Harris
ministerially, that although the vessels which were taken
were foreign, yet it was the Russian trade which was mo-
lested ; that, so long as the British treated the Americans

232 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLI.

as rebels, the court of Petersburg would look upon them as
a people not yet entitled to recognition. For the
ins. next year, the empress proposed the equipment of a
line of cruisers to ply between Revel and Archangel,
for the protection of ail ships of foreign nations coming to
trade in her dominions.

Long years of peace had enriched the Netherlands by
prosperous manufactures and commerce, so that they be-
came the bankers of all nations. Their own funds, bearing
but two and a half per cent interest, rose from six to ten per
cent above par ; but of their importance the words of Lord
North were : " When the Dutch say, ' we maritime powers,'
it reminds me of the cobbler who lived next door to the
lord mayor, and used to say, ' my neighbor and I.' "

In the American war, the Dutch republic was the leading
neutral power ; but the honor of its flag was endangered
by the defects in its constitution. Its forms of procedure
made legislation dilatory, and tended to anarchy. Each of
the seven provinces was represented in the states-general,
which had jurisdiction over questions relating to the union ;
but the limit of their powers was not clearly defined. The
provinces voted by states, but before the vote any state
might insist on referring the subject of discussion to the
several provinces, which again might consult the towns.
When these delays were overcome, there still remained a
doubt in what cases absolute unanimity of the states was
required. The presidency changed every week, passing by
turns through the several provinces. The ancient subordi-
nation of the stadholder to the king of Spain became in the
republic a subordination to the states-general, on whose acts
he had a veto. In the council of state, he was the first
member with the right of voting, but not the president ; his
authority was chiefly executive, and was greatest in the
army and navy.

From the vast superiority of Holland in wealth and num-
bers, the first minister of that province, called the Grand
Pensionary, had access to the states-general as well as to
the states of Holland, and was the first minister of the re-
public, transacting its affairs with all envoys resident at the

177& THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 238

Hague. It was very common for him to bring business in
the first instance before the states of Holland, by whom it
might be recommended to the states-general. To this latter
body the Dutch envoys abroad addressed their despatches.

One party in the republic looked upon the states-general
as imbodying the sovereignty of the United Provinces;
others attributed sovereignty to each state, and even to the
several cities and communes.

The republic was further distracted by foreign influence.
Some of its public men still lingeringly leaned on England ;
others longed to recover the independence of the nation by
friendship with France. It would have been a happiness
for the United Provinces if its stadholder had been true to
them. But William V., of the house of Orange, a young,
weak, and incompetent prince, without self-reliance and
without nobleness of nature, was haunted by the belief that
his own position was obtained and could be preserved only
by the influence of Great Britain ; and from dynastic selfish-
ness he followed the counsels of that power. Nor was his
sense of honor so nice as to save him from asking and ac-
cepting pecuniary aid to quiet internal discontent.

The chief personal counsellor of the stadholder was his
former guardian, Prince Louis of Brunswick. No man
could be less influenced by motives of morality or fidelity
to the land in whose army he served, and he was always at
the beck of the British ambassador at the Hague. The sec-
retary Fagel was, like his ancestors, devoted to England.
The grand pensionary, Van Bleiswijck, had been the selec-
tion of Prince Louis. He was a weak politician, and in-
clined to England, but never meant to betray his country.

Thus all the principal executive officers were attached to
Great Britain; Prince Louis and the secretary Fagel as
obsequious vassals.

France had a controlling influence in no one of the prov-
inces ; but, in the city of Amsterdam, Van Berckel,
its pensionary, was her "friend." In January, 1778, j™;
before her rupture with England, the French /ambas-
sador at the Hague was instructed to suggest a convention
between the states-general, France, and Spain, for liberty of

234 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLL

navigation. As the proposal was put aside by the grand
pensionary, Vergennes asked no more than that the Nether-
lands in the coming contest would announce to the court of
London their .neutrality, and support it without concessions.
The treaties of alliance with England promised it no sup-
port in an aggressive war, and no guarantee of its colonies
in America. Besides, " the Dutch," as Vergennes observed,
" will find in their own history an apology for the French
treaty ^ ith America." The interior condition of the Neth-
erlands, their excessive taxes, their weakness on sea and
land, the decay of their military spiiit, the precarious con-
dition of their possessions in the two Indies, imposed upon
them the most perfect neutrality. But neutrality to be
respected needs to be strong. As England did not disguise
her aggressive intentions, the city of Amsterdam and Van
Berckel sought to strengthen the Dutch navy, but were
thwarted by Prince Louis, Fagel, and the stadholder. The
English party favored an increase of the army ; and, to the
great discontent of the stadholder, they were defeated by
the deputies of Amsterdam, Haarlem, Dort, and Delft. The
Dutch were still brave, provident, and capable of acts of
magnanimity ; but they were betrayed by their selfish ex-
ecutive and the consequent want of unity of action.

1778. In April, 1778, the American commissioners at
Apr. 28. Pai^ — Franklin, Arthur Lee, and John Adams, —
in a letter to the grand pensionary, Van Bleiswijck, pro-
posed a good understanding and commerce between the two
nations, and promised to communicate to the states-general
their commercial treaty with France. The Dutch govern-
ment through all its organs met this only overture of the
Americans by silence and total neglect. It was neither put
in deliberation nor answered. The British secretary of
state could find no ground for complaint whatever.

Still the merchants of Amsterdam saw in the indepen-
dence of the United States a virtual repeal of the British
navigation acts; and the most pleasing historical recollec-
tions of the Dutch people were revived by the rise of the
new republic.

In July, the king of France published a declaration

1778. THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 235

protecting neutral ships, though bound to or from hostile
ports, and though carrying contraband goods, unless the
contraband exceeded in value three fourths of the cargo.
But the right was reserved to revoke these orders, if
Great Britain should not within six months grant reci-
procity.

The commercial treaty between France and the United
States was, about the same time, delivered to the grand pen-
sionary and to the pensionary of Amsterdam. The former
took no notice of it whatever. Yan Berckel, in the name
of the regency of Amsterdam, wrote to an American cor-
respondent at the Hague : " With the new republic, clearly
raised up by the help of Providence, we desire leagues of
amity and commerce, which shall last to the end of time."
Yet he acknowledged that these wishes were the wishes of
a single city, which could not bind even the province to
which it belonged. Not one province, nor one city ; not
Holland, nor Amsterdam; no, not even one single man,
whether in authority or in humble life, — appears to have
expected, planned, or wished a breach with England ; and
they always to the last rejected the idea of a war with that
power as an impossibility. The American commissioners at
Paris, being indirectly invited by Van Berckel to renew the
offer of a treaty of commerce between the two republics,
declined to do so ; for, as the grand pensionary had not
replied to their letter written some months before, " they
apprehended that any further motion of that kind on their
part would not at present be agreeable."

Meantime, one Jan de Neufville, an Amsterdam rrro.
merchant, who wished his house recommended to
good American merchants, and who had promised more
about an American loan than he could make good, had come
in some way to know William Lee, an alderman of London
as well as an American commissioner to Vienna and Berlin,
and with the leave of the burgomasters of Amsterdam met
him at Aix-la-Chapelle, and concerted terms for a commercial
convention, proper in due time to be entered into between
the two republics. When Lee communicated to the com-
missioners at Paris this project of a convention, they re-

236 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XL1

minded him that the authority for treating with their high
mightinesses belonged exclusively to themselves, and they
looked upon his act as a nullity. The American congress
likewise took no notice of his intermeddling, and in the fol-
lowing June dismissed him from its service. Amsterdam
disclaimed " the absurd design of concluding a convention
independent of their high mightinesses." " The burgomas-
ters only promised their influence in favor of a treaty of
amity between the two powers, when the independence of
the United States of America should be recognised by the
English."

1778. To get rid of every thing of which England could

8ePL complain, the offer made in Apr\J by Franklin, Ar-
thur Lee, and John Adams, to negotiate a treaty of com-
merce between America and the Netherlands, together with

a copy of the commercial treaty between the United
Oct States and France, was, near the end of October,

communicated to the states-general. They promptly
consigned the whole matter to rest in the manner which
the stadholder had concerted, and which met exactly the
" hope " of the British secretary of state.

During the summer of 1778, British cruisers and priva-
teers, swept on by the greed that masters the mind of
those whose only object is spoil, scoured the seas in quest
of booty. Other nations suffered, but none like the If ether-
lands. To the complaints of the Dutch that the clearest
language of treaties was disregarded, the Earl of Suffolk
answered that the British ambassador at the Hague should
have instructions to negotiate with the republic new stipula-
tions for the future ; but for the present, treaty or no treaty,
England would not suffer materials for ship-building to be
taken by the Dutch to any French port ; and its cruisers
and its admiralty were instructed accordingly. Had the
stadholder been of an heroic nature, the nation might have
shown once more their greatness of soul as of old ; but, to
complete the tribulations of the Dutch, he brought all his

influence to the side of England. On the thirtieth
Dee. so of December, 1778, the states-general asserted their

right to the commercial freedom guaranteed by the

1778. THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 237

law of nations and by treaties ; and yet of their own choice
voted to withhold convoys, where the use of them would
involve a conflict with Great Britain.

During the summer, the flag of Denmark, of ms.
Sweden, of Prussia, had been disregarded by British
privateers, and they severally demanded of England explana-
tions. Vergennes seized the opportunity to fix the attention
of Count Panin. u The empress,'' so he wrote towards the
end of the year to the French minister in Russia, " will give a
great proof of her dignity and equity, if she will make com-
mon cause with Sweden, Denmark, Holland, and the king
of Prussia." " She would render to Europe a great service,
if she would bring the king of England to juster principles
on the freedom of navigation of neutral ships. Holland
arms its vessels to convoy its merchant fleet ; Denmark an-
nounces that in the spring it will send out a squadron for
the same object ; Sweden will be obliged to take the like
resolution. So many arrangements can easily give rise to
troublesome incidents, and kindle a general maritime war.
It would be easy for the empress to secure the prosperity
of the commerce of Russia by supporting with energetic
representations those of other neutral nations."

In an interview with Panin, the Swedish envoy invited
the Russian court to join that of Stockholm in forming a
combined fleet to protect the trade of the north. Denmark,
he said, would no doubt subscribe to the plan, and the
commerce of the three countries, now so interrupted, would
no longer be molested. The summons was heard willingly
by Panin, who, on one of the last days of December, spoke
to the British minister very plainly: "Denmark, Sweden,
and Holland have respectively solicited the empress to join
with them in a representation to you on this subject ; and
she cannot see with indifference the commerce of the north
so much molested by your privateers. The vague and un-
certain definition given by you to naval and warlike stores
exposes almost all the productions of these parts to be se-
questered. It becomes the empress, as a leading power on
this side Europe, to expostulate with you, and express her
desire of some alteration in your regulations, and that you

238 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XU

would put more circumspection in your mode of proceeding
against the ships of neutral states." The British minister
defended the British definition of " naval stores." Count
Panin answered with a smile : " Accustomed to command
at sea, youi language on maritime subjects is always too
positive." Harris deprecated any formal remonstrance
against the British treatment of neutral powers as an ap-
pearance of disunion between the two courts. Panin re-
plied : " I am sorry to hear you say what you do, as I have
the orders of the empress to prepare a representation."
Thus far had Russia moved for the protection of neutral

commerce before the end of 1778. But her plan for
1779. 1779* did not equal the grandeur of her conceptions ;

for it aimed at no more than an agreement with Den-
mark and Sweden to exclude privateers from the North
Sea near their coasts and from the Baltic, and jointly to
keep up a chain of cruisers for the safety of ships bound to
their ports. As the Russian trade was for the most part
in the hands of the English, this action of Catharine would
in practice be little more than a safeguard of English com-
merce. The cabinet of France was dissatisfied, and feared
that the consolidated group of northern states might be
drawn into connection with England. At this stage, Fred-
eric, who through the mediation of Russia and France was
just emerging from his Austrian war, intervened. Russia
had acted precipitately, without intending to offend France
and without proper concert with the courts of Stockholm
and Copenhagen. Through the explanations of the king of
Prussia, every displeasure was removed from the mind of
Vergennes ; and his answer to the Russian note drew from
Count Panin the remark to the French minister at Peters-
burg : " Once more I give you my word that we have no
engagement with England whatever."

The oppressed maritime powers continued to lay their
complaints before the empress of Russia ; so that the study
of neutral rights occupied her mind till she came to con-
sider herself singled out to take the lead in their defence,
and could with difficulty be withheld from sending to Eng-
land very disagreeable remonstrances on the subject. The

1779. THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 239

extraordinary prosperity of the Russians confirmed them
in their notions of their own greatness and power.

When, in the middle of July, Harris presented the Span-
ish declaration of war against England to Count Panin, he
replied ministerially : " Great Britain has by its own haughty
conduct brought down all its misfortunes on itself; they
are now at their height; you must consent to any
concessions to obtain peace; and you can expect 17m
neither assistance from your friends nor forbearance
from your enemies." In subsequent conversations, Panin ever
held the same language and advanced the same opinions.

" Count Panin," wrote Harris, " receives every idea from
his Prussian majesty, and adopts it without reflection ; " and
the indefatigable envoy, giving up all hope of reclaiming
him, undertook to circumvent him through the influence of
Prince Potemkin, who had passed through the love of the
empress to a position of undefined and almost unlimited
influence with the army, the Greek church, and the nobility.
Possessing uncommon talents and address, he would, with
a better education, have held a high position in any country.
By descent and character, he was the truest representative
of Russian nationality. Leaving the two chief maritime
powers of Western Europe, both of whom wished to pre-
serve the Ottoman empire in its integrity, to wear out each
other, Potemkin, who was no dreamer, used the moment of
the American war to annex the Crimea.

Harris professed to believe that for eighty thousand
pounds he could purchase the influence of this extraordinary
man ; but Potemkin could not be reached. He almost
never appeared at court or in company. It was his habit to
lie in bed till near noon, and on his rising his ante-rooms
were thronged with clients of all sorts. No foreign minister
could see him except by asking specially for an interview ;
no one of them was ever admitted to his domestic society
or his confidence. Those who knew him best agree that he
was too proud to take money from a foreign power, and he
never deviated from his Russian policy ; so that the enor-
mous bribes which were designed to gain him were squan-
dered on his chief mistress and his intimates. At the same

240 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLI.

time, he was aware how much he would gain by lulling the
British government into acquiescence in his Oriental schemes
of aggrandizement.

Without loss of time, Harris proposed to Potemkin that
the empress should make a strong declaration at Versailles
and Madrid, and second it by arming all her naval force.
To this, Potemkin objected that both the Russian ministers
who would be concerned in executing the project would
oppose it. Harris next gained leave to plead his cause in
person before Catharine herself. On Monday the second of
August, the favorite of the time conducted him by a back
way into her private dressing-room, and immediately retired.
The empress discomposed him by asking if he was acting
under instructions. He had none ; and yet he renewed his
request for her armed mediation. She excused herself from
plunging her empire into fresh troubles ; then discoursed on
the American war, and hinted that England could in a mo-
ment restore peace by renouncing its colonies.

The question was referred to the council of state ; and
that body, after deliberation, unanimously refused to change
its foreign policy. To the Count of Goertz, the new and
very able envoy of Frederic at Petersburg, Panin unfolded
his innermost thoughts. " The British minister," said he,
u as he makes no impression on me by sounding the tocsin,
applies to others less well informed ; but be not disquieted ;
in spite of the brilliant appearances of others, I answer for
my ability to sustain my system. The powers ought not to
suffer England to be crushed; but she is very far from
that ; and there would be no harm in her meeting with
some loss." Such was the opinion of Frederic, who had
just written : " The balance of power in Europe will not be
disturbed by England's losing possessions here and there in
other parts of the world."

During the whole of the year 1779, the Netherlands
continued to suffer from the conflicting aggressions of
France and Great Britain. The former sought to influence
the states-general, by confining its concession of commercial
advantages in French ports to the towns which voted for
unlimited convoy. In the states of Holland, it was carried
for all merchant vessels destined to the ports of France by

1779. THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 241

a great majority, Rotterdam and the other chief cities join-
ing Amsterdam, and the nobles being equally divided ; bat
the states-general, in which Zealand took the lead, and was
followed by Gelderland, Groningen, q,nd Overyssel, from
motives of prudence rejected the resolution. Notwith-
standing this moderation, a memorial from the British
ambassador announced that Dutch vessels carrying timber
to ports of France, as by treaty with England they had the
right to do, would be seized, even though escorted by ships-
of-war. Indignation within the provinces, at the want of
patriotism in the Prince of Orange, menaced the preroga-
tives of the stadholder, and even the union itself. On one
occasion, five towns went so far as to vote in the states of
Holland for withholding the quota of their province.

Great Britain next adopted another measure, for which
she had some better support. In July, she demanded of
the states-general the succor stipulated in the treaties of
1678 and the separate article of 1716, and argued that " the
stipulations of a treaty founded on the interests of trade
only must give way to those founded on the dearest inter-
ests of the two nations, on liberty and religion."
But the Dutch would not concede that the case pro- 1779.
vided for by treaty had arisen, and denied the right
of England to disregard one treaty at will and then claim
the benefit of others.

While the British were complaining that nine or ten
American merchant vessels had entered the port of Amster-
dam, a new cause of irritation arose. Near the end of July,
Paul Jones, a Scot by birth, in the service of the United
States, sailed from l'Orient as commander of a squadron,
consisting of the " Poor Richard " of forty guns, many of
them unserviceable ; the " Alliance " of thirty-six guns, both
American ships-of-war ; the "Pallas," a French frigate of
thirty-two ; and the u Vengeance," a French brig of twelve
guns. They ranged the western coast of Ireland, turned
Scotland, and, cruising off Flamborough Head, descried
the British merchant fleet from the Baltic, under the con-
voy of the " Serapis " of forty-four guns, and the u Countess
of Scarborough " of twenty guns.

VOL. vi. 16

242 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XU

im An hour after sunset, on the twenty-third of Sep-
8«pt. 23. tember, the " Serapis," having a great superiority in
strength, engaged the " Poor Richard." With marvellous
hardihood, Paul Jones, after suffering exceedingly in a con-
test of an hour and a half within musket-shot, bore down
upon his adversary, whose anchor he hooked to his own
quarter. The muzzles of their guns touched each other's
sides. Jones could use only three nine-pounders and mus-
kets from the round-tops, but combustible matters were
thrown into every part of the " Serapis," which was on fire
no less than ten or twelve times. There were moments
when both ships were on fire together. After a two hours9
conflict in the first watch of the night, the " Serapis " struck
its flag. Jones raised his pendant on the captured frigate,
and the next day had but time to transfer to it his wounded
men and his crew before the " Poor Richard " went down.
The French frigate engaged and captured the " Countess of
Scarborough." The " Alliance," which from a distance had
raked the " Serapis " during the action, not without injur-
ing the "Poor Richard" as well, had not a man
Oct 4. injured. On the fourth of October, the squadron

entered the Texel with its prizes.
On hearing of their arrival, the British ambassador, of
himself and again under instructions, reclaimed the captured
British ships and their crews, " who had been taken by the

pirate Paul Jones, of Scotland, a rebel and a traitor."
Oct 29. u They," he insisted, " are to be treated as pirates

whose letters of marque have not emanated from a
sovereign power." The grand pensionary would not have
the name of pirate applied to officers bearing the commis-
sions of congress. In spite of the stadholder, the squadron
enjoyed the protection of a neutral port. Under an ante-
dated commission from the French king, the flag of France

was raised over the two prizes and every ship but
Deo. 7. the u Alliance;" and, four days before the end of

the year, Paul Jones with his English captures left
the Texel.
B_. An American frigate, near the end of September,

had entered the port of Bergen with two rich prises.

1780. THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 248

Yielding to the British envoy at Copenhagen, Bernstorff,
the Danish minister, seized the occasion to publish an ordi-
nance forbidding the sale of prizes, until they should hare
been condemned in a court of admiralty of the nation of
the privateer ; and he slipped into the ordinance the decla-
ration that, as the king of Denmark had recognised neither
the independence nor the flag of America, its vessels could
not be suffered to bring their prizes into Danish harbors.
The two which had been brought into Bergen were set free ;
bat, to avoid continual reclamations, two others, which in
December were taken to Christiansand, were only forced to
leave the harbor.

Wrapt up in the belief that he had w brought the empress
to the verge of standing forth as the professed friend of
Great Britain," Harris thought he had only to meet her
objection of his having acted without instructions;
and, at his instance, George III., in November, by ™;
an autograph letter, entreated her armed mediation
against the house of Bourbon. " I admire," so he addressed
her, "the grandeur of your talents, the nobleness of your
sentiments, and the extent of your intelligence." "The
employ, the mere show of naval force could break up the
league formed against me, and maintain the balance of power
which this league seeks to destroy." The letter was accom-
panied by a writing from Harris, in which he was lavish of
flattery; and he offered, unconditionally, an alliance with
Great Britain, including even a guarantee against the Otto-
man Porte.

The answer was prepared by Panin without ielay. The
empress loves peace, and therefore refuses an armed inter-
vention, which could only prolong the war. She holds the
time ill chosen for a defensive alliance, since England is
engaged in a war not appertaining to possessions in Europe ;
but, if the court of London will offer terms which can serve
as a basis of reconciliation between the belligerent powers,
she will eagerly employ her mediation.

In very bad humor, Harris rushed to Potemkin for mo.
consolation. " What can have operated so singular
a revolution?" demanded he, with eagerness and anxiety.

244 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XU

Potemkin, cajoling him, replied : " You have chosen an
unlucky moment. The new favorite lies dangerously sick
The empress is absorbed in this one passion. She repugns
every exertion. Count Panin times his councils with ad-
dress ; my influence is at an end." Harris fell ill. Every-
body knew that Panin and Osterman of the foreign office,
and the grand duke, afterwards Paul III., were discontented
with his intrigues ; and Catharine herself, meeting Goertz,
asked playfully : " What can have given Sir James Harris
the jaundice ? Has any thing happened to vex him ? And
is he so choleric ? "

ins Unremitted attention was all the while given to

the defence of neutral rights ; and the Russian envoy

at London, no less than the envoys of Sweden, Denmark,

the Netherlands, and Prussia, delivered a memorial to the

British government. To detach Russia from the

1780. number of the complainants, Harris, in January, 1780,

gave a written promise " that the navigation of the

subjects of the empress should never be interrupted by

vessels of Great Britain."

To the end of 1779, the spirit of moderation pre-
vailed in the councils of the Netherlands. Even the
province of Holland had unreservedly withdrawn its obnox-
ious demands. On the evening before the twenty-
Doe.27. seventh of December, seventeen Dutch merchant
vessels, laden with hemp, iron, pitch, and tar, left
the Texel under the escort of five ships-of-war, commanded
by the Count de Bylandt. In the English Channel,
Deo. 80. on the morning of the thirtieth, they descried a
British fleet, by which they were surrounded just
before sunset. The Dutch admiral, refusing to permit his
convoy to be visited, Fielding, the British commander,
replied that it would then be done by force. During the
parley, night came on ; and twelve of the seventeen ships,
taking advantage of the darkness and a fair wind, escaped
through the British lines to French ports. The English
shallop, which the next morning at nine would have
Dee. si. visited the remaining five ships, was fired upon. At
this, the British flag-ship and two others fired on the

1780. THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 245

Dutch flag-ship. The ship was hit, but no one was killed or
wounded. u Let ns go down," said the Datch crews to one
another, " rather than fall into a shameful captivity ; " but
their admiral, considering that the British force was more
than three times greater than his own, after returning the
broadside, struck his flag. Fielding carried the five mer-
chant ships as prizes into Portsmouth.

This outrage on the Netherlands tended to rouse and
unite all parties and all provinces. Everywhere in Europe,
and especially in Petersburg, it was the subject of conver-
sation ; and the conduct of the Dutch was watched with the
intensest curiosity. But another power beside England had
disturbed neutral rights. Fearing that supplies might be
carried to Gibraltar, Spain had given an order to bring into
Cadiz all neutral ships bound with provisions for the Medi-
terranean, and to sell their cargoes to the highest bidder.
In the last part of the year 1779, the order was applied to
the " Concordia," a Russian vessel carrying wheat to Bar-
celona. Harris, who received the news in advance, hurried
to Potemkin with a paper, in which he proved from this
example what terrible things might be expected from the
house of Bourbon, if they should acquire maritime
superiority. On reading this paragraph, Potemkin nso.
cried out with an oath : " You have got her now.
The empress abhors the inquisition, and will never suffer
its precepts to be exercised on the high seas." On the con-
firmation of the report, a strong memorial was drawn up
under the inspection of the empress herself ; and a reference
to the just reproaches of the courts of Madrid and Versailles
against Great Britain for troubling the liberty of commerce
was added by her own express order.

Hardly had the Spanish representative at Petersburg for-
warded the memorial by a courier to his government, when
letters from the Russian consul at Cadiz announced that the
"St. Nicholas," bearing the Russian flag and bound with
corn to Malaga, had been brought into Cadiz, its cargo dis-
posed of by auction, and its crew treated with inhumanity.
The empress felt this second aggression as a deliberate out-
rage on her flag; and, following the impulses of her own

246 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLL

mind, she seized the opportunity to adopt, seemingly on
the urgency of Groat Britain, a general measure for the
protection of the commerce of Russia as a neutral power
against all the belligerents and on every sea. She preceded
the measure by signing an order for arming fifteen ships of
the line and five frigates for service early in the spring.

Loving always to be seen leading in great and bold un-
dertakings, she further signed letters prepared by her pri-
vate secretary to her envoys in Sweden, Denmark, and the
Hague, before she informed her minister for foreign affairs
of what had been done. A Russian courier was expedited
to Stockholm, and thence to Copenhagen, the Hague, Paris,
and Madrid. On the twenty-second of February, Potenikin
announced the measure to his protege, Harris, by the special
command of the empress. "The ships," said the prince,
"will be supposed to protect the Russian trade against
every power, but they are meant to chastise the Spaniards,
whose insolence the empress cannot brook." Harris " told
him he was not so sanguine. In short, that it was no more
than the system of giving protection to trade, suggested
last year by the three northern courts, now carried into
execution." Potemkin, professing to be "almost out of
humor with his objections and with his backwardness to
admit the great advantage England would derive from the
step," rejoined : " I am just come from the empress ; it is
her particular order that I tell it to you. She commanded
me to lose no time in finding you out. She said she knew
it would give you pleasure ; and, besides myself, you are at
this moment the only person acquainted with her design."
He ended by expressing his impatience that the event should
be known, and urging Harris to despatch his messenger
immediately with the news. So Harris was made the in-
strument of communicating to his own government what
the other powers received directly from Russia; and the
measure, so opposite to the policy of England, was reported
to that power by its own envoy as a friendly act performed
at its own request.

But, before the despatches of Harris were on the
road, the conduct of the affair was intrusted to Panin,

178a THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 247

who, although suffering from the physical and moral depres-
sion consequent on the disease which was slowly bringing
him to the grave, took the subject in hand. The last deed
of the dying statesman was his best. Cast down as
he was by illness, before the end of February he thus p®£;
unbosomed himself to the Prussian minister: "In
truth, the envoy of England has found means for a miserable
trifle to excite my sovereign to a step of eclat> yet always
combined with the principle of neutrality. The court of
Spain will probably yield to just representations ; the meas-
ure which he has occasioned will turn against himself, and
he will have himself to reproach for every thing that he
shall have brought upon his court. I had thought Sir James
Harris understood his business; but he acts like a boy.9'

To Frederic, Goertz made his reports : " Every thing will
now depend on the reply of the court of Spain. At
so important a moment, your majesty has the right to March,
speak to it with frankness.9' " There will result from
tae intrigue a matter the execution of which no power has
thus far been able to permit itself to think of. All have
believed it necessary to establish and to fix a public law for
neutral powers in a maritime war; the moment has come
for attaining that end."

These letters reached Frederic by express; and on the
fourteenth of March, by the swiftest messenger, he instructed
his minister at Paris as follows : " Immediately on receiving
the present order, you will demand a particular audience
of the ministry at Versailles ; and you will say that in my
opinion every thing depends on procuring for Russia with-
out the least loss of time the satisfaction she exacts, and
which Spain can the less refuse, because it has plainly acted
with too much precipitation. Make the ministry feel all
the importance of this warning, and the absolute necessity
of satisfying Russia without the slightest delay on an article
where the honor of her flag is so greatly interested. In
truth, it is necessary not to palter in a moment so pressing."
Vergennes read the letter of Frederic, and by a courier
despatched a copy of it to the French ambassador at Madrid,
with the instruction : " I should wrong your penetration and

248 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XU.

the sagacity of the cabinet of Madrid, if I were to take
pains to demonstrate the importance for the two crowns
to spare nothing in order that the empress of Russia may
not depart from the system of neutrality which she has
embraced." The letter of Frederic was communicated to
Florida Blanca, and it was impossible to resist its advice.

The distance between Madrid and Petersburg prolonged
the violent crisis ; but, before a letter could have reached
even the nearest power, Count Panin laid before the empress
his plan for deducing out of the passing negotiation a sys-
tem of permanent protection to neutral flags in a maritime
war. He advised her to present herself to Europe in an
impartial attitude, as the defender of the rights of neutrals
before all the world. She would thus gain a glorious name
as the lawgiver of the seas, imparting to commerce in time
of war a security such as it had never yet enjoyed. Thus
she would gather around her all civilized states, and be
honored through coming centuries as the benefactress of
the human race, entitled to the veneration of the nations
and of coming ages.1

The opinions of her minister coinciding exactly

March. w^n ner own» on tne twenty-sixth of February, 1780,
that is on the eighth of March, new style, Catharine
and Panin set their names to the declaration, of which the
fixed principles are : Neutral ships shall enjoy a free naviga-
tion even from port to port, and on the coasts of the bellige-
rent powers. Free ships free all goods except contraband.
Contraband are arms and ammunitions of war, and nothing
else. No port is blockaded, unless the enemy's ships, in
adequate number, are near enough to make the entry dan*
gerous. These principles shall rule decisions on the legality
of prizes. " Her imperial majesty," so ran the state paper,
" in manifesting these principles before all Europe, is firmly
resolved to maintain them. She has therefore given an
order to fit out a considerable portion of her naval forces,
to act as her honor, her interest, and necessity may re-
quire."

1 Compare GoertE, Denkwiirdigkeiten, L 154; Dohm, Denkwiirdig-
keiten meiner Zeit, ii. 118.

1780. THE ARMED NEUTRALITY. 249

Frederic received the news of the declaration in ad-
vance of others, and with all speed used his influence in
its behalf at Versailles ; so that for the maritime code,
which came upon Great Britain as a surprise, a welcome
was prepared in France and Madrid.

The empress made haste to invite Sweden, Den- un.
mark, Portugal, and the Netherlands to unite with
her in supporting the rules which she had proclaimed. The
voice of the United States on the subject was uttered im-
mediately by John Adams. He applauded the justice, the
wisdom, and the humanity of an association of maritime
powers against violences at sea, and added as his advice
to congress : " The abolition of the whole doctrine of con-
traband would be for the peace and happiness of mankind ;
and I doubt not, as human reason advances and men come
to be more sensible of the benefits of peace and less enthu-
siastic for the savage glories of war, all neutral nations
will be allowed by universal consent to carry what goods
they please in their own ships, provided they are not bound
to places actually invested by an enemy."

For the moment, the attention of Europe was riveted
on the Netherlands ; but, before we can further trace their
connections with the war, we must relate its events in
die south and in the north of the United States.

250 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XUL

CHAPTER XLII.

THE WAB IK THB SOUTHERN STATES.

1778-1779.

The plan for the southern campaign of 1778 was pre-
pared by Germain with great minuteness of detail. Pen-

sacola was to be strengthened by a thousand men from
1778. New York. On the banks of the Mississippi, near the

channel of Iberville, a considerable post was to be
established by the commander in West Florida, partly to
protect property and trade, but more to preserve the com-
munication with the Indian nations. From the army at
New York, men were to be detached sufficient for the
conquest and permanent occupation of Georgia and South
Carolina, where the American custom of calling out the
militia for short periods of service was to be introduced.
The Florida rangers and a party of Indians were to attack
the southern frontier, while the British agent was to bring
down a large body of savages towards Augusta. A line
of communication was to be established across South and
North Carolina, and the planters on the sea-coast were to
be reduced to the necessity of abandoning or being aban-
doned by their slaves. Five thousand additional men were
at a later date to be sent to take Charleston ; and, on the
landing of a small corps at Cape Fear, Germain believed
that "large numbers of the inhabitants would doubtless
flock to the standard of the king, whose government would
be restored in North Carolina." Then, by proper diver-
sions in Virginia and Maryland, he said it might not be
too much to expect that all America to the south of the
Susquehannah would return to its allegiance. Sir Henry
Clinton was no favorite of the minister's; these brilliant
achievements were designed for CornwaUis.

ma THE WAR IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 251

During the autumn of 1778, two expeditions were sent
out by Prevost from East Florida. They were composed
in part of regulars ; the rest were vindictive refugees from
Georgia and South Carolina, called troopers, though hav-
ing only " a few horses that were kept to go plundering
into Georgia." Brown, their commander, held directly
from the governor of East Florida the rank of lieutenant-
colonel, so that the general was prevented " from reducing
them to some order and regulation." One of these mixed
parties of invaders summoned the fort at Sunbury to sur-
render. But when Colonel Mackintosh answered, " Come
and take it," they retreated. The other corps was stopped
at the Ogeechee. On their return, they burned at Midway
the church, almost every dwelling-house, and all stores of
rice and other cereals within their reach ; and they carried
off with them all negroes, horses, cattle, and plate that
could be removed by land or water. Screven, a gallant
American officer, beloved for his virtues in private life,
was killed by them after he became their prisoner.

Boused by these incursions into Georgia, Robert Howe,
the American commander in the southern district, medi-
tated an expedition against St. Augustine. This scheme
had no chance of success. At St. Mary's River, an epi-
demic swept away one quarter of his men ; and, after slight
skirmishes, he led back the survivors to Savannah.

Immediately after his return, on the twenty-third 177s.
of December, three thousand men, despatched from Dec* 88-
New York under Lieutenant-colonel Campbell, arrived off
the Island of Tybee ; and soon afterwards, passing the bar,
approached Savannah. Relying on the difficulties of the
ground, Howe offered resistance to a disciplined corps, ably
commanded, and more than three times as numerous
as his own. But, on the twenty-ninth, one party of Deo. 20.
British, guided by a negro through a swamp, turned
his position. A simultaneous attack on the Americans in
front and rear drove them into a disorderly and precipitate
retreat. With a loss of but twenty-four in killed and
wounded, the British gained the capital of Georgia, four
hundred and fifty-three prisoners, forty-eight pieces of can-

\

252 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XUI:

non, several mortars, a field-piece, the fort with its military
magazines, and large stores of provisions. No victory
was ever more complete; but Germain was not satisfied,
for no Indian parties had been called to take part in the
expedition.

Flushed with his rapid success, Campbell promised pro-
tection to the inhabitants, but only on condition that " they
would support the royal government with their arms." In
this way,, the people of the low country of Georgia had
no choice but to join the British standard, or flee to the up-
land or to South Carolina. The captive soldiers, refusing to
enlist in the British service, were crowded on board prison-
ships, to be swept away by infection. The war was plainly
to be conducted without mercy, and terror was to compen-
sate for the want of numbers. Many submitted ; but de-
termined republicans sought an asylum in the western parts
of the state.

1779. Early in January, 1779, Brigadier-general Prevost

Jan# marched as a conqueror across lower Georgia to Sa-
vannah, reducing Sunbury on the way and capturing its
garrison ; and Campbell, with eight hundred regulars, took
possession of Augusta. The province appearing to be re*
stored to the crown, plunder became the chief thought of
the British army.

From jealousy of concentrated power, congress kept the
military departments independent of each other. At the
request of the delegates from South Carolina, Robert Howe
was superseded in the southern command by Major-general
Benjamin Lincoln. In private life, this officer was most
estimable ; as a soldier, he was brave, but of a heavy
mould and inert of will. Towards the end of 1776, he
had repaired to Washington's camp as a major-general of
militia; in the following February, he was transferred to
the continental service, and passed the winter at Morris-
town. In the spring of 1777, he was completely surprised
by the British, and had a narrow escape. In the summer,
he was sent to the north, in the belief that his influence
with the New England militia would be useful; but he
never took part in any battle. Wounded by a British party

1779. THE WAR IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 253

whom he mistook for Americans, he left the camp, having
been in active service less than a year. He had not fully
recovered, when, on the fourth of December, 1778, he
entered upon the command in Charleston.

Collecting what force he could, the new commander took
post on the South Carolina side of the Savannah, near
Perrysburg, with at first scarcely more than eleven hun-
dred men. As neither party ventured to cross the river,
the British, who were masters of the water, detached
two hundred men to Beaufort. Moultrie, sent almost alone
to counteract the movement, rallied under his standard
about an equal number of militia. These brave volunteers,
who were supported by but nine continentals, though they
were poorly supplied with ammunition and though their
enemy had the advantage of position, fought for their own
homes under a leader whom they trusted, and on the
third of February drove the invaders with great loss «&
to their ships.

The continental regiments of North Carolina were with
Washington's army ; the legislature of that state promptly
ealled out two thousand of its people, and sent them,
though without arms, to serve for five months under Ashe
and Rutherford. The scanty stores of South Carolina were
exhausted in arming them. In the last days of January,
1779, they joined the camp of Lincoln, whose troops thus
became respectable as to numbers, though only six hundred
of them were continentals.

Meantime, the assembly of South Carolina, superseding
Rawlins Lowndes by an almost unanimous vote, recalled
John Rutledge to be their governor. They ordered a regi-
ment of light dragoons to be raised, offered a bounty of five
hundred dollars to every one who would enlist for sixteen
months, and gave large powers to the governor and council
to draft the militia of the state, and " do every thing neces-
sary for the public good."

The British, having carried their arms into the upper
country of Georgia, sent emissaries to encourage a rising in
South Carolina. A party of abandoned men, whose chief
object was rapine, put themselves in motion to join the

254 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLI1

British, gathering on the way every kind of booty that
could be transported. They were pursued across the Sa-
vannah by Colonel Andrew Pickens, with about three hun-
dred of the citizens of Ninety-Six ; and, on the four-
Fe™i4. teenth of February, were overtaken, surprised, and
completely routed . Their commander and forty others
fell in battle, and many prisoners were taken. About two
hundred escaped to the British lines. The republican gov-
ernment, which since 1776 had maintained its jurisdiction
without dispute in every part of the commonwealth, ar-
raigned some of them in the civil court ; and, by a jury of
their fellow-citizens, seventy of them were convicted of
treason and rebellion against the state of South Carolina.
Of these, no more than five were executed : the rest were
pardoned.

On hearing that Lincoln from ill-health had asked of
congress leave to retire, Greene, who began to be impatient
of his position as quartermaster-general, requested of the
commander in chief the southern command. Washington
answered that Greene would be his choice, but he was not
consulted. The army of Lincoln, whose offer to retire was
not accepted, was greatly inferior to the British in number,
and far more so in quality; yet he ventured to detach
Ashe, with fifteen hundred of the North Carolina militia,
on separate service. This inexperienced general crossed
the Savannah at Augnsta which the British had abandoned,
and descended the river with the view to confine the enemy
within narrower limits. Following his orders, he encamped
his party at Brier Creek, on the Savannah, beyond support-
ing distance. The post seemed to him strong, as it had
but one approach. The British amused Lincoln by a feint ;
while Lieutenant-colonel Prevost turned the position of
Ashe who seemed never to have heard of military
Mar. 3. discipline or vigilance, and on the third day of March
fell upon his party. The few continentals, about
sixty in number, alone made a brave but vain defence. By
wading through swamps and swimming the Savannah, four
hundred and fifty of the militia were able to rejoin the
American camp ; the rest perished, or were captured or

177ft. THE WAR IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 255

returned to their homes. So quickly was one fourth of the
troops of Lincoln lost. The British captured seven pieces
of cannon, and more than one thousand stand of arms.
After this success, General Prevost proclaimed a sort of
civil government in Georgia.

Re-enforced from the South Carolina militia, of whom
Rutledge had assembled great numbers at Orangeburg,
Lincoln, who had neither the means of conducting a siege,
nor a soldiery that could encounter veterans, nor the com-
mand of the river, undertook to lead his troops against
Savannah by way of Augusta, leaving only a thousand
militia under Moultrie at Perrysburg. The British general
had the choice between awaiting an attack or invading .the
richest part of Carolina. His decision was for the
Bide which promised booty. On the twenty-eighth j^%^
of April, when the American army was distant five
days' march, General Prevost, this time supported by In-
dians, crossed the river with three thousand men, and drove
Moultrie before him. The approach of the savage allies
who spared neither child nor woman, and the waste and
plunder of the plantations, spread terror through the land.
Many of Moultrie's militia left him to protect their own
families. Timid planters, to save their property, made pro-
fessions of loyalty ; and sudden converts represented to
Prevost that Charleston lay defenceless at his mercy. After
two or three days of doubt, the hope of seizing the
wealthy city lured him on ; and upon the eleventh of May n.
May, two days too late, he appeared before the town.
While he hesitated, the men of Charleston had protected
the neck by sudden but well-planned works ; on the ninth
and tenth, Rutledge arrived with the militia, and Moultrie
with all of his party that remained true to him, as well as
a body of three hundred men whom Lincoln had detached
and who had marched forty miles a day. While the Brit-
ish crossed the Ashley, Pulaski and a corps were ferried
over the Cooper into Charleston.

The besiegers and the besieged were nearly equal in
numbers ; the issue of the campaign might depend on the
slaves. No sooner was the danger of South Carolina

256 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XUL

known in the camp of Washington, than young Laurens
became impatient to fly to his native state, and levy and
command a regiment of blacks. Alexander Hamilton rec-
ommended the project to the president of congress in these
words : " The negroes will make very excellent soldiers.
This project will have to combat prejudice and self-interest.
Contempt for the blacks makes us fancy many things that
are founded neither in reason nor experience. Their nat-
ural faculties are as good as ours. Give them their freedom
with their muskets : this will secure their fidelity, animate
their courage, and have a good influence upon those who
remain, by opening a door for their emancipation. This
circumstance has weight in inducing me to wish the success
of the project ; for the dictates of humanity and true policy
equally interest me in favor of this unfortunate class of
men." Two days later, the elder Laurens wrote to Wash-
ington : " Had we arms for three thousand such black men
as I could select in Carolina, I should have no doubt of
success in driving the British out of Georgia, and subduing
East Florida before the end of July." To this Washington
answered : " The policy of our arming slaves is in my opin-
ion a moot point, unless the enemy set the example. For,
should we begin to form battalions of them, I have not the
smallest doubt, if the war is to be prosecuted, of their fol-
lowing us in it and justifying the measure upon our own
ground. The contest then must be, who can arm fastest.
And where are our arms ? "

Congress listened to Huger, the agent from South Caro-
lina, as he explained that his state was weak, because many
of its citizens must remain at home to prevent revolts among
the negroes, or their desertion to the enemy ; and it recom-
mended as a remedy that the two southernmost of the thir-
teen states should detach the most vigorous and enterprising
of the negroes from the rest, by arming three thousand of
them under command of white officers.

A few days before the British came near Charleston,

young Laurens arrived, bringing no relief from the

north beyond the advice of congress for the Carolinians to

gave themselves by arming their slaves. The advice was

1779. THE WAR IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 257

heard in anger, and rejected with disdain. The state felt
itself cast off and alone. Georgia had fallen ; the country
between Savannah and Charleston was overrun ; the British
confiscated all negroes whom they could seize ; their emis-
saries were urging the rest to rise against their owners
or to run away; the United States seemed indifferent,
and Washington's army was too weak to protect so remote
a government. Many began to regret the struggle for
independence. Moved, therefore, by their insulation and
by a dread of exposing Charleston to be taken by storm,
and sure at least of gaining time by protracted parleys,
the executive government sent a flag to ask of the in-
vaders their terms for a capitulation. In answer, the
British general offered peace to the inhabitants who would
accept protection ; to all others, the condition of prisoners
of war. The council, at its next meeting, debated giving
up the town ; Moultrie, Laurens, and Pulaski, who were
called in, declared that they had men enough to beat the
invaders; and yet, against the voice of Gadsden, of Fer-
guson, of John Edwards, who was moved even to tears,
the majority, at heart irritated by the advice of congress
to emancipate and arm slaves, "proposed a neutrality
during the war between Great Britain and America ; the
question whether the state shall belong to Great Britain
or remain one of the United States to be determined by
the treaty of peace between the two powers." Laurens,
being called upon to bear this message, scornfully refused,
and another was selected. The British general declined
to treat with the civil government of South Carolina, but
made answer to Moultrie that the garrison must surrender
as prisoners of war. "Then we will fight it out," said
Moultrie to the governor and council, and left their
tent. Gadsden and Ferguson followed him, to say : 1779.
"Act according to your own judgment, and we will
support you ; " and Moultrie waved the flag from the gate
as a signal that the conference was at an end.

The citizens of Charleston knew nothing of the delib-
erations of the council, and seemed resolved to stand to
the lines in defence of their country ; parleys had carried

258 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XT,TT.

tbem over the only moment of danger. At daylight, the
cry ran along the line : " The enemy is gone." The British,
having intercepted a letter from Lincoln, — in which he
charged Moultrie " not to give up the city, nor suffer the
people to despair," for he was hastening to their relief, —
escaped an encounter by retreating to the islands. The
Americans, for want of boats, could not prevent
1779. their embarkation, nor their establishing a post at
Beaufort. The Carolina militia returned to their
homes; Lincoln, left with but about eight hundred men,
passed the great heats of summer at Sheldon.

The invasion of South Carolina by the army of General
Prevost proved nothing more than a raid through the rich-
est plantations of the state. The British forced their way
into almost every house in a wide extent of country ; spar-
ing in some measure those who professed loyalty to the
king, they rifled all others of their money, rings, personal
ornaments and plate, stripped houses of furniture and
linen, and even broke open tombs in search of hidden
treasure. Objects of value, not transportable by land or
water, were destroyed. Porcelain, mirrors, windows, were
dashed in pieces ; gardens carefully planted with exotics
were laid waste. Domestic animals, which could not be
used nor carried off, were wantonly shot, and in some
places not even a chicken was left alive. A thousand fu-
gitive slaves perished of want in the woods, or of fever
in the British camp ; about three thousand passed with
the army into Georgia.

The southernmost states looked for relief to the French
fleet in America. In September, 1778, the Marquis de
Bouille, the gallant governor-general of the French wind-
ward islands, in a single day wrested from Great Britain
the strongly fortified island of Dominica; but D'Estaing,
with a greatly increased fleet and a land force of nine
thousand men, came in sight of the Island of St. Lucia just
as its last French flag had been struck to a corps of fifteen
hundred British troops. A landing for. its recovery was
repulsed, with a loss to D'Estaing of nearly fifteen hundred
men.

*

1779. THE WAR IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 259

Early in January, 1779, re-enforcements under Admiral
Byron transferred maritime superiority to the British ; and
D'Estaing for six months sheltered his fleet within
the bay of Port Royal. At the end of June, Byron j1™;
having left St, Lucia to convoy a company of British
merchant ships through the passages, D'Estaing detached
a force against St. Vincent, which, with the aid of the op-
pressed and enslaved Caribs, its native inhabitants, was
easily taken. This is the only instance in the war where
insurgent slaves acted efficiently. At the same time, the
French admiral made an attack on the Island of
Grenada, whose garrison on the fourth of July sur- July 4.
rendered at discretion. Two days later, the fleet of
Byron arrived within sight of the French ; and, though re-
duced in number, sought a general close action, which his
adversary knew how to avoid. In the running fight which
ensued, the British ships suffered so much in their masts
and rigging that the French recovered the superiority.

To a direct co-operation with the United States, D'Estaing
was drawn by the wish of congress, the entreaties of South
Carolina, and his own never-failing good-will. On
the first day of September, he approached Georgia so Sept. l.
suddenly that he took by surprise four British ships-
of-war. To the government of South Carolina he announced
his readiness to assist in reducing Savannah ; but as there
was neither harbor, nor road, nor offing to receive his
twenty ships of the line, he made it a condition that his
fleet, which consisted of thirty-three sail, should not be
detained long off so dangerous a coast. South Carolina
glowed with joy in the fixed belief that the garrison
of Savannah would lay down their arms. In ten days, Sept. 12.
the French troops, though unassisted, effected their
landing. Meantime, the British commander worked day.
and night with relays of hundreds of negroes to strengthen
his defences ; and Maitland, regardless of malaria, hastened
with troops from Beaufort through the swamps of the low
country.

On the sixteenth, D'Estaing summoned General sept. ie.
Prevost to surrender to the arms of the king of

260 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLI1.

France. While Prevost gained time by a triple inter-
change of notes, Maitland, flashed with a mortal fever
caught on the march, brought to his aid through the inland
channels the first division of about four hundred men from
Beaufort. The second division followed a few hours later :
and, when both had arrived, the British gave their answer
of defiance.

Swiftly as the summons had been borne through South

Carolina, and gladly as its people ran to arms, it ^ as

sipt923. tne twenty-third of September when the Americans

under Lincoln joined the French in the siege of the

Oct. s. city. On the eighth of October, the reduction of

Savannah seemed still so far distant that the naval

officers insisted on the rashness of leaving the fleet longer

exposed to autumnal gales, or to an attack, with so much of

its strength on land. An assault was therefore resolved on

for the next day, an hour before sunrise, by two feigned

and two real attacks.

The only chance of success lay in the precise execution
of the plan. The column under Count Dillon, which was
to have attacked the rear of the British lines, became en-
tangled in a swamp, of which it should only have skirted
the edge, was helplessly exposed to the British batteries,
and could not even be formed. It was broad day when the
party with D'Estaing, accompanied by a part of the Caro-
linians, advanced fearlessly, but only to become huddled
together near the parapet under a destructive fire from
musketry and cannon. The American standard was planted
on the ramparts by Hume and by Bush, lieutenants of the
second South Carolina regiment, but both of them fell ; at
their side Sergeant Jasper was mortally wounded, but he
used the last moments of his life to bring off the colors
which he supported. A French standard was also planted.

After an obstinate struggle of fifty-five minutes to carry
the redoubt, the assailants retreated before a charge of
grenadiers and marines, led gallantly by Maitland. The
injury sustained by the British was trifling ; the loss of tie
Americans was about two hundred; of the French, thrice*
as many. D'Estaing was twice wounded; Pulaski once,

1779. THE WAR IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 261

and mortally. " The cries of the dying," so wrote the
Baron de Stedingk to his king, Gustavus III. of Sweden,
"pierced me to the heart. I desired death, and might have
found it, but for the necessity of thinking how to save
four hundred men whose retreat was stopped by a broken
bridge." He himself was badly wounded. At Paris, as he
moved about on crutches,' he became the delight of the
highest social circles ; and at one of the theatres he
was personated on the stage, leading a party to 1779.
storm. The French withdrew to their ships and
sailed for France ; the patriots of Georgia who had joined
them fled to the backwoods or across the river.

Lincoln repaired to Charleston, and was followed by what
remained of his army; the militia of South Carolina re-
turned to their homes ; its continental regiments were melt-
ing away ; and its paper money became so nearly worthless
that a bounty of twenty-five hundred dollars for twenty-one
months9 service had no attraction. The dwellers near the
sea between Charleston and Savannah were shaken in their
allegiance, not knowing where to find protection. Through-
oat the state, the people were disheartened, and foreboded
its desolation.

The permanence of the power of the British in the south-
ern Atlantic states depended on their treatment of the negro.
Now that they held Georgia and Beaufort in South Carolina,
they might have gained an enduring mastery by emancipat-
ing and arming the blacks. But the idea that slavery was
a sin against humanity was unknown to parliament and to
the ministry, and would have been hooted at by the army.
The thought of universal emancipation had not yet con-
quered the convictions of the ruling class in England, nor
touched the life and conscience of the nation. The English
of that day rioted in the lucrative slave-trade, and the zeal
of the government in upholding it had been one of the
causes that provoked the American war. So the advice to
organize an army of liberated negroes, though persisted in
by the royal governor of Virginia, was crushed by the mad
eagerness of the British officers and soldiers in America for
plunder!

262 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Ch^p. XLII

In this they were encouraged by the cordial approbation
of the king and his ministers. The instructions from Ger-
main authorized the confiscation and sale, not only of negroes
employed in the American army, but of those who
1779. voluntarily followed the British troops and took sanc-
tuary under British jurisdiction. Many of them were
shipped to the markets of the West Indies.

Before the end of three months after the capture of Sa-
vannah, all the property, real and personal, of the rebels in
Georgia, was disposed of. For further gains, Indians were
encouraged to catch slaves wherever they could find them,
and bring them in. All families in South Carolina were
subjected to the visits of successive sets of banditti, who
received commissions to act as volunteers with no pay or
emolument but that derived from rapine, and who, roaming
about at pleasure, robbed the widely scattered plantations,
without regard to the patriotism or the loyalty of their
owners. Negroes were the spoil most coveted; on the
average, they were valued at two hundred and fifty silver
dollars each. When Sir James Wright returned to the
government of Georgia, he found several thousands of them
awaiting distribution among their claimants. The name of
the British grew hateful, where it had before been cherished ;
their approach was dreaded as the coming of ruin; theii
greed quelled every hope of the slave for enfranchisement.

1779. THE SIEGE OF CHARLESTON. 268

CHAPTER XLIII.

THE SIEGE OF CHARLESTON.

1779-1780.

Armies were encouraged by the government in England
to pillage and lay waste the plantations of South
Carolina, and confiscate the property of the greatest 1779.
part of her inhabitants. Families were divided ; pat-
riots outlawed and savagely assassinated; houses burned,
and women and children driven shelterless into the forests ;
districts so desolated that they seemed the abode only of
orphans and widows ; and the retaliation provoked by the
unrelenting rancor of loyalists threatened the extermina-
tion of her people. Left mainly to her own resources, it
was through bloodshed and devastation and the depths of
wretchedness that her citizens were to bring her back to
her place in the republic by their own heroic courage and
self-devotion, having suffered more, and dared more, and
achieved more than the men of any other state.

Sir Henry Clinton, in whose breast his failure before
Charleston in 1776 still rankled, resolved in person to carry
out the order for its reduction. In August, an English fleet,
commanded by Arbuthnot, an old and inefficient admiral,
brought him re-enforcements and stores ; in September, fif-
teen hundred men arrived from Ireland ; in October, Rhode
Island was evacuated, and the troops which had so long
been stationed there in inactivity were incorporated into
his army. It had been his intention to acquire Charleston
before the end of the year. The uncertain destination of
the superior fleet of D'Estaing held him at bay, till he
became assured that it had sailed for Europe.

Leaving the command in New York to the veteran Knyp-

264 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLUL

hausen, Clinton, in the extreme cold of the severest winter,
embarked eight thousand five hundred officers and men;
and on the day after Christmas, 1779, set sail for the con-
quest of South Carolina. The admiral led the van into the
adverse current of the gulf-stream ; glacial storms scattered

the fleet ; an ordnance vessel foundered ; American
jani privateers captured some of the transports ; a bark,

carrying Hessian troops, lost its masts, was driven
by gales across the ocean, and broke in pieces just as it had
landed its famished passengers near St. Ives in England.
Most of the horses perished. Few of the transports ar-
rived at Tybee in Georgia, the place of rendezvous, before
the end of January. After the junction of the troops,
Clinton had ten thousand men under his command; and
yet he instantly ordered from New York Lord Rawdon's
brigade of eight regiments, or about three thousand more.
Charleston was an opulent town of fifteen thousand
inhabitants, free and slave, including a large population
of traders and others, strongly attached to England and
hating independence. The city, which was not deserted
by its private families, had no considerable store of pro-
visions. The paper money of the province was worth but
five per cent of its nominal value. The town, like the
country, was flat and low. On three sides it lay upon the
water ; and, for its complete investment, an enemy who
commanded the sea needed only to occupy the neck be-
tween the Cooper and the Ashley Rivers. It had neither
citadel, nor fort, nor ramparts, nor stone, nor materials for
building any thing more than field-works of loose sand,
kept together by boards and logs. The ground to be de-
fended within the limits of the city was very extensive ;

and Lincoln commanded less than two thousand
Peb. 3. effective men. On the third of February, 1780, the

general assembly of South Carolina intrusted the
executive of the state with power " to do all things neces-
sary to secure its liberty, safety, and happiness, except
taking away the life of a citizen without legal trial." But
the calls on the militia were little heeded ; the defeat before
Savannah had disheartened the people. The southern part

1780. THE SIEGE OF CHARLESTON. 265

of the state needed all its men for its own protection ; the
middle part was disaffected; the frontiers were menaced
by savage tribes. Yet, without taking counsel of his offi-
cers, Lincoln, reluctant to abandon public property which
he had not means to transport, yielded to the threats
and urgency of the inhabitants of Charleston, and re-
mained in their city, which no experienced engineer re-
garded as tenable.

On the twenty-sixth, the British forces from the 1730.
eastern side of St. John's Island gained a view of the Feb- 25>
town, its harbor, the sea, and carefully cultivated planta-
tions, which, after their fatigues, seemed to them a paradise.
The best defence of the harbor was the bar at its out-
let ; and already, on the twenty-seventh, the officers Feb. 27.
of the continental squadron, which carried a hundred
and fifty guns, reported their inability to guard it. " Then,"
in the opinion of Washington, " the attempt to defend the
town ought to have been relinquished." But Lincoln was
intent only on strengthening its fortifications. Setting the
example of labor, he was the first to go to work on them in
the morning, and would not return till late in the evening.
Of the guns of the squadron and its seamen, he formed and
manned batteries on shore ; and ships were sunk to close
the entrance to the Ashley River.

Clinton, trusting nothing to hazard, moved slowly along
a coast intersected by creeks and checkered with islands.
The delay brought greater disasters on the state. Lincoln
used the time to draw into Charleston all the resources of
the southern •department of which he could dispose. " Col-
lecting the whole force for the defence of Charleston,"
thought Washington, " is putting much to hazard ; " and
he dreaded the event. But he was too remote to be heard
in time.

The period of enlistment of the North Carolina militia
having expired, most of them returned home. On
the seventh of April, the remains of the Virginia line, April 7.
seven hundred veterans, entered Charleston, having
in twenty-eight days marched five hundred miles to certain
captivity.

266 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chaf.XUH.

1780. On the ninth, Arbuthnot, taking advantage of a
April 9. gentle east wind, brought his ships into the harbor,

without suffering from Fort Moultrie or returning
Apr. 10. its fire. The next day, the first parallel being com*

pleted, Clinton and Arbuthnot su/nmoned the town
to surrender. Lincoln answered : " From duty and inclina-
tion, I shall support the town to the last extremity."

On the thirteenth, the American officers insisted

that Governor Rutledge should withdraw from
Charleston, leaving Gadsden, the lieutenant-governor, with
five of the council. On the same morning, Lincoln for the
first time called a council of war, and, revealing to its mem-
bers his want of resources, suggested an evacuation. " We
should not lose an hour," said Mackintosh, " in attempting
to get the continental troops over the Cooper River ; for on
their safety depends the salvation of the state." But Lin-
coln only invited them to consider the measure maturely,
till the time when he should send for them again. Before
he met them again, the American cavalry, which kept up
some connection between die town and the country, had

been surprised and dispersed ; Cornwallis had arrived
Apr. 19. with nearly three thousand men from New York ;

and the British had occupied the peninsula fiom the

Cooper to the Wando ; so that an evacuation was no
Hay 6. longer possible. On the sixth of May, Fort Moultrie

surrendered without firing a gun. That field in-
trenchments supported a siege for six weeks was due to the
caution of the besiegers more than to the vigor of the de-
fence, which languished from an almost general disaffection
of the citizens.

On the twelfth, after the British had mounted can-
ay non in their third parallel, had crossed the wet ditch
and advanced within twenty-five yards of the American
works, ready to assault the town by land and water, Lin-
coln signed a capitulation. A proposal to allow the men of
South Carolina, who did not choose to reside under British
rule, twelve months to dispose of their property, was not
accepted. The continental troops and sailors became pris-
oners of war until exchanged ; the militia from the country

178a THE SIEGE OF CHARLESTON. 267

were to return home as prisoners of war on parole, and to
be secured in their property so long as their parole should
be observed. All free male adults in Charleston, including
the aged, the infirm, and even the loyalists, who *a few days
later offered their congratulations on the reduction of South
Carolina, were counted and paroled as prisoners. In this
vain-glorious way, Clinton could report over five thousand
prisoners.

Less property was wasted than in the preceding year,
but there was not less greediness for plunder. The value
of the spoil, which was distributed by English and Hessian
commissaries of captures, amounted to about three hundred
thousand pounds sterling ; the dividend of a major-general
exceeded four thousand guineas. There was no restraint on
private rapine ; the silver plate of the planters was carried
off; all negroes that had belonged to rebels were seized,
even though they had themselves sought an asylum within
the British lines; and at one embarkation two thousand
were shipped to a market in the West Indies. British
and German officers thought more of amassing fortunes
than of reuniting the empire. The patriots were not al-
lowed to appoint attorneys to manage or to sell their
estates. A sentence of confiscation hung over the whole
land, and British protection was granted only in return for
the unconditional promise of loyalty.

For six weeks all opposition ceased in South Carolina.
One expedition was sent by Clinton up the Savannah to
encourage the loyal and reduce the disaffected in the neigh-
borhood of Augusta ; another proceeded for the like purpose
to the district of Ninety-Six, where Williamson surrendered
his post and accepted British protection; Pickens was re-
duced to inactivity; alone of the leaders of the patriot
militia, Colonel James Williams escaped pursuit and pre-
served his freedom of action. A third and larger party
under Cornwallis moved across the Santee towards Camden.
The rear of the old Virginia line, commanded by Colonel Bu-
ford, arriving too late to re-enforce the garrison of Charles-
ton, had retreated towards the north-east of the 1780
state1. They were pursued, and on the twenty-ninth Ma* **■

268 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLIU

of May were overtaken by Tarleton with seven hundred
cavalry and mounted infantry. Buford did not surrender,
yet gave no order to engage. He himself, a few who
were mounted, and about a hundred of the infantry,
saved themselves by a precipitate flight. The rest, making
no resistance, sued for quarter. None was granted. A
hundred and thirteen were killed on the spot ; a hundred
and fifty were too badly hacked to be moved ; fifty-three
only could be brought into Camden as prisoners. The tid-
ings of this massacre carried through the southern forests
mingled horror and anger; but Tarleton received from
Cornwallis the highest encomiums.

The universal panic consequent on the capture of Charles-
ton had suspended all resistance to the British army. The
men of Beaufort, of Ninety-Six, and of Camden, had ca-
pitulated under the promise of security. They believed
that they were to be treated as neutrals or as prisoners on
parole. There remained to them no possibility of flight
with their families ; and, if they were inclined to take up
arms, there was no American army around which they
could rally.

The attempt was now made to crush the spirit of inde-
pendence in the heart of a people of courage and honor, to
drive every man of Carolina into active service in the Brit-
ish army, and to force the dwellers in the land of the sun,
which ripened passions as fierce as the clime, to become
the instruments of their own subjection.
1780. On the twenty-second of May, confiscation of
May 22. pr0perty and other punishments were denounced
against all who should thereafter oppose the king in arms,
or hinder any one from joining his forces. On the
June l. first of June, a proclamation by the commissioners,
Clinton and Arbuthnot, offered pardon to the peni-
tent, on their immediate return to allegiance ; to the loyal,
the promise of their former political immunities, including
freedom from taxation except by their own legislature.
This policy of moderation might have familiarized the Car-
olinians once more to the British government ; but the proc-
lamation was not communicated to Cornwallis: so that

1780. THE SIEGE OF CHARLESTON. 269

when, three weeks later, two leading men, one of whom had
been in a high station and both principally concerned in the
"rebellion," went to that officer to surrender themselves
under its provisions, he could only answer that he had no
knowledge of its existence.

On the third of June, Clinton, by a proclamation nso.
which he alone signed, cut up British authority in June8*
Carolina by the roots. He required all the inhabitants of
the province, even those outside of Charleston " who were
now prisoners on parole," to take an active part in securing
the royal government. u Should they neglect to return to
their allegiance," so ran the proclamation, "they will be
treated as rebels to the government of the king." He never
reflected that many who accepted protection from fear or
convenience did so in the expectation of living in a state of
neutrality, and that they might say : " If we must fight, let
us fight on the side of our friends, of our countrymen, of
America." On the eve of his departure for New York, he
reported to Germain : " The inhabitants from every quarter
declare their allegiance to the king, and offer their services
inarms. There are few men in South Carolina who are
not either our prisoners or in arms with us."

270 THE AMFBICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLIV

CHAPTER XLIV.

WAB IN THE SOUTH! CORNWALLIS AND GATES.

1780.

RiYALBY and dissension between Clinton and CornwalHs
already glowed under the ashes. The former had
1780. written home more of truth than was willingly lis-
tened to ; and, though he clung with tenacity to his
commission, he intimated conditionally a wish to be recalled.
Germain took him so far at his word as to give him leave
to transfer to Cornwallis, the new favorite, the chief com-
mand in North America.

All opposition in South Carolina was for the moment at
an end, when Cornwallis entered on his separate command.
He proposed to himself no less than to keep possession of
all that had been gained, and to advance as a conqueror at
least to the Chesapeake. Clinton had left with him more
than five thousand effective troops, besides more than a
thousand in Georgia ; to these were to be added the regi-
ments which he was determined to organize out of the
southern people.

As fast as the districts submitted, the new commander
enrolled all the inhabitants, and appointed field-officers with
civil as well as military power. The men of property above
forty were made responsible for order, but were not to he
called out except in case of insurrection or of actual inva-
sion; the younger men who composed the second class
were held liable to serve six months in each year. Some
hundreds of commissions were issued for the militia regi-
ments. Major Patrick Ferguson, known from his services
in New Jersey and greatly valued, was deputed to visit each
district in South Carolina, to procure on the spot lists of its
militia, and to see that the orders of Cornwallis were carried

1780. WAR IN THE SOUTH. 271

into execution. Any Carolinian thereafter taken in arms
might be sentenced to death for desertion and bearing arms
against his country. The proposals of those who offered to
raise provincial corps were accepted ; and men of the prov-
ince, void of honor and compassion, received commissions,
gathered about them profligate ruffians, and roamed through
Carolina, indulging in rapine, and ready to put patriots to
death as outlaws. Cornwallis himself never regarded a
deserter, or any whom a court-martial sentenced to death,
as subjects of mercy. A quartermaster of Tarleton's legion
entered the house of Samuel Wyly near Camden, and,
because he had served as a volunteer in the defence of
Charleston, cut him in pieces. The Presbyterians sup-
ported the cause of independence ; and indeed the Amer-
ican revolution was but the application of the principles of
the Reformation to civil government. One Huck, a captain
of British militia, fired the library and dwelling-house of
the clergyman at Williams's plantation in the upper part
of South Carolina, and burned every Bible into which the
Scottish translation of the psalms was bound. Under the
immediate eye of Cornwallis, the prisoners who had capitu
lated in Charleston were the subjects of perpetual persecu-
tion,, unless they would exchange their paroles for oaths of
allegiance ; and some of those who had been accustomed to
live in affluence from the produce of lands cultivated by
slaves had not fortitude enough to dare to be poor. Me-
chanics and shopkeepers could not collect their dues, except
after prpmises of loyalty.

Lord Rawdon, who had the very important command on
the Santee, raged equally against deserters from his Irish
legiment and against the inhabitants. To Rugely, at that
time a major of militia in the British service and an
aspirant for higher promotion, he on the first of July j^j i#
addressed the following order : " If any person shall
meet a soldier straggling, and shall not secure him or spread
an alarm for that purpose ; or if any person shall shelter or
guide or furnish assistance to soldiers straggling, the persons
bo offending may assure themselves of rigorous punishment,
either by whipping, imprisonment, or being sent to aerve

272 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLIV.

in the West Indies. I will give the inhabitants ten guineas
for the head of any deserter belonging to the volunteers of
Ireland, and five guineas only if they bring him in alive."

The chain of posts for holding South Carolina consisted
of Georgetown, Charleston, Beaufort, and Savannah on the
sea ; Augusta, Ninety-Six, and Camden in the interior. Of
these, Camden was the most important, for it was the key
between the north and south ; by a smaller post at Rocky
Mount, it kept up a communication with Ninety-Six.
1780. In the opinion of Clinton, six thousand men were re-

July quired to hold Carolina and Georgia ; yet, at the end
of June, Cornwallis reported that he had put an end to all
resistance in those states, and in September, after the har-
vest, would march into North Carolina to reduce that prov-
ince. But the violence of his measures roused the courage
of despair. On hearing of the acts of the British, Houston,
the delegate in congress from Georgia, wrote to Jay : " Our
misfortunes are, under God, the source of our safety. Our
captive soldiers will, as usual, be poisoned, starved, and
insulted, — will be scourged into the service of the enemy;
the citizens will suffer pillaging, violences, and conflagra-
tions ; a fruitful country will be desolated ; but the loss of
Charleston will promote the general cause. The enemy
have overrun a considerable part of the state in the hour of
its nakedness and debility ; but, as their measures seem as
usual to be dictated by infatuation, when they have wrought
up the spirit of the people to fury and desperation, they will
be expelled from the country."

Determined patriots of South Carolina took refuge in the
state on their north. Among them was Sumter, who in the
command of a continental regiment had shown courage and
ability. To punish his flight, a British detachment turned
his wife out of doors, and burned his house with every
thing which it contained. The exiles, banding themselves
together, chose him for their leader. For their use, the
smiths of the neighborhood wrought iron tools into rude
weapons ; bullets were cast of pewter, collected from house-
keepers. With scarcely three rounds of cartridges to a
man, they could obtain no more but from their foes ; and

1780. WAB IN THE SOUTH. 273

the arms of the dead and wounded in one engagement must
equip them for another.

On the rumor of an advancing American army, Rawdon
called on all the inhabitants round Camden to join him
in arms. One hundred and sixty who refused he shut up
during the heat of midsummer in one prison, though some
of them were protected by the capitulation of Charleston.
More than twenty were loaded with chains.

On the twelfth day of July, Captain Huck was sent rrao.
out with thirty-five dragoons, twenty mounted in- July12*
fantry, and sixty militia, on a patrol. His troops were
posted in a lane at the village of Cross Roads, near the
source of Fishing Creek ; and women were on their knees
to him, vainly begging mercy for their families and their
homes; when suddenly Sumter and his men, though infe-
rior in number, dashed into the lane at both ends, killed the
commander, and destroyed nearly all his party. This was
the first advantage gained over the royal forces since the
beginning of the year.

The order by which all the men of Carolina were enrolled
in the militia drove into the British service prisoners on pa-
role and all who had wished to remain neutral. One Lisle,
who thus suffered compulsion in the districts bordering on
the rivers Tyger and Enoree, waited till his battalion was
supplied with arms and ammunition, and then conducted it
to its old commander, who was with Sumter in the Catawba
settlement. •

Thus strengthened, Sumter, on the thirtieth of July 30.
July, made a spirited though unsuccessful attack on
Rocky Mount. Having repaired his losses, on the
sixth of August he surprised the British post at Aug. e.
Hanging Rock. A regiment of refugees from North
Carolina fled with precipitation ; their panic spread to the
provincial regiment of the Prince of Wales, which suffered
severely. In the beginning of the action, not one of the
Americans had more than ten bullets ; before its end, they
used the arms and ammunition of the fallen. Among the
partisans who were present in this fight was Andrew Jack-
son an orphan boy of Scotch-Irish descent, whom hatred

VOL. vi. 18

274 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLIV

of oppression and love of country drove to deeds beyond
his years. Sumter drew back to the Catawba settlement,
and from all parts of South Carolina patriots flocked to his
standard.

Thus far, the south rested on its own exertions. Relying
on the internal strength of New England and the central
states for their protection, Washington was willing to incur
hazard for the relief of the Carolinas ; and, with the ap-
proval of congress, from his army of less than ten and a
half thousand men, of whom twenty-eight hundred were to
be discharged in April, he detached General Kalb with the
Maryland division of nearly two thousand men and the

Delaware regiment. Marching orders for the south-
JJf£. ward were also given to the corps of Major Lee.

The movement of Kalb was slow for want of trans-
portation. At Petersburg in Virginia, he added to his
command a regiment of artillery with twelve cannon.

Of all the states, Virginia, of which Jefferson was then
the governor, lay most exposed to invasion from the sea,
and was in constant danger from the savages on the west ;

yet it was unmindful of its own perils. Its legisla-
May 9. ture met on the ninth of May. Within ten minutes

after the house was formed, Richard Henry Lee pro-
posed to raise and send twenty-five hundred men to serve
for three months in Carolina, and to be paid in tobacco,
which had a real value. Major Nelson with sixty horse,
and Colonel Armand with his corps, were already moving
to the south. The force assembled at Williamsburg for
the protection of the country on the James River consisted
of no more than three hundred men ; but they, too, were
sent to Carolina before the end of the month. North
Carolina made a requisition on Virginia for arms, and re-
ceived them. With a magnanimity which knew nothing
of fear, Virginia laid herself bare for the protection of the
Carolinas.

The news that Charleston had capitulated found Kalb
still in Virginia. In the regular European service, he had
proved himself an efficient officer ; but his mind was neither
rapid nor creative, and was unsuited to the exigencies

1780. WAR IN THE 8UUTH. 275

of a campaign in America. On the twentieth of 1780
June he entered North Carolina, and halted at Hills- Jane«>-
borough to repose his wayworn soldiers. He found no
magazines, nor did the governor of the state much heed his
requisitions or his remonstrances. Caswell, who was in
command of the militia, disregarded his orders from the
vanity of acting separately. "Officers of European ex-
perience alone," wrote Kalb on the seventh of July to his
wife, " do not know what it is to contend against difficulties
and vexations. My present condition makes me doubly
anxious to return to yon." Yet, under all privations, the
officers and men of his command vied with each other in
maintaining order and harmony. In his camp at Buffalo
Ford on Deep River, while he was still doubting how to
direct his march, he received news of measures adopted by
congress for the southern campaign.

Washington wished Greene to succeed Lincoln ; congress,
not asking his advice, and not ignorant of his opinion,
on the thirteenth of June unanimously appointed June is.
Gates to the command of the southern army, and
constituted him independent of the commander in chief.
He received his orders from congress and was to make his
reports directly to that body, which bestowed on him un-
usual powers and all its confidence. He might address
himself directly to Virginia and the states beyond it for
supplies; of himself alone appoint all staff-officers; and
take such measures as he should think most proper for the
defence of the south.

From his plantation in Virginia, Gates made his ac-
knowledgment to congress without elation ; to Lincoln ho
wrote in modest and affectionate language. His first im-
portant act was the request to congress for the appointment
of Morgan as a brigadier-general in the continental service,
and in this he was supported by Jefferson and Rutledge.
He enjoined on the corps of White and Washington, and
on all remnants of continental troops in Virginia, to repair
to the southern army with all possible diligence.

Upon information received at Hillsborough from Huger,
of South Carolina, Gates formed his plan to march directly

276 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XUV

to Camden, confident of its easy capture and the consequent
recovery of the country. To Kalb he wrote: "Enough
has already been lost in a vain defence of Charleston ; if
more is sacrificed, the southern states are undone ; and this
may go nearly to undo the rest."

Arriving in the camp of Kalb, he was confirmed in his
purpose by Thomas Pinckney, who was his aid, and by
Marion. It was the opinion of Kalb that the enemy would
not make a stand at Camden. His first words ordered
the troops to be prepared to march at a moment's warning.
The safest route, recommended by a memorial of the prin-
cipal officers, was by way of Salisbury and Charlotte, through
a most fertile, salubrious, and well-cultivated country, in-
habited by Presbyterians who were heartily attached to
the cause of independence, and among whom a post for de-
fence might have been established in case of disaster. But
Gates was impatient ; and, having detached Marion towards
the interior of South Carolina to watch the motions of the

enemy and furnish intelligence, he, on the morning
Jn?y27. °* *ne twenty-seventh of July, put what he called the

"grand army" on its march by the shortest route to
Camden, through a barren country which could offer no food
but lean cattle, fruit, and unripe maize.

On the third of August, the army crossed the

Pedee River, making a junction on its southern bank
with Lieutenant-colonel Porterfield of Virginia, an excel-
lent officer, who had been sent to the relief of Charleston,
and had kept his small command on the frontier of South
Carolina, having found means to subsist them and to main-
tain the appearance of holding that part of the country.

The force of which Gates could dispose was greater than
that which could be brought against him; it revived the
hopes of the South Carolinians, who were writhing under, the
insolence of an army in which every soldier was a licensed
plunderer, and every officer a functionary with power to
outlaw peaceful citizens at will. The British commander
on the Pedee called in his detachments, abandoned his post
on the Cheraw Hill, and repaired to Lord Rawdon at Cam-
den. An escort of Carolinians, who had been forced to

178a WAR IN THE SOUTH.

277

take up arms on the British side, rose against their officers,
and made prisoners of a hundred and six British invalids
who were descending the Pedee River. A large boat from
Georgetown, laden with stores for the British at Cheraw,
was seized by Americans. A general revolt in the pub-
lic mind against British authority invited Gates onwards.
To the encouragements of others, the general added his
own illusions; he was confident that Cornwallis, with de-
tached troops from his main body, was gone to Savannah,
and from his camp on the Pedee he announced on
the fourth, by a proclamation, that their late trium- AJJ°4.
phant and insulting foes had retreated with precipi-
tation and dismay on the approach of his numerous, well-
appointed, and formidable army ; forgiveness was promised
to those who had been forced to profess allegiance, and
pardon was withheld only from those apostate sons of
America who should hereafter support the enemy.

On the seventh, at the Cross Roads, the troops Aug. t.
with Gates made a junction with the North Carolina
militia under Caswell, and proceeded towards the enemy
at Lynch's Creek.

In the following night, that post was abandoned; and
Lord Rawdon occupied another on the southern bank of
Little Lynch's Creek, unassailable from the deep, muddy
channel of the river, and within a day's march of Camden.
Here he was joined by Tarleton with a small detachment
of cavalry, who on their way had mercilessly ravaged the
country on the Black River as a punishment to its patriot
inhabitants, and as a terror to the dwellers on the Wateree
and Santee. By a forced march up the stream, Gates could
have turned Lord Rawdon's flank, and made an easy
conquest of Camden. Missing his only opportunity, Aug. u.
on the eleventh, after a useless halt of two days, he
defiled by the right, and, marching to the north of
Camden, on the thirteenth encamped at Clermont, Aug. 13.
which the British had just abandoned. The time thus
allowed, Rawdon used to strengthen himself by four com-
panies from Ninety-Six, as well as by the troops from Cler-
mont, and to throw up redoubts at Camden.

278 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLIV

K80 On the evening of the tenth, Cornwallis left Charles-
Aug. 10. ton, and arrived at Camden before the dawn of the
Aug. H. fourteenth. At ten o'clock on the night of the
Aug. is. fifteenth, he set his troops in motion, in the hope of

joining battle with the Americans at the break of day.
On the fourteenth, Gates had been joined by seven
' hundred Virginia militia under the command of Ste-
vens. On the same day, Sumter, appearing in camp with
four hundred men, asked for as many more to intercept a
convoy with its stores on the road from Charleston to
Camden. Gates, who believed himself at the head of
seven thousand men, granted his request. Sumter left the
camp, taking with him eight hundred men, and on the
next morning captured the wagons and their escort.

An exact field return proved to Gates that he had but
three thousand and fifty-two rank and file present and fit

for duty. "These are enough," said he, "for our
Aug. is. purpose ; " and on the fifteenth he communicated to

a council of officers an order to begin their march at
ten o'clock in the evening of that day. He was listened
to in silence. Many wondered at a night march of an
army of which more than two thirds were militia, that had
never even been paraded together; but Gates, who had
the " most sanguine confidence of victory and the disper-
sion of the enemy," appointed no place for rendezvous,
and began his march before his baggage was sufficiently
in the rear.

At half-past two on the morning of the sixteenth,

about nine miles from Camden, the advance-guard
of Cornwallis fell in with the advance-guard of the Amer-
icans. To the latter, the collision was a surprise. Their
cavalry was in front, but Armand, its commander, who
disliked his orders, was insubordinate; the horsemen in
his command turned suddenly and fled; and neither he
nor they did any service that night or the next day. The
retreat of Armand's legion produced confusion in the first
Maryland brigade, and spread consternation throughout
the army, till the light infantry on the right, under the com-
mand of Colonel Porterfield, threw back the party that

1780. WAR IN THE SOUTH, 279

made the attack and restored order ; but at a great price,
for Porterfield received a wound which proved mortal.

To a council of the American general officers, held mo.
immediately in the rear of the lines, Gates commu- Aug' 16,
nicated the report of a prisoner, that a large regular force
of British troops under Cornwallis was five or six hundred
yards in their front, and submitted the question whether it
would be proper to retreat. Stevens declared himself eager
for battle, saying that " the information was but a stratagem
of Bawdon to escape the attack." No other advice being
offered, Gates desired them to form in line of battle.

The position of Lord Cornwallis was most favorable. A
swamp on each side secured his flanks against the superior
numbers of the Americans. At daybreak, his last disposi-
tions were made. The front line, to which were attached
two six-pounders and two three-pounders, was commanded
on the right by Lieutenant-colonel Webster, on the left by
Lord Rawdon ; a battalion with a six-pounder was posted
behind each wing as a reserve; the cavalry were in the
rear, ready to charge or to pursue.

On the American side, the second Maryland brigade, of
which Gist was brigadier, and the men of Delaware, occu-*
pied the right under Ealb; the North Carolina division
with Caswell, the centre ; and Stevens with the newly ar-
rived Virginia militia, the left : the best troops on the side
strongest by nature, the worst on the weakest. The first
Maryland brigade, at the head of which Small wood should
have appeared, formed a second line about two hundred
yards in the«rear of the first. The artillery was divided
between the two brigades.

Gates took his place in the rear of the second line. He
gave no order till Otho Williams proposed to him to begin
the attack with the brigade of Stevens, his worst troops,
who had been with the army only one day. Stevens gave
the word; and, as they prepared to move forward, Corn-
wallis ordered Webster, whose division contained his best
troops, to assail them, while Rawdon was to engage the
American right. As the British with Webster rushed on,
firing and shouting huzza, Stevens reminded his militia that

280 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLIV

they had bayonets ; but they had received them only the
day before, and knew not how to use them ; so, dropping
their muskets, they escaped to the woods with such speed
that not more than three of them were killed or wounded.

Caswell and the militia of North Carolina, except the few
who had Gregory for their brigadier, followed the example ;
so that nearly two thirds of the army fled without firing a shot*
Gates writes of them, as an eye* witness : " The British
Aug. cavalry continuing to harass their rear, they ran like
a torrent and bore all before them ; " that is to say,
the general himself was borne with them. They took to
the woods and dispersed in every direction, while Gates dis-
appeared entirely from the scene, taking no thought for the
continental troops whom he left at their posts in the field,
and flying, or, as he called it, retiring, as fast as possible to
Charlotte.

The militia having been routed, Webster came round the
flank of the first Maryland brigade, and attacked them in
front and on their side. Though Smallwood was nowhere
to be found, they were sustained by the reserve, till the
brigade was outflanked by greatly superior numbers, and
obliged to give ground. After being twice rallied, they
finally retreated. The division which Kalb commanded
continued long in action, and never did troops show greater
courage than these men of Maryland and Delaware. The
horse of Kalb had been killed under him, and he had been
badly wounded ; yet he continued the fight on foot. At last,
in the hope that victory was on his side, he led a charge,
drove the division under Rawdon, took fifty prisoners, and
would not believe that he was not about to gain the day,
when Cornwallis poured against him a party of dragoons
and infantry. Even then he did not yield, until disabled
by many wounds.

The victory cost the British about five hundred of their
best troops ; " their great loss," wrote Marion, " is equal to
a defeat." How many Americans perished on the field or
surrendered is not accurately known. They saved none of
their artillery and little of their baggage. Except one
hundred continental soldiers whom Gist conducted across

1780. WAR IN THE SOUTH. 281

the swamps, through which the cavalry could not follow,
every corps was dispersed. The canes and underwood that
hid them from their pursuers separated them from one
another.

Ealb lingered for three days ; but, before he closed his
eyes, he bore an affectionate testimony to the exemplary
conduct of the division which he had commanded, and of
which two fifths had fallen in battle. Opulent, and happy
in his wife and children, he gave to the United States his
life and his example. Congress voted him a monument.
The British parliament voted thanks to Cornwallis.

Grates and Caswell, who took to flight with the militia,
gave up all for lost ; and, leaving the army without orders,
rode in all haste to Clermont, which they reached ahead of
all the fugitives, and then pressed on and still on, until, late
in the night, the two generals escorted each other into
Charlotte. The next morning, Gates, who was a petty in-
triguer, not a soldier, left Caswell to rally such troops as
might come in; and himself sped to Hillsborough, where
the North Carolina legislature was soon to meet, riding
altogether more than two hundred miles in three days and
a half, and running away from his army so fast and so far
that he knew nothing about its condition. Caswell, after
spending one day at Charlotte, disobeyed the order of his
chief and followed his example.

On the nineteenth, American officers, coming into itoo.
Charlotte, placed their hopes of a happier turn of Aug 19*
events on Sumter, who commanded the largest American
force that now remained in the Carolinas.

That detachment had, on the fifteenth, captured Aug. la.
more than forty British wagons laden with stores,
and secured more than a hundred prisoners. On Aug. 16.
hearing of the misfortunes of the army of Gates,
Sumter retreated slowly and carelessly up the Wa-
teree. On the seventeenth, he remained through Aug. n.
the whole night at Rocky Mount, though he knew
that the British were on the opposite side of the river,
and in possession of boats and the ford. On the
eighteenth, he advanced only eight miles ; and on Aug. is.

282 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLIV.

the north bank of Fishing Creek, at bright mid-day his
troops stacked their arms; some took repose; some went
to the river to bathe ; some strolled in search of supplies ;
and Sumter himself fell fast asleep in the shade of a
wagon. In this state, a party under Tarleton cut them off
from their arms and put them to rout, taking two or three

hundred of them captive, and recovering the British
Ang?20. prisoners and wagons. On the twentieth, Sumter

rode into Charlotte alone, without hat or saddle.

WO. HEN OF THE SOUTH AND WEST. 283

CHAPTER XLV.

0OBNWALLI8 AND THE MEN OF THE SOUTH AND WEST.

1780,

Fbom the moment of his victory near Camden, Cornwallis
became the principal figure in the British service in
America, — the pride and delight of Germain, the nso.
desired commander in chief, the one man on whom
rested the hopes of the ministry for the successful termina-
tion of the war. His friends disparaged the ability of Sir
Henry Clinton, accused him of hating his younger and more
enterprising compeer, and censured him for leaving at the
south forces disproportioned to the service for which they
were required.

We are come to the series of events which closed the
American contest and restored peace to the world. In
Europe, the sovereigns of Prussia, of Austria, of Russia,
were offering their mediation ; the united Netherlands were
struggling to preserve their neutrality ; France was strain-
ing every nerve to cope with her rival in the four quarters
of the globe ; Spain was exhausting her resources for the
conquest of Gibraltar; but the incidents which overthrew
the ministry of North, and reconciled Great Britain to
America, had their springs in South Carolina.

Cornwallis, elated with success and hope, prepared for
the northward march, which was to conduct him from
victory to victory, till he should restore all America south
of Delaware to its allegiance. He was made to believe that
North Carolina would rise to welcome him; and, in the
train of his flatterers, he carried Martin, its former gov-
ernor, who was to re-enter on his office. He requested
Clinton to detach three thousand men to establish a post on

284 iHB AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XXV.

the Chesapeake Bay; and Clinton knew too well the wishes
of the British government to venture to refuse.

In carrying out his plan, the first measure of Cornwallis
was a reign of terror. Professing to regard South Carolina
as restored to the dominion of George III., he accepted the
suggestions of Martin and Tarleton, and the like, that sever-
ity was the true mode to hold the recovered province. He
therefore addressed the most stringent orders to the com-
mandants at Ninety-Six and other posts, to imprison all who
would not take up arms for the king, and to seize or destroy
their whole property. He most positively enjoined that
every militia-man who had borne arms with the British and
had afterwards joined the Americans should be hanged
immediately. He set up the gallows at Camden for the
indiscriminate execution of those among his prisoners who
had formerly given their parole, even when it had been
kept till it was cancelled by the proclamation of Clinton.
To bring these men to the gibbet was an act of military
murder.

The destruction of property and life assumed still more
hideous forms, when the peremptory orders and example of
Cornwallis were followed by subordinates in remote districts
away from supervision. Cruel measures seek and are sure
to find cruel executive agents ; officers whose delight was in
blood patrolled the country, burned houses, ravaged estates,
and put to death whom they would. The wives and daugh-
ters of the opulent were left with no fit clothing, no shelter
but a hovel too mean to attract the destroyer. Of a sudden,
the woodman in his cabin would find his house surrounded,
and he himself or his guest might be shot, because he was
not in arms for the king. There was no question of proofs
and no trial. For two years, cold-blooded assassinations,
often in the house of the victim and in the presence of his
wife and little children, were perpetrated by men holding
the king's commission ; and they obtained not indem-
1780. nity merely, but rewards for their zeal. The enemy
were determined to break every man's spirit, or to
ruin him. No engagement by proclamation or by capitula-
tion was respected.

1780. MEN OF THE SOUTH AND WEST. 285

The ruthless administration of Cornwallis met the hearty
and repeated applause of Lord George Germain, who de-
clared himself convinced that "to punish rebellion would
have the best consequences." As to the rebels, his orders
to Clinton and Cornwallis were : " No good faith or justice
is to be expected from them, and we ought in all our trans-
actions with them to act upon that supposition." In this
manner, the minister released his generals from their pledges
to those on whom they made war.

In violation of agreements, the continental soldiers who
capitulated at Charleston, nineteen hundred in number,
were transferred from buildings in the town to prison-ships,
where they were joined by several hundred prisoners from
Camden. In thirteen months, one third of the whole num-
bar perished by malignant fevers ; others were impressed
into the British service as mariners ; several hundred young
men were taken by violence on board transports, and
forced to serve in a British regiment in Jamaica, leav- 1780
ing wives and young children to want. Of more than
three thousand confined in prison-ships, all but about seven
hundred were made away with.

On the capitulation of Charleston, eminent patriots re-
mained prisoners on parole. Foremost among these stood
the aged Christopher Gadsden, whose unselfish love of
country was a constant encouragement to his countrymen
never to yield. Their silent example restrained the timid
from exchanging their paroles for the protection of British
subjects. To overcome this influence, eleven days after the
victory at Camden, he, and thirty-six of his most resolute
associates, in flagrant disregard of the conditions on which
they had surrendered, were early in the morning taken from
their houses and beds and transported to St. Augustine*
Gadsden and others, refusing to give a new parole, were
immured in the castle of St. Mark. After some weeks, a
like cargo was shipped to the same place.

The system of slaveholding kept away from defensive
service not only more than half the population, whom the
planters would not suffer to be armed, but the numerous
whites, needed to watch the black men, if they were to be

286 THE AMERICAN RE VOLTJTION. Chap. XI*V.

kept in bondage while war was raging. Moreover, the
moral force of their owners was apt to become enervated.
Men deriving their livelihood from the labor of slaves ceased
to respect labor, and shunned it as a disgrace. Some had
not the courage to face the idea of poverty for themselves,
still less for their wives and children. Many fainted at the
hard option between submission and ruin. Charles Pinck-
ney, lately president of the South Carolina senate, classing
himself among those who from the hurry and confusion of
the times had been misled, desired to show every mark of
allegiance. Rawlins Lowndes, who but a few months before
had been president of the state of South Carolina, excused
himself for having reluctantly given way to necessity, and
accepted any test that might be required to prove that,
with the unrestrained dictates of his own mind, he now
attached himself to the royal government. Henry Middle-
ton, president of the first American congress, though .still
" partial to a cause for which he had been so long engaged,"
promised to do nothing to keep up the spirit of indepen-
dence, and to demean himself as a faithful subject.

But the people of South Carolina were never conquered.
From the moment of the fall of Charleston, Colonel James
Williams, of the district of Ninety-Six, did not rest in
gathering the armed friends of the union. From the region
above Camden, Sumter and his band hovered over all Brit-
ish movements. " Sumter certainly has been our greatest
plague in this country," writes Cornwallis.

In the swamps between the Pedee and the Santee, Marion
and his men kept watch. Of a delicate organization, sensi-
tive to truth and honor and right, humane, averse to blood-
shed, never wreaking vengeance nor suffering those around
him to do so, scrupulously respecting private property, he
had the love and confidence of all people in that part of
the country. Tarleton's legion had laid it waste to inspire
terror ; and volunteer partisans gathered round Marion to
redeem their land.

A body of three hundred royalist militia and two hundred

1780. regular troops had established a post at Musgrove's

Aug. 18. Mills on the Enoree River. On the eighteenth of

1780. MEN OF THE SOUTH AND WEST. 287

August, they were attacked by inferior numbers un- 1780
der Williams of Ninety-Six, and routed, with sixty Al,s- 18«
killed and more than that number wounded. Williams lost
but eleven.

At dawn of the twentieth, a party, convoying a Aug. 20.
hundred and fifty prisoners of the Maryland line,
were crossing the great savanna near Nelson's ferry over
the Santee, upon the route from Camden to Charleston,
when Marion and his men sprang upon the guard, liberated
the prisoners, and captured twenty-six of the escort.

" Colonel Marion," wrote Cornwallis, " so wrought on the
minds of the people that there was scarcely an inhabitant
between the Pedee and the Santee that was not in arms
against us. Some parties even crossed the Santee and car-
ried terror to the gates of Charleston." Balfour, the com-
mandant of Charleston, wrote home : " In vain we expected
loyalty and attachment from the inhabitants ; they are the
same stuff as compose all Americans." The British histo-
rian of the war, who was then in South Carolina, relates
that "almost the whole country seemed upon the eve of
a revolt."

In the second week of September, when the heats Sept.
of summer had abated, the earlier cereal grains had
been harvested, and the maize was nearly ripe, Cornwallis
began his projected march. He relied on the loyalists of
North Carolina to recruit his army. On his left, Major
Patrick Ferguson, the ablest British partisan, was sent with
two hundred of the best troops to the uplands of South
Carolina, where he enlisted young men of that country, loy-
alists who had fled to the mountains for security, and fugi-
tives of the worst character who sought his standard for
safety and the chances of plundering with impunity.

The Cherokees had been encouraged during the summer
to join insurgent loyalists in ravaging the American settle-
ments west of the mountains as far as Chiswell's lead mines.
Against this danger, Jefferson organized, in the south-
western counties of the state of which he was the governor,
a regiment of four hundred backwoodsmen under the com-
mand of Colonel William Campbell, brother-in-law of Pat*

288 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLV

rick Henry; and in an interview with William Preston,
the lieutenant of Washington county, as the south-west of
Virginia was then called, he dwelt on the resources of the
country, the spirit of congress, and the character of the
people ; and for himself and for his state would admit no
doubt that, in spite of all disasters, a continued vigorous
resistance would bring the war to a happy issue.

At Waxhaw, Cornwallis halted for a few days, and, that
he might eradicate the spirit of patriotism from South Caro-
lina before he passed beyond its borders, he, on the
8ept°i6. sixteenth day of September, sequestered by procla-
mation all estates belonging to the friends of Amer-
ica, and appointed a commissioner for the seizure of such
estates both real and personal. The concealment, removal,
or injury of property doomed to confiscation, was punisha-
ble as an abetting of rebellion. The sequestration extended
to debts due to the person whose possessions were confis-
cated ; and, to prevent collusive practices, a great reward
was offered to those who should make discovery of the
concealment of negroes, horses, cattle, plate, household fur-
niture, books, bonds, deeds, and other property. To patri-
ots, no alternative was left but to fight against their country
and their consciences, or to encounter exile and poverty.

The custom of military executions of Carolinians taken in
arms was vigorously maintained, and the chiefs of the Cher-
okees were at that very time on their way to Augusta to
receive the presents which were to stimulate their activity.
Aware of their coming, Clark, a fugitive from Georgia,
forced his way back with one hundred riflemen ; having
joined to them a body of woodsmen, he defeated the British
garrison under Colonel Brown at Augusta, and captured
the costly presents designed for the Cherokees. The mo-
ment was critical ; for Cornwallis, in his eagerness to draw
strength to his own army, had not left a post or a soldier
between Augusta and Savannah, and the alienated people
had returned most reluctantly to a state of obedience.
With a corps of one hundred provincials and one hundred
Cherokees, Brown maintained a position on Garden Hill
for nearly a week, when he was rescued by Cruger from

1780. MEN OF THE SOUTH AND WEST. 289

Ninety-Six. At his approach, the Americans retired. On
the pursuit, some of them were scalped and some taken pris-
oners. Of the latter, Captain Ashby and twelve others
were hanged under the eyes of Brown ; thirteen gjp£
who were delivered to the Cherokees were killed by
tortures, or by the tomahawk, or were thrown into fires.
Thirty in all were put to death by the orders of Brown.

Cruger desired to waylay and capture the retreating
party, and Ferguson eagerly accepted his invitation to join
in the enterprise. Cruger moved with circumspection, tak-
ing care not to be led too far from the fortress of Ninety-
Six; Ferguson was more adventurous, having always the
army of Cornwallis on his right. Near the Broad River,
his party encountered Macdowell with one hundred and
sixty militia from Burk and Rutherford counties in North
Carolina, pursued them to the foot of the mountains, and
left them no chance of safety but by fleeing beyond the
Alleghanies.

During these events, Cornwallis encountered no serious
impediment till he approached Charlotte. There his van
was driven back by the fire of a small body of mounted
men, commanded by Colonel William Richardson Davie of
North Carolina. The general rode up in person, and the
American party was dislodged by Webster's brigade ; but
not till the mounted Americans, scarcely forty in number,
had for several minutes kept the British army at bay.

From Charlotte, Cornwallis pursued his course towards
Salisbury. Meantime, the fugitives under Macdowell re-
counted the sorrows of their families to the emigrant free-
men on the Watauga, among whom slavery was scarcely
known. The backwoodsmen, though remote from the
world, love their fellow-men. In the pure air and life of
the mountain and the forest, they join serenity with courage.
They felt for those who had fled to them ; with one heart,
they resolved to restore the suppliants to their homes, and
for that purpose formed themselves into regiments under
Isaac Shelby and John Sevier. Shelby despatched a mes-
senger to William Campbell on the forks of Holston ; and
the field-officers of South-western Virginia unanimously
vol. vi. 19

290 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLV.

resolved that he, with four hundred men, should join in the
expedition. An express was sent to Colonel Cleaveland of
North Carolina ; and all were to meet at Burk county court-
house, on the waters of the Catawba. The three regiments
from the west of the Alleghanies under Campbell, Shelby,

and Sevier, and the North Carolina fugitives under
BepTw. Macdowell, assembled on the twenty-fifth of Septem-
Sept. 26. ber at Watauga. On the next day, each man mounted

on his own horse, armed with his own rifle, and carry-
ing his own store of provisions, they began the ride over
the mountains, where the passes through the Alleghanies
are the highest. Not even a bridle-path led through the
forest, nor was there a house for forty miles between the
Watauga and the Catawba. The men left their families in
secluded valleys, distant one from the other, exposed not

only to parties of royalists, but of Indians. In the
Sept. so. evening of the thirtieth, they formed a junction with

the regiment of Colonel Benjamin Cleaveland, con-
sisting of three hundred and fifty men from the North

Carolina counties of Wilkes and Surry. The next
Oct. l. day, Macdowell was despatched to request Gates to

send them a general officer ; " till he should arrive,
Campbell was chosen to act as commandant."

Ferguson, who had pursued the party of Macdowell to
the foot of the Alleghanies, and had spread the terror of
invasion beyond them, moved eastwardly towards Cornwal-
lis by a road from Buffalo ford td King's Mountain, which
offered ground for a strong encampment. Of the parties
against him, he thus wrote to Cornwallis: "They are be-
come an object of consequence. I should hope for success
against them myself ; but, numbers compared, that must be
doubtful. Three or four hundred good soldiers, part dra-
goons, would finish the business. Something must be done
soon. This is their last push in this quarter."

On receiving this letter, Cornwallis ordered Tarleton to
march with the light infantry, the British legion, and a
three-pounder to his assistance.

At that time, Colonel James Williams was about seventy
miles from Salisbury, in the forks of the Catawba, with

1780. MEN OF THE SOUTH AND WEST. 291

nearly four hundred and fifty horsemen, in pursuit of Fer-
guson. Wise and vigilant, he kept out scouts on
every side; and, on the second of Octoher, one of oouL
them " rejoiced his heart," by bringing him the news
that one half of the whole population beyond the mountains
were drawing near.

Following a path between King's Mountain and the main
ridge of the Alleghanies, "the western army," so they
called themselves, under Campbell, already more than thir-
teen hundred strong, marched to the Cowpens on
Broad River, where, on the evening of the sixth, they Oct. o
were joined by Williams with four hundred men.
From Williams, they learned. nearly where Ferguson's party
was encamped ; and a council of the principal officers de-
cided to go that very night to strike them by surprise. For
this end, they picked out nine hundred of their best horse-
men ; at eight o'clock on that same evening, they began their
march. Riding all night, with the moon two days
past its first quarter, on the afternoon of the seventh Oct. 7.
they were at the foot of King's Mountain.

The little brook that ripples through the narrow valley
flows in an easterly direction. The mountain, which rises
a mile and a half south of the line of North Carolina, is
the termination of a ridge that branches from the north-west
to the south-east from a spur of the Alleghanies. The
British, in number eleven hundred and twenty-five, of whom
one hundred and twenty-five were regulars, were posted on
its summit, " confident that they could not be forced from
so advantageous a post," to which the approach was precipi-
tously steep, the slaty rock cropping out in craggy cliffs
and forming natural breastworks along its sides and on its
heights.

The Americans dismounted, and, though inferior in num-
bers, formed themselves into four columns. A part of
Qeaveland's regiment, headed by Major Winston, and
Colonel Sevier's regiment, formed a large column on the
right wing. The other part of Qeaveland's regiment,
headed by Cleaveland himself, and the regiment of Wil-
liams, composed the left wing. The post of extreme danger

292 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLV.

was assigned to the column formed by Campbell's regiment
on* the right centre, and Shelby's regiment on the left
centre ; so that Sevier's right nearly adjoined Shelby's left.
The right and left wings were to pass the position of Fer-
guson, and from opposite sides climb the ridge in his rear ;
while the two central columns were to attack in front. In
this order, " the western army " advanced to within a quarter
of a mile of the enemy before they were discovered.

The two centre columns, headed by Campbell and Shelby,
climbing the mountain, began the attack. Shelby, a man
of the hardiest make, stiff as iron, among the dauntless
singled out for dauntlessness, went right onward and upward
like a man who had but one thing to do, and but one
thought, — to do it. The British regulars with fixed bayo-
nets charged Campbell ; and his riflemen, who had no bayo-
nets, were obliged to give way for a short distance ;
0&; but " they were soon rallied by their gallant com-
mander and some of his active officers," and " re-
turned to the attack with additional ardor."

The two centre columns, with no aid but from a part of
Sevier's regiment, kept up a furious and bloody battle with
the British for ten minutes, when the right and left wings
of the Americans, advancing upon their flank and rear,
" the fire became general all around," For fifty-five minutes
longer the fire on both sides was heavy and almost incessant.
The regulars with bayonets could only make a momentary
impression. At last, the right wing gained the summit of
the eminence, and the position of the British was no longer
tenable. Ferguson having been killed, the enemy attempted
to retreat along the top of the ridge ; but, finding themselves
held in check by the brave men of Williams and Cleave-
land, Captain Depeyster, the commanding officer of the
British, hoisted a flag. The firing immediately ceased ; the
enemy laid down their arms and surrendered themselves
prisoners at discretion.

The loss of the British on that day was at least eleven
hundred and four. Four hundred and fifty-six of them
were either killed, or too severely wounded to leave the
ground ; the number of prisoners was six hundred and forty-

1780. MEN OF THE SOUTH AND WEST. 293

eight. On the American side, the regiment of Campbell
suffered more than any other in the action ; the total loss
was twenty-eight killed and sixty wounded. Among those
who fell was Colonel James Williams of Ninety-Six, a man
of an exalted character, of a career brief but glorious. An
ungenerous enemy revenged themselves for his virtues by
nearly extirpating his family ; they could not take away his
right to be remembered by his country with honor and
affection to the latest time.

Among the captives there were house-burners and assas-
sins. Private soldiers — who had witnessed the sorrows
of children and women, robbed and wronged, shelterless,
stripped of all clothes but those they wore, nestling about
fires kindled on the ground, and mourning for their fathers
and husbands — executed nine or ten in retaliation for the
frequent and barbarous use of the gallows at Cam-
den, Ninety-Six, and Augusta ; but Campbell at once J^*
intervened, and in general orders, by threatening the
delinquents with certain and effectual punishment, secured
protection to the prisoners.

Just below the forks of the Catawba, the tidings of the
defeat reached Tarleton; his party in all haste rejoined
Cornwallis. The victory at King's Mountain, which in the
spirit of the American soldiers was like the rising at Con-
cord, in its effects like the successes at Bennington, changed
the aspect of the war. The loyalists of North Carolina no
longer dared rise. It fired the patriots of the two Caro-
linas with fresh zeal. It encouraged the fragments of the
defeated and scattered American army to seek each other
and organize themselves anew. It quickened the North
Carolina legislature to earnest efforts. It encouraged Vir-
ginia to devote her resources to the country south of her
border. The appearance on the frontiers of a numerous
enemy from settlements beyond the mountains, whose very
names had been unknown to the British, took Cornwallis
by surprise, and their success was fatal to his intended expe-
dition. He had hoped to step with ease from one Carolina
to the other, and from these to the conquest of Virginia ;
and he had now no choice but to retreat.

294 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLV.

1780 On the evening of the fourteenth, his troops began
°cL 14» their march back from Charlotte to the Catawba
ford. The men of Mecklenburg and Rowan counties had
disputed his advance ; they now harassed his foraging par-
ties, intercepted his despatches, and cut off his communi-
cations. Soldiers of the militia hung on his rear. Twenty
wagons were captured, laden with stores and the knapsacks
of the light infantry legion. Single men would ride within
gunshot of the retreating army, discharge their rifles, and
escape.

The Catawba ford was crossed with difficulty on account
of a great fall of rain. For two days, the royal forces
remained in the Catawba settlement, Cornwallis suffering
from fever, the army from want of forage and provisions.
The command on the retreat fell to Rawdon. The soldiers
had no tents. For several days, it rained incessantly.
Waters and deep mud choked the roads. At night, the
army bivouacked in the woods in unwholesome air. Some-
times, it was without meat ; at others, without bread. For
five days it lived upon Indian corn gathered from the fields,
five ears being the day's allowance for two soldiers. But
for the personal exertions of the militia, most of whom were
mounted, the army would not have been supported in the
field; and yet, in return for their exertions, they were
treated with derision and even beaten by insolent British
officers. After a march of fifteen days, the army encamped
at Winnsborough, an intermediate station between Camden
and Ninety-Six.

All the while Marion had been on the alert. Two
hundred tories had been sent in September to sur-
prise him ; and with but fifty-three men he first surprised a
part of his pursuers, and then drove the main body to flight.

At Black Mingo, on the twenty-eighth, he made a
successful attack on a guard of sixty militia, and took
prisoners those who were under its escort. The British
were burning houses on Little Pedee, and he permitted his
men of that district to return to protect their wives and
families; but he would not suffer retaliation, and wrote
with truth : " There is not one house burned by my orders

1780. MEN OF THE SOUTH AND WEST. 295

or by any of my people. It is what I detest, to distress
poor women and children."

" I most sincerely hope you will get at Mr. Marion,"
wrote Cornwallis on the fifth of November, as he de- nqv?*5.
spatched Tarleton in pursuit of him. This officer
and his corps set fire to all the houses, and destroyed all the
corn from Camden down to Nelson's ferry ; beat the widow
of a general officer because she could not tell where Marion
was encamped, burned her dwelling, laid waste every thing
about it, and did not leave her a change of raiment. The
line of his march could be traced by groups of houseless
women and children, once of ample fortune, sitting round
fires in the open air.

As for Marion, after having kept his movements secret,
and varied his encampment every night, his numbers in-
creased ; then selecting a strong post " within the dark mo-
rass," he defied an attack. But just at that moment new
dangers impended from another quarter. .

Sumter had rallied the patriots in the country above
Camden, and in frequent skirmishes kept the field. Mount-
ing his partisans, he intercepted British supplies of all sorts,
and sent parties within fourteen miles of Winnsborough.
Having ascertained the number and position of his troops,
Cornwallis despatched a party under Major Wemyss against
him. After a march of twentytfour miles with mounted
infantry, Wemyss reached Fishdam on Broad River, the
camp of General Sumter, and at the head of his corps
charged the picket. The attack was repelled ; he himself
was wounded and taken prisoner. A memorandum was
found upon him of houses burned by his command. He
had hanged Adam Cusack, a Carolinian, who had neither
given his parole nor accepted protection nor served in the
patriot army ; yet his captors would not harm a man who
was their prisoner.

The position of the British in the upper country became
precarious. Tarleton was suddenly recalled from the pur-
suit of Marion, and ordered to take the nearest path against
Sumter, who had passed the Broad River, formed a junction
with Clark and Brennan, and threatened Ninety-Six. One

296 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLV.

regiment was sent forward to join him on his march; an-
other followed for his support. Apprised of Tarleton's
approach, Sumter posted himself strongly on the plantation

of Blackstock. At five in the afternoon of the twen-
Nov^20. tfeth of November, Tarleton drew near in advance

of his light infantry ; and with two hundred and fifty
mounted men he made a precipitate attack on Sumter's
superior force. The hillside in front of the Americans was
steep ; their rear was protected by the rapid river Tyger ;
their left was covered by a large barn of logs, between
which the riflemen could fire with security. The sixty-
third British regiment having lost its commanding officer,
two lieutenants, and one third of its privates, Tarleton
retreated, leaving his wounded to the mercy of the victor.
The loss of Sumter was very small ; but, being himself dis-
abled by a severe wound, he crossed the Tyger, taking his
wounded men with him.

By the lavish distribution of presents, the Indian agents
obtained promises from the chiefs of twenty-five hundred
Cherokees, and a numerous body of Creeks, to lay waste
the settlements on the Watauga, Holston, Kentucky, and
Nolichucky, and even to extend their ravages to the Cum-
berland and Green Rivers, that the attention of the moun-
taineers might be diverted to their own immediate concerns.
Moreover, Cornwallis gave orders to the re-enforcement of
three thousand sent by Clinton into the Chesapeake to em-
bark for Cape Fear River. So ended the first attempt of
Cornwallis to penetrate to Virginia. He was driven back
by the spontaneous risings of the southern and south-western
people ; and the unwholesome exhalations of autumn swept
men from every garrison in the low country faster than
Great Britain could replace them*

1782. THE RISE OF FREE COMMONWEALTHS. 297

CHAPTER XLVI.

ft

THB BiaB OF FBBB COMMONWEALTHS.

1780.

Freedom is of all races and of all nationalities. It is
older than bondage, and ever rises from the enslave-
ments laid on by the hand of violence or custom or rreo.
abuse of power ; for the rights of man spring from
eternal law, are kept alive by the persistent energy of con-
stant nature, and by their own indestructibility prove their
lineage as the children of omnipotence.

In an edict of the eighth of August, 1779, Louis 1779.
XVI. announced " his regret that many of his sub-
jects were still without personal liberty and the prerogatives
of property, attached to the glebe, and, so to say, confounded
with it." To all serfs on the estates of the crown he
therefore gave back their freedom. It was his wish i7«o.
to do away, as with torture, so with every vestige of
a rigorous feudalism ; but he was restrained by his respect
for the laws of property, which he held to be the ground-
work of order and justice. The delivering up of a runaway
serf was in all cases forbidden ; for emancipation outside of
his own domains, he did no more than give leave to other
proprietors to follow his example, to which, from mistaken
selfishness, even the clergy would not conform. But the
words of the king spoken to all France deeply branded the
wrong of keeping Frenchmen in bondage to Frenchmen.

In Overyssel, a province of the Netherlands, Baron
van der Capellen tot den Pol, the friend of America,
had seen with the deepest sorrow the survival of the ancient
system of villeinage; and, in spite of the resistance and
sworn hatred of almost all the nobles, he, in 1782, brought
about its complete abolition.

298 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVL

Here the movement for emancipation during the American
revolution ceased for the Old World. " He that says slavery
is opposed to Christianity is a liar," wrote Luther, in the six-
teenth century. " The laws of all nations sanction slavery ;
to condemn it is to condemn the Holy Ghost," were the
words of Bossuet near the end of the seventeenth. In the
last quarter of the eighteenth, the ownership of white men
by white men still blighted more than the half of
1780. Europe. The evil shielded itself under a new plea,
where a difference of skin set a visible mark on the
victims of commercial avarice, and strengthened the ties of
selfishness by the pride of race. In 1780, Edmund Burke
tasked himself to find out what laws could check the new
form of servitude which wrapt all quarters of the globe in
its baleful influences; yet he did not see a glimmering of
hope even for an abolition of the trade in slaves, and only
aimed at establishing regulations for their safe and comfort-
able transportation. He was certain that no one of them
was ever so beneficial to the master as a freeman who deals
with him on equal footing by convention, that the consumer
in the end is always the dupe of his own tyranny and injus-
tice; yet for slave plantations he suggested nothing more
than some supervision by the state, and some mitigation of
the power of the master to divide families by partial sales.
For himself, he inclined to a gradual emancipation ; yet his
code for the negroes was founded on the conviction that
slavery was " an incurable evil." He sought no more than
to make that evil as small as possible, and to draw out of it
some collateral good.

George III. was the firm friend of the slave-trade ; and
Thurlow, one of his chancellors, so late as 1799 insisted
that the proposal to terminate it was " altogether miserable
and contemptible." Yet the quality of our kind is such
that a government cannot degrade a race without marring
the nobleness of our nature.

So long as the legislation of the several English colonies
in America remained subject to the veto of the king, all
hope of forbidding or even limiting the importation of
negro slaves was made vain by the mother country. Now

177a THE RISE OF FREE COMMONWEALTHS. 299

that they were independent, the end of slavery might come
either from the central government or from the several
states.

We have seen that the first congress formed an 1774.
association " wholly to discontinue the slave-trade,"
and that the denunciation of the slave-trade and of slavery
by Jefferson, in his draft of the declaration of inde-
pendence, was rejected by the congress of 1776, in me.
deference to South Carolina and Georgia.

The antagonism between the northern and southern states,
founded on climate, pursuits, and labor, broke out on the
first effort to unite them permanently. When members
from the north spoke freely of the evil of slavery, a mem-
ber from South Carolina answered that, " if property in
slaves should be questioned, there must be an end of con-
federation." In the same month, the vote on taxing persons
claimed as property laid bare the existence of a territorial
division of parties ; the states north of Mason and Dixon's
line voting compactly on the one side, and those south of
that line, which were duly represented, on the other.

The clashing between the two sections fastened
the attention of reflecting observers. In August, ma.
1778, soon after the reception at Philadelphia of an
envoy from Prance, he reported to Vergennes : " The states
of the south and of the north, under existing subjects of
division and estrangement, are two distinct parties, which
at present count but few deserters. The division is attri-
buted to moral and philosophical causes." He further re-
ported that the cabal against Washington found supporters
exclusively in the north.

The French minister desired to repress the ambition of
congress for the acquisition of territory, because it might
prove an obstacle to connection with Spain ; and he found
support in northern men. Their hatred of slavery was not
an impulse of feeling, but an earnest conviction. No one
could declare himself more strongly for the freedom of tho
negro than Gouverneur Morris of New York, a man of busi-
ness and a man of pleasure. His hostility to slavery brought
him into some agreement with the policy of Gerard, to

300 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVI

whom, one day in October, he said that Spain would have
no cause to fear the great body of the confederation, for
reciprocal jealousy and separate interests would never per-
mit its members to unite against her ; that several of the
most enlightened of his colleagues were struck with the
necessity of establishing a law u de coercendo imperio,"
setting bounds to their jurisdiction ; that the provinces of
the south already very much weakened the confederation ;
that further extension on that side would immeasurably
augment this inconvenience ; that the south was the seat of
wealth and of weakness ; that the poverty and vigor of the
north would always be the safeguard of the republic ; and
that on this side lay the necessity to expand and to gain
strength ; that the navigation „of the Mississippi below the
mouth of the Ohio should belong exclusively to Spain, as
the only means of retaining the numerous population which
would be formed between the Ohio and the lakes ; that the
inhabitants of these new and immense countries, be they
English or be they Americans, having the outlet of the
river St. Lawrence on the one side and that of the Missis-
sippi on the other, would be in a condition to domineer
over the United States and over Spain, or to make them-
selves independent, — that on this point there was, there-
fore, a common interest. Some dread of the relative increase
of the south may have mixed with the impatient earnest-
ness with which two at least of the New England states
demanded the acquisition of Nova Scotia as indispensable
to their safety, and therefore to be secured at the pacifica-
tion with England. The leader in this policy was Samuel
Adams, whom the French minister always found in his way.
The question of recruiting the army by the enlistment of
black men forced itself on attention. The several states
employed them as they pleased, and the slave was enfran-
chised by the service. Once congress touched on the
1779. delicate subject ; and in March, 1779, it recommended
Georgia and South Carolina to raise three thousand
active, able-bodied negro men under thirty-five years of
age ; and the recommendation was coupled with a promise
of " a full compensation to the proprietors of such negroes

1779. THE BISE OF FREE COMMONWEALTHS. 301

for the property." The resolution appears to have been
adopted without opposition, North and South Carolina hav-
ing both been represented in the committee that reported it.
Bat South Carolina refused by great majorities to give
effect to the scheme. *

So long as Jefferson was in congress, he kept Virginia
and Massachusetts in a close and unselfish anion, of which
the unanimous assertion of independence was the fruit.
When he withdrew to service in his native commonwealth,
their friendship lost something of its disinterestedness. Vir-
ginia manifested its discontent by successive changes in its
delegation, and the two great states came more and more
to represent different classes of culture and ideas and inter-
ests. On observing congress thus " rent by party," Wash-
ington " raised his voice and called upon George Mason and
Jefferson to come forth to save their country."

In 1779, when the prosperity of New England was m9.
thought to depend on the fisheries, and when its pa-
thetic appeals, not unmlngled with menaces, had been used
prodigally and without effect, Samuel Adams said rashly
that "it would become more and more necessary for the two
empires to separate." On the, other hand, when the north
offered a preliminary resolution, that the country, even if
deserted by France and Spain, would continue the war for
the sake of the fisheries, we have seen four states read the
draft of a protest declaring peremptorily that, if the reso-
lution should be adopted, they would withdraw from the
confederation.

In the assertion of the sovereignty of each separate state,
there was no distinction between north and south. Massa-
chusetts expressed itself as absolutely as South Carolina. As
a consequence, the confederation could contain no interdict
of the slave-trade, and the importation of slaves would there-
fore remain open to any state according to its choice. When
on the seventeenth of June, 1779, a renunciation of the
power to engage in the slave-trade was proposed as an article
to he inserted in the treaty of peace, all the states, Georgia
alone being absent, refused the concession by the votes of
every member except Jay and Gerry.

802 THE AMEKICAN BEVOLUTION. Chap. XLYL

Luzerne, the French envoy who succeeded Gerard,

soon came to the conclusion that the confederacy

would run the risk of an early dissolution if it should give

itself up to the hatred which began to show itself between

the iforth and south.

Vermont, whose laws from the first rejected slavery,
knocked steadily at the door of congress to be taken
1781. in as a state. In August, 1781, its envoys were present
in Philadelphia, entreating admission. Their papers
were in order ; New York gave up its opposition ; but the
states of the south held that the admission of Vermont
would destroy "the balance of power" between the two
sections of the confederacy, and give the preponderance to
the north. The idea was then started that the six states
south of Mason and Dixon's line should be conciliated by a
concession of a seventh vote which they were to exercise in
common ; but the proposal, though it formed a subject of
conversation, was never brought before congress ; and Ver-
mont was left to wait till a southern state could simultane-
ously be received into the union.

In regard to the foreign relations of the country, congress
was divided between what the French envoy named " Galli-
cans" and " anti-Gallicans : " the southerners were found
more among the " Gallicans ; " the north was suspected of a
partiality for England.

There was no hope of the delivery of the country from
slavery by congress. It was but a minority of them who
kept in mind that an ordinance of man can never override
natural law, and that in the high court of the Eternal Provi-
dence justice forges her weapon long before she strikes.
What part was chosen by each separate state must be re-
counted.

Nowhere was slavery formally established in the organic
law as a permanent social relation ; the courts of Virginia
did not recognise a right of property in the future increase
of slaves; in no one state did its constitution abridge the
power of its legislature to abolish slavery. In no one con-
stitution did the words " slave " and " slavery " find a place,
except in that of Delaware, and there only by way of a

1778. THE RISE OF FREE COMMONWEALTH& 303

formal and perpetual prohibition. They are found as little
in that of South Carolina, which was the champion of negro
bondage, as in that of Massachusetts.

In the north, the severity of the climate, the poverty of
the soil, and the all-pervading habit of laborious industry
among its people, set narrow limits to slavery ; in the states
nearest the tropics, it throve luxuriously, and its influence
entered into their inmost political life. Virginia, with soil
and temperature and mineral wealth inviting free and skilled
labor, yet with lowland where the negro attained his perfect
physical development, stood as mediator between the two.
Many of her statesmen — George Mason, Patrick Henry,
Jefferson, Wythe, Pendleton, Richard Henry Lee — emu-
lated each other in confessing the iniquity and the inexpe-
diency of holding men in bondage. We have seen
the legislature of colonial Virginia in 1772, in their ira
fruitless battle with the king respecting the slave-
trade, of which he was the great champion, demand its
abolition as needful for their happiness and their very
existence. In January, 1773, Patrick Henry threw 1773.
ridicule on the clergy of Virginia for their opposition
to emancipation. In the same year, George Mason foretold
the blight that was to avenge negro slavery.

When the convention of Virginia adopted their me.
declaration of rights as the foundation of government
for themselves and their posterity, they set forth that all
men are by nature equally free and have inherent rights to
the enjoyment of life and liberty, the means of acquiring
property and pursuing happiness; yet the authoritative
proclamation of the equal rights of all men brought no
relief to the enslaved.

In 1778, Virginia prohibited what, under the su- 177s.
premacy of England, she could not have prohibited,
— the introduction of any slave by land or sea, and ordered
the emancipation of every slave introduced from abroad.
But the bill respecting resident slaves, prepared by the com-
missioners for codifying the laws, was a mere digest of ex-
isting enactments. Its authors agreed in wishing that the
assembly might provide by amendment for universal free-

304 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XL VI

dom ; and it lis the testimony of Jefferson that an amendatory
bill was prepared with the concurrence of himself, Pendle-
ton, and Wythe, " to emancipate all slaves born after passing
the act ; " bat the proposal was blended with the idea of

their deportation, and nothing came of it. The statute
i77». drafted by Jefferson, and in 1779 proposed by Mason,

to define who shall be citizens of Virginia, declared
the natural right of expatriation in opposition to the Eng-
lish assertion of perpetual allegiance, and favored natural-
ization ; but it confined the right of expatriation and citizen-
ship to white men.

In 1780, Madison expressed the wish that black

men might be set free and then made to serve in the
army. This was often done by individuals ; but, before the
end of the same year, Virginia offered a bounty, not of
money and lands only, but of a negro, to each white man
who would enlist for the war.

In May, 1782, just thirteen years after Jefferson

had brought in a bill giving power of unconditional
emancipation to the masters of slaves, the measure was
adopted by the legislature of Virginia. Under this act,
more slaves received their freedom than were liberated in
Pennsylvania or in Massachusetts. Even had light broken
in on Jefferson's mind through the gloom in which the sub-
ject was involved for him, Virginia would not have accepted
from him a plan for making Virginia a free commonwealth ;
but there is no evidence that he ever reconciled himself to
the idea of emancipated black men living side by side with
white men as equal sharers in political rights and duties
and powers. The result of his efforts and reflections he
uttered in these ominous forebodings : " Nothing is more
certainly written in the book of fate than that these people
are to be free; nor is it less certain that the two races,
equally free, cannot live in the same government."

In the helplessness of despair, Jefferson, so early as 1782,
dismissed the problem from his thoughts, with these words :
" I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just,
that his justice cannot sleep for ever. The way, I hope,
is preparing, under the auspices of Heaven, for a total
emancipation."

1778. THE RISE OF FREE COMMONWEALTHS. 305

At that time, Washington was a kind and considerate
master of slaves, without as yet a title to the character of
an abolitionist. By slow degrees, the sentiment grew up in
his mind that to hold men in bondage was a wrong ; that
Virginia should proceed to emancipation by general statute
of the state ; that, if she refused to do so, each individual
should act for his own household.

Next in order comes Delaware, which on the twen-
tieth of September, 1776, adopted its constitution as me.
an independent state. In proportion to its numbers,
it had excelled all in the voluntary emancipation of slaves.
Its constitution absolutely prohibited the introduction of
any slave from Africa, or any slave for sale from any part
of the world, as an article which " ought never to be vio-
lated on any pretence whatever ."

In the constituent convention of New York, Gouv- 177».
erneur Morris struggled hard for measures tending to
abolish domestic slavery, " so that in future ages every human
being, who breathed the air of the state, might enjoy the priv-
ileges of a freeman." The proposition, though strongly sup-
ported, especially by the interior and newer counties, was
lost by the vote of the counties on the Hudson. "The
constitution," wrote Jay, on its adoption in 1777, " is like a
harvest cut before it is ripe ; the grain has shrunk ; " and he
lamented the want of a clause against the continuance of
domestic slavery. Still, the declaration of independence
was incorporated into the constitution of New York ; and
all its great statesmen were abolitionists.

It has already been narrated that, in 1777, the peo- 1777.
pie of Vermont, in separating themselves from the
jurisdiction of New York, framed a constitution which pro-
hibited slavery.

In July, 1778, William Livingston, the governor 1778.
of New Jersey, invited the assembly to lay the
foundation for the manumission of the negroes. At the
request of the house, which thought the situation too criti-
cal for the immediate discussion of the measure, the message
was withdrawn. " But I am determined," wrote the gover-
nor, " as far as my influence extends, to push the matter till

VOL. vi. 20

306 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XL VI.

it is effected, being convinced that the practice is utterly
inconsistent with the principles of Christianity and human-
ity; and in Americans, who have almost idolized liberty,
peculiarly odious and disgraceful." Of the two Jerseys,
slavery had struck deeper root in the East from the original
policy of its proprietaries ; the humane spirit of the Society
of Friends ruled opinion in West Jersey.

The name of Pennsylvania was dear throughout the
world as the symbol of freedom; her citizens proved her
right to her good report by preparing to abolish slavery.
The number of their slaves had grown to be about six thou-
sand, differing little from the number in Massachusetts, and
being in proportion to the whole population much less than
in New York or in New Jersey. The fourteenth of April,
1775, was the day of founding the Pennsylvania society for
promoting the abolition of slavery, the relief of free negroes
unlawfully held in bondage, and for improving the condition
of the African race. In 1777, in the heads of a bill pro-
posed by the council, a suggestion was made for ridding the
state of slavery. The retreat of the British from Philadel-
phia, and the restoration to Pennsylvania of peace within
its borders, called forth in its people a sentiment of devout
gratitude. Under its influence, George Bryan, then vice-
president, in a message to the assembly of the ninth of
November, 1778, pressed upon their attention the bill pro-
posed in the former year for manumitting infant negroes
born of slaves, and thus in an easy mode abrogating slavery,
the opprobrium of America. "In divesting the state of
slaves," said Bryan, " you will equally serve the cause of
humanity and policy, and offer to God one of the

1778. most proper and best returns of gratitude for his
great deliverance of us and our posterity from thral-
dom ; you will also set your character for justice and benev-
olence in the true point of view to all Europe, who are
astonished to see a people struggling for liberty holding
negroes in bondage."

On becoming president of the executive council of

1779. Pennsylvania, Joseph Reed, speaking for himself and
the council, renewed the recommendation to abolish

177«. THE BISE OF FBEE COMMONWEALTHS. 307

slavery gradually and to restore and establish by the law in
Pennsylvania the rights of human nature. In the autumn
of 1779, George Bryan had been returned as a member of
the assembly. In the committee to which on his motion the
subject was referred, he prepared a new preamble and the
draft of the law for gradual emancipation; and on
the twenty-ninth of February, 1780, it was adopted vm.
by a vote of thirty-four to twenty-one. So Penn-
sylvania led the way towards, introducing freedom for all.
" Our bill," wrote George Bryan to Samuel Adams, " aston-
ishes and pleases the Quakers. They looked for no such
benevolent issue of our new government, exercised by
Presbyterians." The Friends, well pleased at the unex-
pected law, became better reconciled to the form of govern-
ment by which they had been grievously disfranchised.

The constitution of South Carolina of 1778 contained no
bill of rights, and confined political power exclusively to
white men ; from the settlement of the state, slavery formed
a primary element in its social organization. When Gover-
nor Rutledge in 1780 came to Philadelphia, he reported that
the negroes, who in the low country outnumbered the whites
as six to one, offered up their prayers in favor of England,
in the hope that she would give them a chance to escape
from slavery. But British officers, regarding negroes as
valuable spoil, defeated every plan for employing them
as soldiers on the side of England. In 1769, George
III. in council "gave his consent to an act of Georgia,
whereby slaves may be declared to be chattels ; " and the
war of the revolution made no change in their condition
by law.

The Puritans of Massachusetts and their descend- me.
ants, though they tolerated slavery, held that slaves
had rights. Negroes trained with the rest in the ranks, cer-
tainly from 1651 to 1656. Laws on marriage and against
adultery were applied to them ; and they were allowed, like
others, to give their testimony, even in capital cases. At the
opening of the revolution, William Gordon, the Congrega-
tikmalist minister of Roxbury, though he declined to " un-
saint" every man who still yielded to the prevailing preju-

308 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVL

dice, declared with others against perpetuating slavery, and
in November, 1776, published in the " Independent Chroni-
cle " a plan sent from Connecticut for its gradual extermina-
tion out of that colony. In the same month and in the same
newspaper, " a Son of Liberty " demanded the repeal of all
laws supporting slavery, because they were " contrary
1777. to sound reason and revelation." In January, 1777,
seven negro slaves joined in petitioning the general
court " that they might be restored to that freedom which
is the natural right of all men, and that their children might
not be held as slaves after they arrive at the age of twenty-
one years." ThU petition was referred to a very able com-
mittee, on which are the names of Sergeant and John
Lowell, both zealous abolitionists ; the latter then the lead-
ing lawyer in the state.

In May, 1777, just before the meeting of the general
court at Boston, Gordon, finding in the multiplicity of
business the only apology for their not having attended to
the case of slaves, as a preliminary to total emancipation
asked for a final stop to the public and private sale of them
by an act of the state. Clothing the argument of Montes-
quieu in theological language, he said : " If God hath made
of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on the face
of the earth, I can see no reason why a black rather than
a white man should be a slave." A few weeks later, the
first legislature elected in Massachusetts after the declara-
tion of independence listened to the second reading of a
bill which declared slavery " without justification in a gov-
ernment of which the people are asserting their natural
rights to freedom," and had for its object " to fix a day on
which all persons above twenty-one years of age then held
in slavery should be free and entitled to all the rights, priv-
ileges, and immunities that belong to any of the subjects of
this state." A committee was directed to take the opinion
of congress on the subject, but no answer from congress
appears on record, nor any further consideration of the bill
by the Massachusetts legislature.

In his presidency, Hancock had shown proclivities to the
south. When on his resignation in October a motion was

1779. THE RISE OF FREE COMMONWEALTHS. 309

made to give him the thanks of congress for his impartiality
in office, the three northernmost states of New England
voted in the negative, while the south was unanimous in
his favor. After his arrival in Boston, the two branches of
the general court saw fit to form themselves into a con-
stituent convention, for which some of the towns had given
authority to their representatives. In the winter
session of 1778, the draft of a plan of government ira.
was considered. One of the proposed clauses took
from Indians, negroes, and mulattoes the right to vote.
Against this disfranchisement was cited the example of
Pennsylvania, which gave the suffrage to all freemen.
" Should the clause not be reprobated by the convention,"
said an orator, "I still hope that there will be found
among the people at large virtue enough to trample under
foot a form of government which thus saps the foundation
of civil liberty and tramples on the rights of man."

On the submission of the constitution to the people, ob-
jections were made that it contained no declaration of
rights ; that it gave the governor and lieutenant-governor
seats in the senate ; that it disfranchised the free negro, a
partiality warmly denounced through the press by the his-
torian, William Gordon. There was, moreover, dissatisfac-
tion with the legislature for having assumed constituent
powers without authority from the people. Boston, while
it recommended a convention for framing a constitution,
gave its vote unanimously against the work of the legisla-
ture ; and the commonwealth rejected it by a vote of five
to one.

The history of the world contains no record of a people
which in the institution of its government moved with the
caution which now marked the proceedings of Massa-
chusetts. In February, 1779, the legislature of the 1779.
year asked their constituents whether they desired a
new form of government ; and, a large majority of the inhabi-
tants of the towns voting in the affirmative, a convention of
delegates was elected for the sole purpose of forming a con-
stitution. On the first day of September, the convention
thus chosen came together in the meeting-house of Cam-

310 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVL

bridge. Their forefathers, in their zeal against the Roman
superstition, had carried their reverence of the Bible even
to idolatry; and some of them, like Lather, found in its
letter a sanction for holding slaves. On the other hand,
from principle and habit, they honored honest labor in all its
forms. The inconsistencies of bondage with the principle
of American independence lay in the thoughts of
1779. those who led public opinion ; voices against it had
come from Essex, from Worcester, from Boston, from
the western counties, showing that the conscience of the
people was offended by its continuance.

The first act of the constituent body was " the considera-
tion of a declaration of rights;" and then they resolved
unanimously "that the government to be framed by this
convention for the people of Massachusetts Bay shall be a
free republic." This resolution was deemed so important
that liberty was reserved for the members of a committee
who were absent to record their votes upon it ; and on the
next morning they declared "their full and free assent."
A committee of thirty, composed for the commonwealth at
large and for each county excepting the unrepresented coun-
ties of Dukes and Nantucket, was appointed to prepare
a declaration of rights and the form of a constitution ; but
the house itself continued its free conversation on these
subjects till sunset of the sixth of September. The next
day, it adjourned for more than seven weeks, that its com-
mittee might have time to transact the important business
assigned them.

On the thirteenth of September, the committee assembled
at the new court-house in Boston. Among them were
Bowdoin, who was president of the convention ; Samuel
Adams ; John Lowell ; Jonathan Jackson, of Newburyport,
who thought that the liberty which America achieved for
itself should prevail without limitation as to color ; Parsons
a young lawyer of the greatest promise, from Newbury-
port ; and Strong, of Northampton. John Adams had ar
rived opportunely from France, to which he did not return
till November ; and was so far the " principal " agent in
writing out the first draft of the constitution that it was

1780. THE BISE OF FREE COMMONWEALTHS. SIX

reputed to be bis work. Tbere are no means of distributing
its parts to their several authors with certainty. No one
was more determined for two branches of the legislature
with a veto in the governor than John Adams. To him
also more than to any other may be ascribed the complete
separation of both branches from appointments to office.
The provisions for the total abolition of slavery mark the
influence of John Lowell. To Bowdoin was due the form
of some of the sections which were most admired.

.On the afternoon of the twenty-eighth of October, the
committee appointed to prepare a form of government re-
ported a draft of a constitution ; and on the next day the
convention adopted the first article of a declaration of rights,
which was couched in the spirit and almost in the language
of George Mason and Virginia : "All men are born free and
equal, and have certain natural, essential, and unalienable
rights, among which may be reckoned the right of enjoying
and defending their lives and liberties ; that of acquiring,
possessing, and protecting property ; in fine, that of seeking
and obtaining their safety and happiness." The lawyers
of Virginia had not considered this declaration as of itself
working the emancipation of negro slaves; to accomplish
that end, the men of Massachusetts, in deciding how many
of their old laws should remain in full force, excepted those
parts which were "repugnant to the rights and liberties
contained in this constitution."

As the delegates gave the closest attention to every line
and word in the constitution, this clause did not come
up for consideration till the last day of January, 1780, rrso.
in an adjourned session. Roads having been made
for a time impassable by deep snows, there were still many
absentees; and, though a quorum was present, the consid-
eration of this question was from its importance deferred.
For a month, therefore, other clauses were discussed and
settled ; and then in a full convention, after deliberation
and amendment, this most momentous article of all was
adopted. So calm and effortless was the act by which slav-
ery fell away from Massachusetts. Its people wrought with
the power of nature, which never toils, never employs vio-

812 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION, Chap. XLVL

lence in arras, but achieves its will through the might of
overruling law. There is in the world a force tending to
improvement, and making itself felt in us and around us,
with which we can work, but which it is above our ability
to call into being or to destroy. The manner in which
Massachusetts left slavery behind, as of the dead and irrev-
ocable past, was the noblest that could have been devised.
The inborn, inalienable right of man to freedom was written
in the permanent constitution as the law of all coming leg-
islation. The highest voice of morality speaks to the whole
universe of moral being, and utters for all its one inflexible
command. When by its all-persuasive force the men of
Massachusetts abolished slavery, the decision had the char-
acter of primal justice and the seal of undying authority.
Yet, had they remained dependent, the veto of the British
king would have forbidden their abolition of slavery, as it
had prevented every measure against the slave-trade.

In an able address to their constituents, the delegates
explained the grounds on which their decisions rested, and
called on them in their several towns and plantations to
judge " whether they had raised their superstructure upon
the principles of a free commonwealth." Reassembling
on the first Wednesday in June, they found that the male
inhabitants of twenty-one years and upwards had ratified
the new constitution, and they chose the last Wednesday
in October for the time on which it should take effect.

At the coming in of the twenty-fifth day of October,
1780, Massachusetts became in truth a free common-
wealth. Its people shook slavery from its garments as
something that had never belonged to it. The colored in-
habitants, about six thousand in number, or one in seventy
of the population, equally became fellow-citizens; and, if
any of them possessed the required qualifications of age,
residence, and property, their right to vote admitted of no
question.

As to the rights of conscience, it was agreed that " relig-
ion must at all times be a matter between God and individ-
uals ; " yet all were excluded from office who believed that
a foreign prelate could have a dispensing power within

1780. THE RISE OF FREE COMMONWEALTHS. 313

the commonwealth, and who would not "disclaim those
principles of spiritual jurisdiction which are subversive of
a free government established by the people." The legisla-
ture and magistrates were charged to cherish literature and
the sciences, and all seminaries of them, especially the uni-
versity at Cambridge, public schools, and grammar schools
in the towns. The constitution was marked by the effort
at a complete separation of the executive, legislative, and
judicial powers, that it might be a government of laws and
not of men. " For a power without any restraint," said the
convention, " is tyranny."

"The constitution of Massachusetts," wrote Count nso.
Matthieu Dumas, one of the French officers who
served in America, "is perhaps the code of laws which
does most honor to man."

As if to leave to the world a record of the contrast be-
tween the contending systems of government for colonists,
the British ministry, simultaneously with the people of Mas-
sachusetts, engaged in forming its model. The part of Mas-
sachusetts between the river Saco and the St. Croix was
constituted a province, under the name of New Ireland.
The system adopted for Quebec and for East Florida was
to receive in the New England province its full development.
The marked feature of the constitution was the absolute
power of the British parliament ; and, to make this power
secure for all coming time, every landlord on acquiring land,
whether by grant from the crown, or by purchase, or by
inheritance, was bound to make a test declaration of allegi-
ance to the king in his parliament, as the supreme legislature
of the province. The attorney and solicitor general of Great
Britain were to report what of the laws of England would
of their own authority take effect in the province, and what
acts of parliament the king might introduce by his proclama-
tion. " It has been found," said the state paper, " by sad
experience, that the democratic power is predominant in
all parts of British America." " To combat the prevailing
disposition of the people to republicanism," there was to be
by the side of the governor and council no elective assembly
until the circumstances of the province should admit of it ;

314 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Ciiap. XLVL

but a middle branch of legislature, of which every one of
the members was to be named by the crown, to be distin-
guished by titles or emoluments, or both ; and, though other-
wise appointed for life, to remain ever liable to be suspended
or removed by royal authority.

As a farther security to aristocratic power, the lands were
to be granted in large tracts, so that there might be great
landlords and a tenantry. The church of England was to
be the established church ; the country to be divided into
parishes, each with a glebe land ; and the governor, the
highest judge in the ecclesiastical court, to present to all
benefices. A vicar-general with a power to ordain was
to open the way for a bishop. No provision was made
for the establishment of schools or the education of the
people. This constitution was approved by the cabinet on
the tenth of August, 1780, and on the next day by the king.
Pleased with their work, the ministers judged the proper
time might have come to digest a system of government
for all America.

Here were the two models side by side. The one would
have organized self-government, the other arbitrary rule;
the one a people of freeholders, the other of landlords and
tenants ; the one public worship according to the conscience
and faith of individuals, the other a state religion subordi-
nate to temporal power ; the one education of all the peo-
ple, the other indifference to human culture.

It remains to be related that in the year 1780 the

1780

Methodists of the United States at their general
meeting voted " slave-keeping contrary to the laws of God,
man, and nature."

1780. COMTLOT OF CLINTON AND ABNOLD. 815

CHAPTER XLVIL

THB OOHFLOT OP SIB HENBY CLINTON AND ABNOLD.

1780,

Dbsultoby movements of the British and American
troops in the north daring the winter of 1780 were
baffled by unwonted cold and deep snows. The itso.
Hudson and the East River were covered with solid
ice, but Knyphausen provided for the safety of New York
by forming battalions of the loyal inhabitants and refugees.
Besides, the American army, whose pay was in arrear and
whom congress could not provide with food, was too feeble
to hazard an attack. Jn May, the continental troops be-
tween the Chesapeake and Canada amounted only to seven
thousand men ; in the first week of June, those under the
command of Washington, present and fit for duty, num-
bered but three thousand seven hundred and sixty.

On the twenty-eighth of May, the official report of May 28
the surrender of Charleston was received. The ref-
ugees insisted that the men of New Jersey, weary of com-
pulsory requisitions of supplies, longed to return to their
old form of government ; and English generals reported so
great disaffection among the starved and half-clothed Amer-
ican officers and men that one half of them would desert
to the English and the other half disperse. The moment
seemed opportune for setting up the royal standard in New
Jersey. Strengthening the post at King's Bridge, and leav-
ing only three regiments in New York, Knyphausen formed
nineteen regiments into three divisions under Robertson,
Tryon, and Stachenberg, with an advanced guard under
General Matthews. Of artillery, he took eight pieces.

The army of Washington was encamped at Morristown.

816 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVH

On the east of the Passaic, the Jersey brigade under General
Maxwell was stationed at Connecticut Farms, and three

hundred of the Jersey militia occupied Elizabeth-
Jajw'e. town. On the sixth of June, the British landed at

Elizabethtown Point, but very slowly, from a scarcity
of boats. The brigadier who commanded the vanguard was
early wounded and disabled. Seven hours were lost in

bridging a marsh which stopped their way. On the
June 7. morning of the seventh, the American militia, under

Colonel Dayton, having had timely warning, retired
before the enemy from Elizabethtown ; but with the aid of
volunteers from the country people, who flew to arms, and
of small patrolling parties of continental troops, they har-
assed the British all the way on their march of five or six
miles to Connecticut Farms. James Caldwell, the Presby-
terian minister of that place, was known to have inspired
his people with his own patriotic zeal. A British soldier,
putting his gun to the window of the house where Caldwell's
wife was sitting with her children, one of them a nursling,
shot her fatally through the breast. Scarcely was time al-
lowed to remove the children and the corpse from the house
when it was set on fire. The Presbyterian meeting-house
and the houses and barns of the village were burnt down.
In the winter, the Presbyterian church at Newark had in
like manner been burnt to the ground.

From Connecticut Farms, Maxwell, with the remnant of
a brigade, retreated to strong ground near Springfield,
where he awaited and repelled repeated attacks made by
Colonel Wurmb with a Hessian regiment. Thrice did the
Americans charge with fixed bayonets; and they retired
only on the arrival of a British brigade, the Hessian yagers
alone having lost more than fifty killed or wounded. In-
stead of' men eager to return to their old allegiance, the
British encountered a people risking all to preserve their
independence ; suffered losses all the day from determined
troops ; and at five in the afternoon found that Washington,
on hearing that they were out in force, had brought in front
of them a brave and faithful army, formed on ground of his
own choice. Knyphausen, though his command outnum-

1780. COMPLOT OF CLINTON AND ARNOLD. 317

bered the Americans two to one, declined to attack, where
victory must have cost dearly, and defeat would have been
disastrous. Learning at this moment that Clinton with a
large force might be expected at New York within a week,
he resolved to attempt nothing more ; and at nine o'clock
in the evening his army began a retreat to Elizabethtown
Point. An American detachment, sent at break of
day in pursuit, drove the twenty-second English regi- jJJJJg.
ment oat of Elizabethtown and returned without
being molested. In general orders, Dayton " received par-
ticular thanks." At this time, a committee from congress
was in the American camp, to whom Washington explained
the hardships of his condition. Not only had congress ac-
complished nothing for the relief and re-enforcement of his
army, it could not even tell how far the several states would
comply with the requisitions made on them. While award-
ing liberal praise to the militia of New Jersey, he renewed
his constant plea for regular troops ; " Perseverance in en-
during the rigors of military service is not to be expected
from those who are not by profession obliged to it. Our
force, from your own observation, is totally inadequate to
our safety."

On the nineteenth of June, two days after his ar- June 19.
rival in New York, Clinton repaired to New Jersey.
He had now at his disposition nearly four times as many
regular troops as were opposed to him ; but he fretted at
"the move in Jersey as premature," and what he "least
expected." With civil words to the German officers, he
resolved to give up the expedition; but he chose to mask
his retreat by a feint, and to give it the air of a military
manoeuvre.

Troops sent up the Hudson River, as if to take the Amer-
icans in the rear, induced Washington to move his camp to
Rockaway bridge, confiding the post at Short Hills to two
brigades under the command of Greene. Early on
the twenty-third, the British advanced in two com- June 23.
pact divisions from Elizabethtown Point to Spring-
field. The column on the right had to ford the river before
they could drive Major Lee from one of the bridges over

818 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVH.

the Passaic. At the other, Colonel Angel with his regiment
held the left column in check for about forty minutes.
Greene prepared for action ; but the British army, though
it was drawn up and began a heavy cannonade, had no
design to engage ; and at four in the afternoon, after burn-
ing the houses in Springfield, it began its return. All the
way back to Elizabethtown, it was annoyed by an incessant
fire from American skirmishers and militia. Its total loss
is not known ; once more the Hessian yagers lost fifty in
killed or wounded, among the latter one colonel, two cap-
tains, and a lieutenant. From Elizabethtown Point the
fruitless expedition crossed to Staten Island by a bridge of
boats, which at midnight was taken away. Clinton was
never again to have so good an opportunity for offensive
operations as that which he had now rejected.

On the return of D'Estaing from America, he urged the
French ministry to send twelve thousand men to the United
States, as the best way of pursuing the war actively ; and
Lafayette had of his own motion given the like advice to
Vergennes, with whom he- had formed relations of friend-
ship. The cabinet adopted the measure in its principle, but
vacillated as to the number of the French contingent. For
the command, Count de Rochambeau was selected, not by
court favor, but from the consideration in which he
jSyio. was held kv the troops. On the tenth of July, Ad-
miral de Ternay with a squadron of ten shipa-of-war,
three of them ships of the line, convoyed the detachment
of about six thousand men with Rochambeau into the har-
bor of Newport. To an address from the general assembly
of Rhode Island, then sitting in Newport, the count an-
swered : " The French troops are restrained by the strictest
discipline ; and, acting under General Washington, will live
with the Americans as their brethren. I assure the general
assembly that, as brethren, not only my life, but the lives of
the troops under my command, are entirely devoted to their
service." Washington in general orders desired the Amer-
ican officers to wear white and black cockades as a symbol
of affection for their allies.

The British fleet at New York having received a large

1780. COMFLOT OF CLINTON AND ARNOLD. 819

re-enforcement, so that it had now a great superiority, Sir
Henry Clinton embarked about eight thousand men for an
expedition to Rhode Island. Supported by militia from
Massachusetts and Connecticut, the French longed for the
threatened attack ; but the expedition proceeded no further
than Huntington Bay in Long Island, where it idled awny
several days, and then returned to New York. Of the inca-
pacity'of Arbuthnot, the admiral, Clinton sent home bitter
complaints, which were little heeded. There were those
who censured the general as equally wanting energy. The
sixth summer during which the British had vainly endeav-
ored to reduce the United States was passing away, and
after the arrival ©f French auxiliaries the British com-
mander in chief was more than ever disheartened.

On the twenty-fifth of August, Clinton, knowing nso.
well that he had in Cornwallis a favored rival eager Aug- 25-
to supplant him, reported officially from New York : " At
this new epoch in the war, when a foreign force has already
landed and an addition to it is expected, I owe to my
country, and I must in justice to my own fame declare to
your lordship, that I become every day more sensible of the
utter impossibility of prosecuting the war in this country
without re-enforcements. The revolutions fondly looked
for by means of friends to the British government I must
represent as visionary. These, I well know, are numerous,
but they are fettered. An inroad is no countenance, and
to possess territory demands garrisons. The accession of
friends, without we occupy the country they inhabit, is but
the addition of unhappy exiles to the list of pensioned
refugees. A glance at the returns of the army divided into
garrisons and reduced by casualties on the one part, with
the consideration of the task yet before us on the other,
would, I fear, renew the too just reflection that we are by
some thousands too weak to subdue this formidable rebel-
lion." Yet for the moment the only regiments sent to the
United States were three to re-enforce Lord Cornwallis.

Hopeless of success in honorable warfare, Clinton stooped
to fraud and corruption. From the time when officers who
Blood below Arnold were promoted over his head, discon-

L

320 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVIL

tent rankled in his breast and found expression in threats
of revenge. After the northern campaign, he complained
more than ever that his services had not been sufficiently
rewarded. While he held the command in Philadelphia,
his extravagant mode of living tempted him to peculation
and treasonable connections ; and towards the end of Feb-
ruary, 1779, he let it be known to the British commander
in chief that he was desirous of exchanging the American
service for that of Great Britain. His open preference for
the friends of the English in Pennsylvania disgusted the
patriots. The council of that state, after bearing with him
for more than half a year, very justly desired his removal
from the command ; and, having early in 1779 given infor-
mation of his conduct, against their intention they became
his accusers. The court-martial before which he was ar-
raigned, on charges that touched his honor and integrity,
dealt with him leniently, and sentenced him only to be rep-
rimanded by the commander in chief. The reprimand was
marked with the greatest forbearance. The French minis-
ter, to whom Arnold applied for money, put aside his request
and added wise and friendly advice. In the course of the
winter of 1778-79, he was taken into the pay of Clinton, to
whom he gave on every occasion most material intelligence.
The plot received the warmest encouragement from Lord
George Germain, who, towards the end of September, 1779,
wrote to Clinton : " Next to the destruction of Washing-
ton's army, the gaining over officers of influence and repu-
tation among the troops would be the speediest means of
subduing the rebellion and restoring the tranquillity of
America. Your commission authorizes you to avail your-
self of such opportunities, and there can be no doubt that
the expense will be cheerfully submitted to."

In 1780, the command at West Point needed to be

1780.

changed. Acting in concert with Clinton and sup-
ported by the New York delegation in congress, Arnold,
pleading his wounds as an excuse for declining active ser-
vice, solicited and obtained orders to that post, which in-
cluded all the American forts in the Highlands. Clinton
entered with all his soul into the ignoble plot, which, as he

1780. COMPLOT OF CLINTON AND ARNOLD. 821

believed, was to end the war. After a correspondence of
two months between him and the British commander in
chief, through Major John Andre*, adjutant-general
of the army in North America, on the thirtieth of Avg!*90.
August, Arnold, insisting that the advantages which
he expected to gain for himself by his surrender were " by
no means unreasonable," and requiring that his conditions
should " be clearly understood,9' laid a plan for an interview
at which a person " fully authorized " was to "close with"
his proposals.

The rendezvous was given by him within the American
lines, where Colonel Sheldon held the command ; and that
officer was instructed to expect the arrival " at his quarters
of a person in New York to open a channel of intelligence."
On the same day, Andr6, disguising his name, wrote to
Sheldon from New York, by order of Clinton : "A flag will
be sent to Dobb's Ferry on Monday next, the eleventh, at
twelve o'clock. Let me entreat you, sir, to favor a matter
which is of so private a nature that the public on neither
side can be injured by it. I trust I shall not be detained,
but I would rather risk that than neglect the business in
question, or assume a mysterious character to carry on an
innocent affair and get to your lines by stealth." To this
degree did the British commander in chief prostitute his
word and a flag of truce, and lull the suspicions of the
American officer by statements the most false. The letter
of Andre* being forwarded to Arnold, he " determined to
go as far as Dobb's Ferry and meet the flag." As he was
approaching the vessel in which Andre* came up the river,
the British guard-boats, whose officers were not in the secret,
fired upon his barge and prevented the interview.

Clinton became only more interested in the project, for
of a sudden he gained an illustrious assistant. At the break-
ing out of the war between France and England, Sir George
Rodney, a British naval officer, chanced to be detained in
Paris by debt. But the aged Marshal de Biron advanced
him money to set himself free, and he hastened to England
to ask employment of the king. He was not a member of
parliament, and was devoted to no political party; he rev-

▼OL. VI. 21

822 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVH

erenced the memory of Chatham, and yet held the war
against the United States to be just. A man of action,
quick-sighted, great in power of execution, he was the very
officer whom a wise government would employ, and whom
by luok the British admiralty of that day, tired of the
'Keppels and the Palisers, the mutinous and the incompe-
tent, put in command of the expedition that was to relieve
Gibraltar and rule the seas of the West Indies. One of the
king's younger sons served on board his fleet as midshipman.

He took his squadron to sea on the twenty-ninth of
jl™8. December, 177ft. On the eighth of January, 1780,

he captured seven vessels of war and fifteen sail of
Jan. 16. merchant-men. On the sixteenth, he encountered off

Cape St. Vincent the Spanish squadron of Languors,
very inferior to his own, and easily took or destroyed a

great part of it. Having victualled the garrison of
Feb. 13. Gibraltar and relieved Minorca, on the thirteenth of

February he set sail for the West Indies. At St.
Lucia, he received letters from his wife, saying : " Every-
body is beyond measure delighted as well as astonished at
your success ; " from his daughter : " Everybody almost
adores you, and every mouth is full of your praise ; come
back when you have done some more things in that part of
the world you are in now."

The thanks of both houses of parliament reached
and him at Barbados. In April and May, Rodney had
May" twice or thrice encounters with the French fleet of
Admiral Guichen, and with such success that in a grateful
mood the British parliament thanked him once more. Yet
he did not obtain a decided superiority in the West Indian
seas, and he reported to the admiralty as the reason, that
his flag had not been properly supported by some of his
oflicers.
With indifference to neutral rights, he sent frigates to

seize or destroy all American vessels in St. Eustatius.
June. In June, he reoeived a check by a junction of the

Spanish squadron under Solano with the French.
But the two admirals could not agree how their forces
should be employed. Contagious fever attacked the Span

1780* OOMPLOT OF CLINTON AND ARNOLD. 323

iards, and reached the French. Solano returned to Havana ;
Guiohen, whose squadron was anxiously awaited in the
north, sailed for France. Rodney alone, passing to the
north and recapturing a ship from Charleston, anchored off
Sandy Hook, where he vexed the weak Admiral Arbuthnot
by taking command of the station of New York during his
short stay. To the vast superiority of the British on land
was now added the undisputed dominion of the water. In
aid of the enterprise by which Sir Henry Clinton expected
to bring the war to an immediate close, Rodney contributed
his own rare powers ; and perfect harmony prevailed between
the two branches of the service.

On the eighteenth of September, Washington i78o.
crossed the North River on his way from head- Sept* 18t
quarters near Xappan to Hartford, where, attended by
Lafayette and Hamilton, he was to hold his first interview
with General Rochambeau. He was joined on the river by
Arnold, who accompanied him as far as Peekskill, and en-
deavored, though in vain, to obtain his consent for the recep-
tion of an agent on pretended business relating to confiscated
property. Had the consent been given, the interview with
Andr6 would have taken place under a flag of truce, seem-
ingly authorized by the American commander in chief.

Time pressed on. Besides, Sir George Rodney had only
looked in upon New York, and would soon return to
the West Indies. On the evening of the eighteenth, sept. is.
Arnold, giving information that Washington on the
following Saturday night was expected to be his guest at
West Point, proposed that Andr6 should immediately come
up to the " Vulture " ship-of-war, which rode at anchor just
above Teller's Point in Haverstraw Bay, promising on
Wednesday evening " to send a person on board with a boat
and a flag of truce.9'

This letter of Arnold reached Clinton on Tuesday Sept. 19.
evening, and he took his measures without delay.
Troops were embarked on the Hudson River under the
superintendence of Sir George Rodney, and the embarkation
disguised by a rumor of an intended expedition into the
Chesapeake*

824 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVn

1780. On the morning of the twentieth, the British ad-
8*pt. 20. jutant-general, taking his life in his hand, prepared
to carry out his orders. To diminish the dangers to which
the service exposed him, " the commander in chief, before
his departure, cautioned him not to change his dress, and
not to take papers." At Dobb's Ferry, he embarked on the
river, and, as the tide was favorable, reached the " Vulture '
at about an hour after sunset, and declared to its captain
"that he was ready to attend General Arnold's summons
when and where he pleased."

" The night the flag was first expected, he expressed

' much anxiety for its arrival," and, as it did not come,

on the morning of the twenty-first by an ingenious artifice

he let Arnold know where he was. On the ensuing
sept. 22. night, one Smith, in a boat with muffled oars, went

off from the western shore of the Hudson to the
"Vulture." "The instant Andre1 learned that he was
wanted, he started out of bed and discovered the greatest
impatience to be gone. Nor did he in any instance betray
the least doubt of his safety and success." The moon,
which had just passed into the third quarter, shone in a
clear sky when the boat pushed for the landing-place near
tfie upper edge of the Haverstraw Mountains. It was very
iear the time for day to appear, when Andre, dressed in
regimentals, which a large blue cloak concealed, landed at
the point of the Long Clove, where Arnold was waiting in
the bushes to receive him. The general had brought with
him a spare horse ; and the two rode through the village of
Haverstraw within the American lines to the house of
Smith, which lay a few miles from the river. At the dawn
of day, the noise of artillery was heard. An American
party had brought field-pieces to bear on the " Vulture ; "
and Arnold, as he looked out from the window, saw her
compelled to shift her anchorage. The negotiations of the
two parties continued for several hours. Clinton was in
person to bring his army to the siege of Fort Defiance,
which enclosed about seven acres of land. The garrison
was to be so distributed as to destroy its efficiency. Arnold
was to send immediately to Washington for aid, and tc

1780. COMFLOT OF CLINTON AND ARNOLD. 825

surrender the place in time for Sir Henry Clinton to make
arrangements for surprising the re-enforcement, which it
was believed Washington would conduct in person. It was
no part of the plan to risk an attempt to capture Wash-
ington while a guest at West Point, The promises to
Arnold were indemnities in money and the rank of briga-
dier in the British service. The American general re-
turned to his quarters. Late in the afternoon, Andr6,
changing his dress for the disguise of a citizen, provided
with passes from Arnold and attended by Smith, set off by
land for New York.

Four years before, Washington had sailed between the
Highlands, where nature blends mountains and valleys, the
primeval forests, and the deep river, in exceeding beauty,
and had marked with his eye the positions best adapted to
command the passage. Until 1778, West Point was
a solitude, nearly inaccessible; now it was covered sept°22.
by fortresses with numerous redoubts, constructed
chiefly under the direction of Kosciuszko as engineer, and
so connected as to form one system of defence, which
was believed to be impregnable. Here were the maga-
zines of ammunition, for the use not of the post only, but
of the whole army. The fortifications built by a nation
just rising into notice seemingly represented a vast outlay
of money ; but the prodigious labor of piling on the steep
heights huge trunks of trees and enormous hewn blocks had
been executed by the hands of the American soldiers, who
received for their toil not the smallest gratification, even
when their stated pay remained in arrear.1 And these works,
of which every stone was a monument of humble, disinter-
ested patriotism, were to be betrayed to the enemy, with all
their garrison.

On that same evening, Washington, free from suspicion,
was returning to his army. He had met General Rocham-
beau and Admiral de Ternay at Hartford. " The interview
was a genuine festival for the French, who were impatient
to see the hero of liberty. His noble mien, the simplicity

1 Boynton's Huttr* of West Point, chap. iv. Complot d' Arnold et de Sir
Henry Clinton, 77-81. Voyage de Chastellux dans l'Amenque, 2d ed., i. 71.

826 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVIL

of his manners, his mild gravity, surpassed their expecta-
tions and gained for him their hearts." All agreed that,
for want of a superiority at sea, active operations could
not he begun ; so that the meeting served only to establish
friendship and confidence between the officers of the two
nations. Washington on his return was accompanied a
day's journey by Count Dumas, one of the aids of Rocham-
beau. The population of the town where he was to spend
the night went out to meet him. A crowd of children, re-
peating the acclamations of their elders, gathered around
him, stopping his way, all wishing to touch him and with
loud cries calling him their father. Pressing the hand of
Dumas, he said to him : " We may be beaten by the Eng-
lish in the field ; it is the lot of arms : but see there the
army which they will never conquer."

At this very time, Andre1, conducted by Smith, crossed
the Hudson River at King's ferry. It was already dark be-
fore they passed the American post at Verplanck's Point,
under the excuse that they were going up the river, and to

keep up that pretence they turned in for the night
Sept?23. near Crompond. Very early on the twenty-third,

they were in the saddle. Two miles and a half north
of Pine's bridge over the Croton, Smith, assuring Andre*
that the rest of the way he would meet only British parties,
or cow-boys as they were called, and having charged him
to take the inner route to New York through the valley of
the Bronx by way of White Plains, near which the British
had an outpost, bade him farewell and rode up to dine with
Arnold at his quarters. At a fork in the road about six
miles below the Croton, Andr6, quitting the road to White
Plains, took that which led over the hills, and entered the
highway from Albany to New York at a skirt distance
above Tarrytown. He now thought himself beyond all
danger, and according to his own account he fully believed
that he was the bearer of a plan which would bring the civil
war to an immediate end. The British troops, embarked
by Sir George Rodney, lay waiting for Clinton to give the
word and to lead them in person.
It happened that John Paulding, a poor man, then about

1780. COMPLOT OF CLINTON AND ARNOLD. 327

forty-six years old, a zealous patriot who engaged in the ser-
vice of his country at the breaking out of the war and was
twice made captive, had lately escaped from New York and
had formed a little corps of partisans to annoy roving par-
ties taking provisions to New York, or otherwise doing
service to the British. On that morning, after setting a
reserve of four to keep watch in the rear, he and David
Williams of Tarrytown and Isaac van Wart of Greenburg
seated themselves in the thicket by the wayside just above
Tarrytown, and whiled away the time by playing cards.
At an hour before noon, Andre" was just rising the hill out
of Sleepy Hollow, within fifteen miles of the strong British
post at King's Bridge, when Paulding got up, presented a
firelook at his breast, and asked which way he was going.
Full of the idea that he could meet none but friends to the
English, he answered : " Gentlemen, I hope you belong to
our party?" "Which party?" asked Paulding. "The
lower party," said Andre\ Paulding answered that he
did. Then said Andre*: "I am a British officer, out on
particular business, and I hope you will not detain me a
minute." Upon this, Paulding ordered him to dismount.
Seeing his mistake, Andre" showed his pass from Arnold,
saying: "By your stopping me, you will detain the gen-
eral's business." " I hope," answered Paulding, " you will
not be offended ; we do not mean to, take any thing from
you. There are many bad people going along the road;
perhaps you may be one of them ; " and he asked if he had
any letters about him. Andre* answered : " No." They
took him into the bushes to search for papers, and at last
discovered three parcels under each stocking. Among these
were a plan of the fortifications of West Point ; a memorial
from the engineer qn the attack and defence of the place ;
returns of the garrison, cannon, and stores in the hand-
writing of Arnold. " This is a spy," said Paulding. Andre"
offered a hundred guineas, any sum of money, if they
would but let him go. " No," cried Paulding, " not for
ten thousand guineas" They then led him off,
and, arriving in the evening at North Castle, they septV
delivered him with his papers to Lieutenant-colonel

I

828 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XL VII.

Jameson who commanded the post, and then went their
way, not asking a reward for their services, nor leaving
their names.

What passed between Andr6 and Jameson is not known.
The result of the interview was that on the twenty-
Sept?24. fourth the prisoner was ordered by Jameson to be
taken to Arnold ; but on the sharp remonstrance of
Major Tallmadge, the next in rank, the order was counter-
manded, and he was confined at Old Salem, yet with per-
mission to inform Arnold by letter of his arrest.

His letter was received on the twenty-fifth, too late
" for an .order to be given for his release, and only in
time for Arnold himself to escape down the river to the
"Vulture." Washington, who had turned aside to ex-
amine the condition of the works at West Point, arrived
a few hours after his flight.

The first care of the commander in chief was for the
safety of the post. The extent of the danger appeared
from a letter of the twenty-fourth, in which Andr6 avowed
himself to be the adjutant-general of the British army, and
offered excuses for having been "betrayed into the vile
condition of an enemy in disguise " within his posts. He
added : " The request I have to make to your excellency,
and I am conscious I address myself well, is that, in any
rigor policy may dictate, a decency of conduct towards me
may mark that, though unfortunate, I am branded with
nothing dishonorable, as no motive could be mine but the
service of my king, and as I was unvoluntarily an impostor,"
This request was granted in its full extent, and in the whole
progress of the affair he was treated with the most scru-
pulous delicacy. Andr6 further wrote: "Gentlemen at
Charleston on parole were engaged in a conspiracy against
us ; they are objects who may be set in exchange for me,
or are persons whom the treatment I receive might affect.'*
The charge of conspiracy against Gadsden and his fellow-
sufferers was groundless; and had been brought forward
only as an excuse for shipping them away from the city,
where their mere presenoe kept the love of independence
alive. To seek security by a threat of retaliation on inno-

1780. COMPLOT OF CLINTON AND AENOLD. 329

cent men was an unworthy act, which received no support
from Sir Henry Clinton.

Andr6 was without loss of time conducted to the head-
quarters of the army at Tappan. His offence was so clear
that it would have justified the promptest action ; but, to
prevent all possibility of complaint from any quarter,
he was, on the twenty-ninth, brought before a numer- geJtfj».
ous and very able board of officers. On his own con-
fession and without the examination of a witness, the board,
on which sat Greene, second only to Washington in the
service ; Saint-Clair, afterwards president of congress ; La-
fayette, of the French army; Steuben, from the staff of
Frederic II. ; Parsons, Clinton, Glover, Knox, Huntingdon,
and others, all well known for their uprightness, — made
their unanimous report that Major Andr£, adjutant-gen-
eral of the British army, ought to be considered as a spy
from the enemy and to suffer death. Throughout the
inquiry, Andr6 was penetrated with the liberality of the
members of the court, who showed him every mark of in-
dulgence, and required him to answer no interrogatory
which could even embarrass his feelings. He acknowl-
edged their generosity in the strongest terms of manly
gratitude, and afterwards remarked to one who visited him
that, if there were any remains in his mind of prejudice
against the Americans, his present experience must obliter-
ate them.

On the thirtieth, the sentence was approved by Sept. so.
Washington, and ordered to be carried into effect the
next day. Clinton had already in a note to "Washington
asked Andre's release, as one who had been protected by " a
flag of truce and passports granted for his return." Andre
had himself, in his examination before the board of officers,
repelled the excuse which Clinton made for him ; and indeed
to have used a flag of truce for his purposes would have
aggravated his offence. Washington replied by enclosing
to the British commander in chief the report of the board
of inquiry, and observed " that Major Andr6 was employed
in the execution of measures very foreign to flags of truce,
and such as they were never meant to authorize."

830 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVIL

At the request of Clinton, who promised to present tt a
true state of facts,9' the execution was delayed till
0^2. the second day of October; and General Robertson,
attended by two civilians, came up the river for a
conference. The civilians were not allowed to land; but
Greene was deputed to meet the officer. Instead of pre-
senting facts, Robertson, after compliments to the character
of Greene, announced that he had come to treat with him.
Greene answered : " The case of an acknowledged spy ad-
mits no official discussion." Robertson then proposed to
free Andr6 by an exchange. Greene answered : " If Andre
is set free, Arnold must be given up ; " for the liberation
of Andr6 could not be asked for except in exchange for
one who was equally implicated in the complot. Robert-
son then forgot himself so far as to deliver an open letter
from Arnold to Washington, in which, in the event Andr6
should suffer the penalty of death, he used these threats :
" I shall think myself bound by every tie of duty and honor
to retaliate on such unhappy persons of your army as may
fall within my power. Forty of the principal inhabitants
of South Carolina have justty forfeited their lives; Sir
Henry Clinton cannot in justice extend his mercy to them
any longer, if Major Andr6 suffers."

Meantime, Andr6 entreated with touching earnest-
ness that he might not die " on the gibbet.'9 Washing-
ton and every other officer in the American army were moved
to the deepest compassion ; and Hamilton, who has left his
opinion that no one ever suffered death with more justice
and that there was in truth no way of saving him, wished
that in the mode of his death his feelings as an officer and
a man might be respected. But the English themselves
had established the exclusive usage of the gallows. At
the beginning of the war, their officers in America threat-
ened the highest American officers and statesmen with the
cord. It was the only mode of execution authorized by
them. Under the orders of Clinton, Lord Cornwallis in
South Carolina had set up the gallows for those whom
he styled deserters, without regard to rank. Neither the
sentence of the court nor the order of Washington names

1780. COMPLOT OF CLINTON AND AENOLD. 831

death on the gallows ; the execution took place in the man-
ner that was alone in use on both sides.

In going to the place of execution, a constrained smile
hid the emotions of Andre. Arrived at the fatal spot, the
struggle in his mind was visible; but he preserved
his self-control. "I am reconciled," he said, "to my nso.
fate, but not to the mode." Being asked at the last
moment if he had any thing to say, he answered : " Noth-
ing but to request you to witness to the world that I die
like a brave man."

Tried by the laws of morals, it is one of the worst forms
of dissimulation to achieve by corruption and treachery
what cannot be gained by honorable arms. If we .confine
our judgment within the limits of the laws of war, it is a
blemish on the character of Andre that he was willing to
prostitute a flag, to pledge his word, even under the orders
of his chief, for the innocence and private nature of his
design, and to have wished to make the lives of faultless
prisoners hostages for his own. About these things a man
of honor and humanity ought to have had a scruple ; " but
the temptation was great, let his misfortunes cast a veil over
his errors." The last words of Andre committed to the
Americans the care of his reputation; and they faithfully
fulfilled his request. The firmness and delicacy observed
in his case was exceedingly admired on the continent of
Europe. His king did right in offering honorable rank to
his brother, and in granting pensions to his mother and
sisters ; but not in raising a memorial to his name in West-
minster Abbey. Such honor belongs to other enterprises
and deeds. The tablet has no fit place in a sanctuary, dear
from its monuments to every friend to genius and man-
kind.

As for Arnold, he had not feeling enough to undergo
mental torments, and his coarse nature was not sensitive to
shame. Bankrupt and escaping from his creditors, he pre-
ferred claims to indemnity, and received between six and
seven thousand pounds. He suffered only when he found
that baflled treason is paid grudgingly ; when employment
was refused him ; when he could neither stay in England

332 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVH.

nor get orders for service in America ; when, despised and
neglected, he was pinched by want. Bat the king would
not suffer his children to starve, and eventually their names
were placed on the pension list.

Sir George Rodney returned to the West Indies, and, so
far as related to himself, let the unsuccessful conspiracy sink
into oblivion. For Clinton, the cup of humiliation was filled
to the brim. " Thus ended," so he wrote in his anguish to
Germain, " this proposed plan, from which I had conceived
such great hopes and imagined such great consequences."
He was, moreover, obliged to introduce into high rank in
the British army, and receive at his council table, a man
who had shown himself so sordid that British officers of
honor hated to serve under him, or with him, or over him.
Arnold, on his part, had the effrontery to make addresses to
the American people respecting their alliance with France ;
to write insolent letters to Washington ; to invite all Amer-
icans to desert the colors of their country like himself ; to
advise the breaking up of the American army by wholesale
bribery. Nay, he even turned against his patron as wanting
activity, assuring Germain that the American ports in the
Highlands might be carried in a few days by a regular at-
tack. No one knew better than Clinton that Andre was
punished justly ; yet in his private journal he aimed a stab
at the fair fame of his signally humane adversary, whom he

had been able to overcome neither in the field nor
1T80. by intrigue ; and attributed an act of public duty to

personal " rancor," for which no cause whatever ex-
isted. The false accusation proves not so much malignity
in its author as feebleness.1

1 In my narrative, I have followed only contemporary documents,
which are abundant and of the surest character, and which, taken col-
lectively, solve every question. The most important are : The proceed-
ings of the American court of inquiry ; Clinton's elaborate letters to Lord
George Germain of 11 and 12 Oct., 1780 ; Narrative of correspondence
and transactions respecting General Arnold in Sir Henry Clinton's letter
of 11 Oct., 1780; Clinton's secret letter of 30 Oct., 1780; Clinton's report
to Lord Amherst of 16 Oct., 1780 ; Extract from Clinton's Journal in
Mahon's England, vii., Appendix vii. to xi. ; Journal of General Mat-
thews ; Trial of Joshua Hett Smith, edited by Henry B. Dawson, New

1780. COMPLOT OF CLINTON AND ARNOLD. 333

Washington sought out the three men who, " leaning only
on their virtue and an honest sense of their duty," could
not be tempted by gold ; and on his report congress voted
them annuities in words of respect and honor.

York, 1866; and especially Hamilton's account of Andres affair In
Works, i 172-182. This last is particularly valuable, as Hamilton had
the best opportunities to be well informed ; and in his narrative, if
there are any traces of partiality, it is towards Andre' that he leaned.
The reminiscences of men who wrote in later days are so mixed up
with errors of memory and fable that they offer no sue foothold.

834 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVHI

CHAPTER XLVHI.

STRIVING FOB UNION.

1779-1781.

" Our respective governments which compose the union,"
so ran the circular of congress to the statfes in the
iT?a. opening of the year 1779, "are settled and in the
vigorous exercise of uncontrolled authority." Itself
without credit and unable to enforce the collection of taxes,
it increased its paper money. About one hundred and six
millions were then in circulation. The worth of the con
tinental dollar, for a time buoyed up by the French alliance,
had in three months fallen from twenty cents to twelve and
a half. For the service of the year 1779, congress invited
the states to pay by instalments their respective quotas of
fifteen millions ; and, further, to pay six millions annually
for eighteen years, as a fund to sink all previous emissions
and obligations. The two series which under British au-
spices had been most largely counterfeited were called in ;
but this act impaired the credit of them all, more than
would have been done by leaving the people to discriminate
for themselves. After these preliminaries, a new issue of a
little more than fifty millions was authorized.

"The state of the currency was the great impediment

to all vigorous measures;" it became a question whether

men, if they could be raised, could be subsisted. In

Aprn. April, when a paper dollar was worth but five cents,

it was said that "a wagon-load of money would

scarcely purchase a wagon-load of provisions. The

May. Pennsylvania farmers were unwilling to sell their

wheat except for hard money. There seemed no

hope of relief but from some central authority. To con-

1779. STRIVING FOR UNION. 835

federate without Maryland was the vote of Connecticut;
with nine or more states, was the opinion at Boston ; with
" so many as shall be willing to do so," allowing to the rest
a time during which they might come in, was the decision
of Virginia.

Late in May, congress apportioned among the states
forty-five millions of dollars more, though there was no
chance that the former apportionment would be paid. Four
times in the course of the year it sent forth addresses to
the several states. Newspapers, town-meetings, legislatures,
teemed with remedial plans; but the issue of paper con-
stantly increased, and its value fell with accelerated
velocity. In the middle of August, when a paper Aug^rr.
dollar was worth but three or four cents, Washing-
ton, who had suffered very heavy losses and remained will-
ing to sacrifice his whole estate, instructed his agent that
the legal-tender law countenanced dishonesty.

On the second of September, congress, having ascer- sept 2.
tained that the sum of outstanding emissions was but
little short of one hundred and sixty millions, limited paper
money to two hundred millions ; and the limit was
reached before the end of the year. In October, it Oct.
appointed Henry Laurens, of South Carolina, to ne-
gotiate a loan of ten millions in the Netherlands. In
November, it further resolved to draw upon him for Nor.
one hundred thousand pounds sterling ; and to draw
on Jay, at Madrid, for as much more. The two were in-
structed mutually to support each other; but neither of
them had any resources. The king of Spain was the most
determined foe to the independence of the United States ;
and the United Provinces had not yet acknowledged their
existence. In the midst of these financial straits, the year
came to an end ; and a paper dollar, which in January had
been worth twelve and a half cents, was in December worth
less than two and a half cents.

The legislature of Virginia had, on the second of June 2.
June, 1779, unanimously ratified the treaties of alli-
ance and commerce between France and the United States ;
and the governor had, under the seal of the commonwealth,

836 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chip.XLVHI

notified the French minister at Philadelphia of the
g™k act« On this procedure, Vergennes in September in-
structed the French minister at Philadelphia in these
words : " During the war, it is essential both for the United
States and for us that their union should be as perfect as
possible. "When they shall be left to themselves, the general
confederation will have much difficulty in maintaining itself,
and will perhaps be replaced by separate confederations.
Should this revolution take place, it will weaken the United
States, which have not now, and never will have, real and
respectable strength except by their union. But it is for
themselves alone to make these reflections. We have no
right to present them for their consideration, and we have
no interest whatever to see America play the part of a
power. The possibility of the dissolution of the general
confederation, and the consequent suppression of congress,
leads us to think that nothing can be more conformable to
our political interest than separate acts by which each state
shall ratify the treaties concluded with France ; because in
this way every state will be found separately connected
with us, whatever may be the fortune of the general con-
federation."

Maryland was the only other state to take notice of trea-
ties, and it did no more than approve the act of its dele-
gates in ratifying them. The sentiment of congress was
strong against these seeming assumptions of a separate
voice on a subject reserved exclusively for the deliberation
of all. Before the war was ended, both Maryland and Vir-
ginia applied to France for assistance, which the latter
received. x

On the question of a closer union, Virginia hung nearly
on the balance. The first of her citizens, at the head of the
army, was using all his powers of persuasion to promote an
efficient government ; and her legislature selected Madison,
a friend to union, as one of her representatives. On the
other hand, as the chief claimant of north-western lands in
opposition to congress, she, above all others, asserted the
sovereignty of the separate states. Congress had received
petitions from persons, claiming to be companies, holding

1780. STRIVING FOR UNION. 337

land north-west of the Ohio. " Should congress assume a
jurisdiction," such was the remonstrance of the general
assembly of Virginia, "it would be a violation of public
faith; introduce a most dangerous precedent, which might
hereafter be urged to deprive of territory or subvert the
sovereignty and government of any one or more of the
United States ; and establish in congress a power which, in
process of time, must degenerate into an intolerable des-
potism." "Although the general assembly of Virginia
would make great sacrifices to the common interest of
America (as they have already done on the subject of rep-
resentation), and will be ready to listen to any just and
reasonable propositions for removing the ostensible causes
of delay to the complete ratification of the confederation,
they do hereby, in the name and on behalf of the common-
wealth of Virginia, expressly protest against any jurisdiction
or right of adjudication in congress, upon the petitions of
the Vandalia or Indiana companies, or on any other matter
or thing subversive of the internal policy, civil government,
or sovereignty of this or any other of the United American
States, or unwarranted by the articles of confederation."
Congress, on mature consideration, declined the discussion
of the remonstrance.

To counterbalance the sturdy resistance of Virginia, lzso.
the legislature of New York took the field. They
founded claims to western territory on the discoveries of
the Dutch ; on the grant from Charles II. to the Duke of
York ; on the capitulation of the Dutch ; on the acquisition
of the rights of the Five Nations and their tributaries as
the native proprietors. Desirous to accelerate the
federal alliance, on the nineteenth of April, 1780, Apr. m
they authorized congress to restrict their boundaries
on the west. This is the first important act of the states
in surrendering public lands to the federal union.

At the opening of the year 1780, congress found itself
utterly helpless, and threw every thing upon the states. In
truth, there was nothing else that it could do. On
the ninth of February, it fixed the number of men Feb. a
necessary for the service of the year at thirty-five
vol. ti. 22

338 THE AMERICAN BEVOLUTION. Chap. XLVm.

thousand two hundred and eleven, and required the states
to furnish by drafts or otherwise, before the first day of the
ooming Ap*il, the respective deficiencies in their quotas,
which were prescribed with exactness. But troops need to
be subsisted : congress called on the several states to furnish
their respective quotas of supplies for the ensuing season ;
thus shoving off from itself all care for recruiting the army,
and all responsibility for its support. To gain money, it di-
rected the states to bring into the continental treasury, by
taxes or otherwise, one million two hundred and fifty thou-
sand dollars every month to the month of April, 1781,
inclusive, in hard money or with forty dollars in the old
bills for one dollar of the tax. The bills that should be
thus brought in were to be destroyed ; and, for every forty
dollars actually cancelled, two dollars of a new issue might
be uttered, bearing five per cent interest, receivable by the
continental treasury as specie, and redeemable in specie by
the several states on or before the last day of December,
1786.

As fast as the new bills should be signed and emitted, the
states respectively on whose funds they were to be issued
were to receive three fifths of them, and the remaining two
fifths were to be subject to the order of the United States,
and to be duly credited to the several states. All laws on
legal tender were to be adapted to the new system. The
elaborate plan was generally well received, though by a
mere vote it sponged out thirty-nine fortieths of the former
currency. As the bills were to be issued in the names of
the several states according to enactments of their own
legislatures, the plan could not go into effect till each one of
them should give authority for the use of its name.
1780. Meantime, the demands on the continental treasury
were in part answered by warrants on the several
states, which found means to discharge them, using the
taxes collected for the continental treasury.

Pennsylvania was the first state that had the opportunity
to accept the measure, and it adjourned without acting upon
it. The legislature of Virginia rejected it by an overwhelm-
ing majority, and at last, after great persuasion, accepted

1780. 8TEIVING FOR UNION. 889

it by a majority of but two. The new emission wanted
credit from the beginning ; the old currency soon ceased to
circulate.

A cry arose among patriotic men, especially in the army,
for an efficient government. " While the powers of con-
gress," wrote Greene, "are so incompetent to the duty
required of them, I have but little hopes that the face of
our affairs will mend; on the contrary, I fear they will
grow worse and worse until ruin overtakes us." In the
army, which had been unpaid for five months, every depart-
ment was without money and without the shadow of credit.
To relieve this gloomy state of things, congress, on the
tenth of April, 1780, promised to make good to the officers
and line the depreciation in their pay ; but the promise was
little worth. For a long time the troops received only from
one half to one eighth of a ration of meat, and were
several days without a single pound of it. Wash- ^ay!
ington appealed to the president of the rich state of
Pennsylvania, which, except for a few months in 1777 and
1778, had been untouched by the war; but it was in vain.
" The great man," wrote Greene secretly to the president of
Pennsylvania, " is confounded at his situation, but appears
to be reserved and silent. Should there be a want of pro-
visions, we cannot hold together many days in the present
temper of the army." On the twenty-fifth of May, two
regiments of Connecticut, worn out by want of clothes and
food and pay, paraded under arms, declaring their resolution
to return home, or to obtain subsistence for themselves ; and
they were brought back to their duty only by being reminded
that they were defenders of the rights of mankind, and, as
a grave writer who was then with the army relates, by the
"influence of the commander in chief whom they almost
adored." The enemy appeared against them in the midst
of these trials ; and they rallied as one man and kept him
at bay. •

tt Certain I am," wrote Washington in May, to his friend
Joseph Jones, a delegate from Virginia, "unless congress
are vested with powers by the several states competent to
the great purposes of war, or assume them as matter of right,

340 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVHI.

and they and the states respectively act with more energy
than they have hitherto done, our cause is lost. We can
no longer drudge on in the old way. By ill-timing in the
adoption of measures, by delays in the execution of them,
or by unwarrantable jealousies, we incur enormous expenses
and derive no benefit from them. One state will comply
with a requisition of congress ; another neglects to do it ;
a third executes it by halves; and • all differ either in the
manner, the matter, or so much in point of time, that
nso. we are always working up-hill. While such a system
as the present one, or rather want of one, prevails,
we shall ever be unable to apply our strength or resources
to any advantage.

" This, my dear sir, is plain language to a member of con-
gress, but it is the language of truth and friendship. It is
the result of long thinking, close application, and strict ob-
servation. I see one head gradually changing into thirteen.
I see one army branching into thirteen, which, instead of
looking up to congress as the supreme controlling power of
the United States, are considering themselves as dependent
on their respective states. In a word, I see the powers of
congress declining too fast for the consideration and respect
which are due to them as the great representative body of
America, and I am fearful of the consequences."

" Congress," answered his correspondent, " have scarcely
a power left but such as concerns foreign transactions ; for,
as to the army, they are at present little more than the
medium through which its wants are conveyed to the states.
This body never had, or at least in few instances ever
exercised, powers adequate to the purposes of war; and,
indeed, such as they possessed have been frittered away to
the states, and it will be found very difficult to recover them.
Resolutions are now before us, by one of which the states
are desired to give express powers for the common defence.
Others go to the assumption of them immediately. The
first will sleep with the states ; the others will die where
they are, so cautious are some of offending t&ie states."

When it became certain that troops from France were on
their way to assist the country, congress made not even a

1780 STBIVING FOR UNION. 341

semblance of direct action, and could only entreat the states
to correspond severally with its committee at head-quarters,
bo that it might explicitly know how far they could be relied
on to furnish the men and money and provisions that had
been called for. The legislature of Pennsylvania, before its
adjournment, vested large discretionary powers in its presi-
dent ; but these from motives of prudence he declined to
use. It remained to be seen what private efforts
could do. In June, steps were taken at Philadelphia j£J£
for founding a bank with leave to issue notes. The
subscribers proposed, but only on adequate security, to
make purchases in advance for the suffering soldiers. Con-
gress accepted the proffered aid, and further resolved to
intrust to the company as much of its paper money as
could be spared from other services. Thus began the deposit
of funds of the United States in a bank.

Throughout the war, the women of America never grew
weary of yielding up articles necessary for the comfort of
their own households, to relieve the distresses of the soldiers.
The women of Philadelphia, rallying round the amiable
Esther Reed, wife of the president of Pennsylvania, now
made a more earnest effort : they brought together large
donations of clothing, and invited the ladies of other states
to adopt a like plan. They thus assisted to keep alive the
spirit of patriotism in the army, but their gifts could not
meet its ever recurring wants.

u The congress," wrote Greene, towards the end of June,
" have lost their influence. I have for a long time seen the
necessity of some new plan of civil constitution. Unless
there is some control over the states by the congress, we
shall soon be like a broken band."

Without the impulse from a centre, there could be no
good administration. Money enough had been expended for
clothing the army ; but large importations were left to go to
waste in different parts of the country, and the troops were
never seen otherwise than half-naked. When congress drew
supplies in kind directly from each state for its own troops,
quotas were sometimes apportioned by the states to their
towns, and in towns to individuals. Men of small means

342 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLY1T1

in a New England village would club together to buy an
ox of a weight equal to their collective quotas, and herds
of cattle gathered in this way were driven slowly to
1780. camp. All this marked an active spirit of patriotism
reaching to the humblest and remotest, but it showed
the want of organized power.

Even with the energy of Greene, there could be no effi-
cient administration in the quartermaster's department,
though it had been placed on a centralized system under
his immediate authority with powers almost independent of
congress, and with most liberal and even lucrative emolu-
ments for himself, his assistants and subordinates. Wash-
ington was satisfied that he did all that was possible, that
he " conducted the various duties of his office with capacity
and diligence, and with the strictest integrity ." The system
itself in the hands of a bad man would have opened the way
to endless abuses ; and congress wisely restored its own con-
trolling civil supervision. Dismissing a useless supernume-
rary, it determined to have but one head of the quartermaster's
department at the seat of congress, and one at the camp ;
and, in paying the officers of the staff, it returned to salaries
instead of commissions. The unanimous judgment of the
country from that day to this has approved the reform.
Greene, to whom his office had for more than a year become
grievously irksome, resigned with petulant abruptness ; but
congress, still following its sense of public duty, conquered
its well-grounded displeasure, and soon after, on the advice
of Washington, appointed him to the command of the south-
ern army. His successor in the quartermaster's department
was Timothy Pickering, who excelled him as a man of busi-
ness ; so that the service suffered nothing by the change.

The tendency to leave all power in the hands of the
separate states was a natural consequence of their historic
development, and was confirmed by pressing necessity.
" A single assembly," so John Adams long continued to
reason, "is every way adequate to the management of all
the federal concerns of the people of America; and with
very good reason, because congress is not a legislative, nor
a representative, but a diplomatic assembly."

Congress having invited the eight states north of Mary-

1780. STRIVING FOR UNION. 843

land to convene at New Haven, in January, 1778, all but
Delaware appeared; but they strove in vain to regulate
prices. The convention of the eastern states, which at the
instance of Massachusetts assembled in the next year at
Hartford, is memorable for having advised a convention of
all the states at Philadelphia. In consequence, early in
1780, delegates from every state north of Virginia, except
New York, met in that city, but accomplished nothing.
By the meeting of the eastern states in August, 1780,
at Boston, the first step was taken towards the formation
of a federal constitution. After adopting a series of meas-
ures best suited to the campaign, they resolved " that the
union of these states be fixed in a more solid and perma-
nent manner ; that the powers of congress be more clearly
ascertained and denned ; that the important national con-
cerns of the United States be under the superintendency
and direction of one supreme head ; that it be recommended
to the states to empower their delegates in congress to con-
federate with such of the states as will accede to the pro-
posed confederation ; and that they invest their dele-
gates in congress with powers competent for the 1780.
government and direction of all those common and
national affairs which do not nor can come within the juris-
diction of the particular states."

To these resolutions Washington invited the attention of
Bowdoin, then president of the council of Massachusetts.
" If adopted," said he, " they will be the means most likely
to rescue our affairs from the complicated and dreadful
embarrassments under which they labor, and will do infinite
honor to those with whom they originate. I sincerely wish
they may meet with no opposition or delay in their progress."'

The words of the convention sunk deeply into the mind
of Hamilton, who for three and a half years had been Wash-
ington's most able and confidential secretary; and, under
his eye and guidance, had watched the course of affairs
from the central point where they could best be overseen.
To these opportunities he added the resources of an inven-
tive and fearless mind, joined to the quick impulses of
youth, and the habit of steady and severe reflection. Un-

344 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVHL

controlled by birth or inherited attachments to any one
state, he fastened with superior power upon the idea of a
stronger union. Of Scotch and Celtic origin, he had some-
thing of proneness to the exercise of authority. By disposi-
tion and temperament he demanded a strong and well-
organized government of ever active and enduring power.
Though still so young, his intellect was, and remained for
his lifetime, the wellspring of ideas for the conservative poli-
ticians of New York, and of an ever increasing circle in

other states. From childhood, he was unbounded in
1780. his admiration of the English constitution, and did

not utterly condemn its methods of corruption in the
conduct of public affairs ; yet in his own nature there was
nothing sordid or low ; he was disinterested, and always true
to the sense of pergonal integrity and honor. The character
of his mind and his leaning to authority, combined with some-
thing of a mean opinion of his fellow-men, cut him off from
the sympathy of the masses, so that he was in many ways
unfit to lead a party ; and the years of his life which were
most productive of good were those in which he acted with
Washington, who was the head, the leader, and the guide
of a nation in a manner which he was not only incapable of,
but could never even fully comprehend. While the weighti-
est testimony that has ever been borne to the ability of
Hamilton is by Washington, there never fell from Hamilton's
pen during the lifetime of the latter one line which ade-
quately expressed the character of Washington, or gave
proof that he had had the patience to verify the immense
power that lay concealed beneath the uniform moderation
and method of his chief. He had a good heart, but with it
the pride and the natural arrogance of youth, combined with
an almost overweening consciousness of his endowments, so
that he was ready to find faults in the administration oi
others, and to believe that things might have gone better
if the direction had rested with himself. Bold in the
avowal of his own opinions, he was fearless to provoke and
quick to combat opposition. It was not his habit to repine
over lost opportunities ; but rather to prevent what seemed
to him coming evils by timely action.

1780 STRIVING FOR UNION. 345

The England of that day had its precocious statesmen.
For stateliness of eloquence, and consummate skill in man-
aging a legislative assembly, the palm must be given to Pitt,
whom Hamilton excelled in vigor, consistency, and versa-
tility. There were points of analogy between Hamilton
and Fox. Both were warm and passionate ; but Hamilton
became the father of a family, while Fox wasted life as a
libertine. It was remarkable of both of them that, with
fiery natures, their style in debate and in writing was
devoid of ornament, attractive only by strength of thought
and clearness of expression.

On the third of September, 1780, Hamilton took nso.
the field as a maker of a national constitution, by S6^t3-
inviting Duane, a member of congress from New York, to
hold up to that body the example of the New England states,
and to call on the first day of the next November a conven-
tion of all the states, with full authority to conclude finally
upon a general confederation. He traced the causes of the
want of power in congress, and censured that body for its
timidity in refusing to assume authority to preserve the
republic from harm. " Undefined powers," he said, " are
discretionary powers, limited only by the object for which
they were given," not holding in mind that congress could
not have assumed such powers, even if it would. " Already,"
he continued, " some of the lines of the army, but for the
personal influence of the general, would obey their states in
opposition to congress, notwithstanding the pains taken to
preserve the unity of the army. The sovereign of an empire
under one simple form of government has too much power ;
in an empire composed of confederated states, each with a
government completely organized within itself, the danger
is directly the reverse."

" We must, at all events, have a vigorous confederation,"
he said, " if we mean to succeed in the contest, and be
happy thereafter. Internal police should be regulated by
the legislatures. Congress should have complete sover-
eignty in all that relates to war, peace, trade, finance, for-
eign affairs, armies, fleets, fortifications, coining money,
establishing banks, imposing a land-tax, poll-tax, duties on

846 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVIIL

trade, and the unoccupied lands." "The confederation
should provide certain perpetual revenues, productive and
easy of collection, — a land-tax, poll-tax, or the like ; which,
together with the duties on trade and the unlocated lands,
would give congress a substantial existence." " Where the
public good is evidently the object, more may be effected
in governments like ours than in any other. It has been
a constant remark that free countries have ever paid the
heaviest taxes. The obedience of a free people to general
laws, however hard they bear, is ever more perfect than
that of slaves to the arbitrary will of a prince."

" As to the plan of confederation which congress has pro-
posed, it is," he said, " defective, and requires to be altered.
It is neither fit for war nor peace. The idea of an
1780. uncontrollable sovereignty in each state will defeat
the powers given to congress, and make our union
feeble and precarious."

The second step which Hamilton recommended was the
appointment of great officers of state, — one for the depart-
ment of foreign affairs, another for war, a third for the
navy, a fourth for the treasury. These were to supersede
the committees and the boards which had hitherto been
usual ; but his plan neither went so far as to propose a presi-
dent with the chief executive power, nor two branches in
the national legislature. He would have placed the army
exclusively under congress, but mistook its importance as
" a solid basis of authority and consequence." The prece-
dent of the Bank of England, of which he over-estimated
the influence on public credit, led him to place too much
reliance on a bank of the United States.

The advice which Hamilton offered from his tent, in the
midst of an unpaid, half-fed, and half-clad army, was the
more remarkable from the hopefulness which .beamed
through his words. No doubt crossed his mind, or indeed
that of any of his countrymen, that a republic of united
states could be formed over a widely extended territory.

Two days later, Washington, with Duane at his side,
gazed from Weehawken Heights on the half-ruined city of
New York in her bondage. He may not have fully foreseen

1780. 8TBIVING FOB UNION. 847

how the wealth and commercial representatives of all the
nations of the world would be gathered on that island and
the neighboring shores ; but he, too, never doubted of the
coming prosperity and greatness of his country.

Congress toiled as before, and, if for the moment it toiled
in vain, it secured the future. It urged on the states a
liberal surrender of their territorial claims in the west, " to
accelerate the federal alliance and lead to the happy estab-
lishment of the federal union ; " and, as if its eye had pierced
the glories of the coming century, it provided "that the
western lands which might be ceded to the United States
should be settled and formed into distinct republican states,
that should become members of that federal union, and have
the same rights of sovereignty, freedom, and inde-
pendence as the other states.'9 In October, in words mo.
drafted by Robert R. Livingston, it adhered with
hearty good-will to the principles of the armed neutrality,
and by a vote of a majority of the states it sought to quiet
the discontent among the officers in the army by promising
them half-pay for life. But, to relieve the embarrassments
of the moment, it was helpless.

Again, on the twenty-second of October, Washington, to
guide his native state towards union, poured out his heart
to his early friend George Mason : " Our present distresses
are so great and complicated that it is scarcely within the
powers of description to give an adequate idea of them.
With regard to our future prospects, unless there is a ma-
terial change both in our civil and military policy, it will be
in vain to contend much longer.

"We are without money; without provision and forage,
except what is taken by impress; without clothing; and
shortly shall be, in a manner, without men. In a word, we
have lived upon expedients till we can live no longer. The
history of this war is a history of temporary devices instead
of system, and economy which results from it.

"If we mean to continue our struggles (and it is to be
hoped we shall not relinquish our claims), we must do it
upon an entire new plan. We must have a permanent
force ; not a force that is constantly fluctuating and sliding

348 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLV1D

from under as, as a pedestal of ice would leave a statue on
a summer's day ; involving us in expense that baffles all cal-
culation, an expense which no funds are equal to. We must
at the same time contrive ways and means to aid our taxes
by loans, and put our finances upon a more certain and
stable footing than they are at present. Our civil govern-
ment must likewise undergo a reform ; ample powers must
be lodged in congress as the head of the federal union, ade-
quate to all the purposes of war. Unless these things are
done, our efforts will be in vain."

1780. On the fourth of November, congress once more
Nov. 4. distributed among the several states a tax of six mil-
lions of silver dollars, to be paid partly in specific articles.
But in truth everybody came to the conviction that the
country must depend on France for aid in money. " It is

now four days," wrote Glover to Massachusetts on
Dec. 11. the eleventh of December, "since your line of the

army has eaten one mouthful of bread. We have no
money ; nor will anybody trust us. The best of wheat is at
this moment selling in the state of New York for three-
fourths of a dollar per bushel, and your army is starving for
want. On the first of January something will turn up, if
not speedily prevented, which your officers cannot be an-
swerable for."

When congress in September, 1776, had transferred the
enlistment of troops to the states, the new recruits were to
bind themselves to serve for the war; but in some cases
the enlistment was made " for three years or for the war ; "

and three years had passed since that time. In the
Jan.* night of the first of January, 1781, a part of the

Pennsylvania line, composed in a large degree of
new comers from Ireland, and hutted at Morristown, re-
volted, and, under the lead of their non-commissioned
officers, marched with six field-pieces to Princeton. The
want of clothes in winter, of pay for nearly a year, the not
infrequent want of food, the compulsion imposed upon some
of them to remain in service beyond the three years for
which they believed they had engaged, were extremities
which they would no longer endure.

1781. STRIVING FOR UNION. 849

Informed of the mutiny, Sir Henry Clinton passed over
to Staten Island with a body of troops for its support ; but
two emissaries whom he sent to them with tempting offers
were given up by the mutineers, and after trial were hanged
as spies. Reed, the president of Pennsylvania, repaired to
the spot, though it was beyond his jurisdiction ; and without
authority, and without due examination of each case,
he discharged those who professed to have served out . j|£
their specified term, while measures were taken by
the state of Pennsylvania to clothe and pay the rest. They,
for the most part, obtained no more than was due them ;
but it was of evil tendency that they gained it by a revolt.

In a circular letter to the New England states, of which
Knox was made the bearer, Washington laid open the ag-
gravated calamities and distresses of the army. " Without
relief, the worst," he said, " that can befall us may be ex-
pected. I will continue to exert every means I am pos-
sessed of to prevent an extension of the mischief ; but I can
neither foretell nor be answerable for the issue."

Troops of New Jersey, whose ranks next to the Pennsyl-
vania line included the largest proportion of foreigners,
showed signs of being influenced by the bad example ; but
Washington interposed. The troops of New England,
which had twenty regiments in the continental service, had
equal reasons for discontent; but they were almost every
one of them native Americans, freeholders, or sons of free-
holders. In spite of their nakedness, they marched through
deep snows, over mountainous roads, and suppressed the
incipient revolt. The passions of the army were quieted
by their patriotism; and order and discipline returned.
"Human patience has its limits," wrote Lafayette to his
wife on the occasion ; " no European army would suffer the
tenth part of what the American troops suffer. It takes
citizens to support hunger, nakedness, toil, and the total
want of pay, which constitute the condition of our soldiers,
the hardiest and most patient that are to be found in the
world."

Knox reported from New England zealous efforts to enlist
men for the war. Congress could do nothing, and con-

850 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVIH.

fessed that it could do nothing. " We have required," thus
it wrote to the states on the fifteenth of January, 1781,
" aids of men, provisions, and money ; " and it stated ex-
actly the difficulty under which the union labored when it
added : " The states alone have authority to execute."

Since congress made a public confession of its powerless-
ness, nothing remained for the United States but to appeal
to France for rescue, not from a foreign enemy, but
Jan." from the evils consequent on their own want of gov-
ernment. It was therefore resolved, for the moment,
to despatch to Versailles as a special minister some one who
had lived in the midst of the ever increasing distresses of
the army, to set them before the government of France in
the most striking light. Hamilton, the fittest man for the
office, was not known to congress ; and its choice fell on the
younger Laurens of South Carolina.

To this agent Washington confided a statement of the
condition of the country ; and with dignity and candor
avowed that it had reached a crisis out of which it could
not rise by its own unassisted strength. "Without an
immediate, ample, and efficacious succor in money," such
were his words, " we may make a feeble and expiring effort
in our next campaign, in all probability the period of our
opposition. Next to a loan of money, a constant naval
superiority on these coasts is the object most interesting;"
and without exaggeration he explained the rapid advance-
ment of his country in population and prosperity, and the
certainty of its redeeming in a short term of years the com-
paratively inconsiderable debts it might have occasion to
contract. To Franklin he wrote in the same strain; and
Lafayette addressed a like memorial of ripe wisdom to
Vergennes.

While the United States thus importuned a foreign prince
for help, their people, in proportion to numbers, were richer
than the people to whose king they, from their own want
of government, were obliged to appeal. Can Louis XVL
organize the resources of France, and is republican America
incapable of doing as well ? Can monarchy alone give to
a nation unity? Is freedom necessarily anarchical? Are

1781. STRIVING FOR UNION. 851

authority and the hopes of humanity for ever at variance f
Are the United States, who so excel the kingdoms of the
Old World in liberty, doomed to hopeless inferiority
in respect of administration ? For the eye of Robert j J£813i.
R Livingston, then the most influential member from
New York, Washington traced to their source the evils
under which the country was sinking, and invited their
correction. " There can be no radical cure," wrote he, " till
congress is vested by the several states with full and ample
powers to enact laws for general purposes, and till the exec-
utive business is placed in the hands of able and responsible
men. Requisitions then will be supported by law."

Congress began to be of the same opinion. On
the third of February, Witherspoon of New Jersey, Feb. a
seconded by Burke of North Carolina, proposed to
clothe that body with authority to regulate commerce and
to lay duties upon imported articles. The proposition was
negatived, but it was resolved to be indispensably necessary
for the states to vest a power in congress to levy a duty of
five per cent on importations of articles of foreign growth
and manufacture. Yet, before that measure could become
valid, the separate approval of every one of the thirteen
states must be gained.

The assent of Virginia was promptly given. That great
commonwealth, having Jefferson for its governor, sought to
promote peace and union. To advance the former, it even
instructed its delegates in congress to surrender the right
of navigating the Mississippi River below the thirty-first
degree of north latitude, provided Spain in return would
guarantee the navigation of the river above that parallel.
Madison, obeying the instruction, voted for the measure
contrary to his private judgment. Massachusetts, Connect-
icut, and North Carolina alone opposed, New York being
divided. Virginia did more. Avowing her regard for a
" federal union," and preferring the good of the country to
every object of smaller importance, she resolved to yield
her title to the lands north-west of the Ohio, on condition
that they should be formed into distinct republican states,
and be admitted members of the federal union ; and Jeffer-

352 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLV1II

son, who from the first had pledged himself to the measure,
announced to congress this great act of his administration
in a letter full of hope for the completion of the American
union, and the establishment of free republics in the vast
country to which Virginia quitted her claim.
i78i. The first day of March was a great day in the his-
Mar- 1# tory of the country. America had proceeded by peti-
tions to the king, by a declaration of rights, by an appeal to
the world on taking up arms, by her declaration of indepen-
dence, onwards to the confederation which was designed to
make them one people for all time ; Maryland, last of the
states, subscribed the articles ; and " the United States of
America, each and every of the thirteen, adopted, confirmed,
and ratified their confederation and perpetual union."

It is terrible when a state, crushed by sufferings, on attain-
ing that which promised relief, finds it an illusion. The
people of the United States thought that they had estab-
lished a government, and there was no government. In the
draft of Dickinson, the confederation was an alliance of sov-
ereign states: every change in it increased their relative
weight. The original report permitted each of them to
impose duties oh imports and exports, provided they did
not interfere with stipulations in treaties; this restriction
was confined to the treaties already proposed to France
and Spain. No power to prohibit the slave-trade was
granted. In troops raised for the common defence, the
appointment of field and inferior officers, and the filling up
of vacancies, were reserved to the several states. Congress
was in future to be chosen annually, and on every first
Monday of November to organize itself anew. A majority
of the states present had thus far decided every question ;
the confederation, which forthwith took effect, required the
presence and assent of seven states, an absolute majority of
all, to carry even the most trifling measure, and of nine
states, that is two thirds of all, to carry every important
measure of peace or war, of treaties or finance.

Further, each state retained its sovereignty and every
attribute not expressly delegated to the United States ; and
by the denial of all incidental powers, the exercise of the

1781 STRIVING FOR UNION. 853

granted powers was rendered impracticable. By the arti-
cles of confederation, congress alone could treat with
foreign nations ; but it provided no method for en- March,
forcing treaties, so that the engagements on the part
of the nation might be violated by any one of its members.

Congress was to defray expenses for the common defence
or general welfare out of a common treasury; but there
was no independent treasury : the taxes were to be laid and
levied by the legislatures of the several states. Moreover,
the quotas of the states were to be assigned in proportion
to the value of all real estate within each state, and that
value each state was to estimate for itself. Without over-
leaping its powers, congress, which had no direct power to
levy any money whatever, could not even assign to the states
their quotas, till every one of the thirteen should have com-
pleted its valuation. The states might tax imports as much
as they pleased : congress could not tax them at all. It
could declare war, but had not power to bring a single
citizen into the field.

A confederation is the opposite to union ; since it acts
not on individuals, but only on each separate sovereignty.
The states of America had formed a confederation, not a
union. Room for amendment seemed to be provided for;
but such amendment could not take place without the simul-
taneous and unanimous consent of every member. America
had seated anarchy deep in the very source of legislation.
No creative word could go forth : through congress, there
could be no agreement in reform. With every day, men
would grow more attached to their separate states; for
many of these had the best governments in the world, while
the confederation was one of the worst, or rather no govern-
ment at all.

Washington was the first to perceive the defects of the
confederation, and the first to urge its reform. On the day
before it was adopted, he had explained to a young member
of the Virginia legislature "the necessity of a controlling
power to regulate and direct all matters of general concern.
The great business of war," he said, " never can be well con-
ducted, if it can be conducted at all, while the powers of
vol. vi. 23

354 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap- XLVIH

congress are only recommendatory. Our independence, oar
respectability and consequence in Europe, our greatness
as a nation hereafter, depend upon vesting congress with
competent powers. That body, after hearing the views of
the several states fairly discussed, must dictate, and not
merely recommend."

The position of the commander in chief required of him
unceasing caution. Intrusted with the conduct of the war,
no one could see so clearly the absolute necessity of cloth
ing the confederation with coercive powers over its mem-
bers; but the vigorous recommendation of the change,
proceeding from the head of the army that in the last
resort would be the instrument of coercion, would have
increased and apparently justified congress in its jealousy
of the camp. While, therefore, he wished to support his
opinion by all the influence which he could wield, he sought
to do it so circumspectly as to awaken no fear of military
dictation or a baneful employment of force. The office of
preparing a code of laws for Virginia, and adapting them
to her new relations, had been definitively confided to Pen-
dleton, Wythe, and Jefferson. No sooner had a ground-
work for national reform been laid by the acceptance of the
confederation, than Washington addressed to these three
greatest civilians of his native commonwealth the most
earnest arguments and entreaties that the manner of co-
ercing a refractory or delinquent state might be clearly
laid down, and the defects of the articles of confedera-
tion be seasonably considered and remedied. "Danger,"
he added, "may spring from delay; good, from a timely
application of a remedy. The present temper of the states
is friendly to the establishment of a lasting union; the
moment should be improved: if suffered to pass
March. awaJ* it may never return ; and, after gloriously and
successfully contending against the usurpations of
Britain, we may fall a prey to our own follies and disputes."

He was more particularly impelled to express his opinions
with freedom, because in December, 1779, the legislature of
Virginia seemed to have censured the point of enforcing
obedience to requisitions. " It would give me concern," he

1781. STRIVING FOR UNION. 355

added, "should it be thought of me that I am desirous of
enlarging the powers of congress unnecessarily, as I declare
to God my only aim is the general good. Perhaps a knowl-
edge that this power was lodged in congress might be the
means to prevent its ever being exercised, and the more
readily induce obedience : indeed, if congress was unques-
tionably possessed of the power, nothing should induce the
display of it but obstinate disobedience and the urgency of
the general welfare."

Of this paper a copy was taken by Joseph Jones, a mem-
ber of congress from Virginia, to whom Washington had
already unbosomed himself "in plain language." This copy
Jones confided to Madison, leaving him to draw his own
inference with regard to its author. The confederation
was but a month and a half old, when a committee of con-
gress presented a report drafted by Madison, exactly in
conformity to the advice of Washington, and, as I believe,
in consequence of it, proposing by "an amendment to
the articles of confederation to give to the United States
full authority to employ their force, as well by sea as by
land, to compel any delinquent state to fulfil its federal
engagements ; " and the reason for the measure as assigned
in the preamble was " to cement and invigorate the federal
union, that it might be established on the most immutable
basis." In this manner, the idea of granting to the United
States power to coerce a delinquent or refractory state
entered the hall of congress, strange and unwelcome and
dreaded, yet never to die.

The delicacy and importance of the subject inspired the
author of the report with the wish to obtain from Jefferson,
now governor of Virginia, and one of those to whom Wash-
ington had addressed his paper of advice and entreaty, a
judgment on the measure, before it should undergo the final
decision of congress. He, therefore, on the sixteenth of
April, represented to him the arming of congress with coer-
cive powers as a necessity, arising from the shameful defi-
ciency of some of the states most capable of yielding their
apportioned supplies, and the military exactions to which
others, already exhausted by the enemy and their own

856 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLVIIL

troops, were in consequence subjected. "The expediency,"
he added, "of making the proposed application to the states,
will depend on the probability of their complying with it.
If they should refuse, congress will be in a worse situation
than at present ; for as the confederation now stands, and
according to the nature even of alliances much less intimate,
there is an implied right of coercion against the delinquent
party, and the exercise of it by congress whenever a palpa-
ble necessity occurs will probably be acquiesced in." The
instrument of coercion which he preferred was a navy.

No answer of Jefferson to these inquiries has been found;
his opinions, as declared at a later period of the confederacy,
coincide with those of Madison, who from that time strove
without rest to establish a true system of national govern-
ment. In May, he continued to discuss with Pendleton by
letters the proper methods of investing congress with new
resources ; but no reflecting and far-seeing observer of its
relative strength dared hope that its members would be able
to remodel the confederacy.

While the Ameiican people met obstructions on every
side as they slowly sounded their way to an efficient
2®£ union, Washington on the first day of May made a
note, that instead of magazines they had but a scanty
pittance of provisions, scattered here and there in the differ-
ent states, and poorly provided arsenals which the workmen
were leaving. The articles of field equipage were not
ready, nor funds to defray the expenses of regular trans-
portation. Scarce any one of the states had as yet sent an
eighth part of its quota into the field ; and there was no
prospect of a glorious offensive campaign, unless their gen-
erous ally should help them with money, and with a fleet
strong enough to secure the superiority at sea.

1180. WAB MADS ON THE NETHERLANDS. 357

CHAPTER XLIX.

GBBAT BRITAIN MAKES WAB ON THE NETHERLANDS.

1780-1781.

Thb successor of Lord Weymouth was Lord Stormont,
the late British ambassador at Paris. He had an
unbounded confidence in the spirit and resources of rrco.
his country ; but this confidence took the worst forms
of haughty blindness to moral distinctions in dealing with
foreign powers. To the complaints of the Dutch respect-
ing the outrage on their flag, he answered by interpreting
treaties directly contrary to their plain meaning, and then
by saying: "We are determined to persist in the line of
conduct we have taken, be the consequences what they
may."

The British ministry sent the case of the Dutch mer-
chant vessels that had been carried into Portsmouth to
the court of admiralty ; and Sir James Mariott, the judge,
thus laid down the law: "It imports little whether the
blockade be made across the narrows at Dover, or off the
harbor at Bre6t or L'Orient. If you are taken, you are
blocked. Great Britain, by her insular position, blocks
naturally all the ports of Spain and France. She has a
right to avail herself of this position as a gift of Provi-
dence.'9 Influenced by the preponderating members of
the republic, the stadholder addressed a representation to
the empress of Russia for concert in the defence of neutral
flags. ' Before it had been received at Petersburg, Prince
Galitzin, the Russian envoy at the Hague, on the
third of April invited the states-general to a union April s.
for the protection of neutral trade and navigation.
"The same invitation," said the envoy, "has been made
to the courts of Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Lisbon, in
order that by the joint endeavors of all neutral maritime1

858 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.XLIX.

powers a natural system, founded on justice, may be es-
tablished as a rule for future ages." The states-general
desired to join in the defensive association ; but the stad-
holder, under English influence, contrived to make delay.

1780. England acted promptly. On the seventeenth, an
Apr. 17. or<ier 0f the king in council suspended all treaties
between the two countries, and threw back the Nether-
lands upon their rights under the law of nations. In con-
sequence of this order in council, Dutch ships were taken
into English ports and condemned by the admiralty, on
the principle that, French harbors being naturally block-
aded by those of England, Dutch ships had no right to
sail near them.

Of the belligerents, the distinction of making the first
answer to the Russian declaration was conceded to
Apr. is. Spain ; and Florida Blanca on the eighteenth of April
adopted the measure so heartily, that in the autobio-
graphic report which he made of his administration to his
king he relates : "The honor of this successful project has
been ascribed to Russia, which in fact lent to it support ;
but it had its origin in the cabinet of your majesty ."

A week later, France, like Spain, acceded to the dec-
laration of Russia : " The war in which the king is engaged
has no other object than the liberty of the seas. The king
believed he had prepared an epoch glorious for his reign,
in fixing by his example the rights of neutrals. His hopes
have not been deceived."

On the fifth of October, the United States of
America in congress, by a resolution which Robert
R. Livingston had drafted, proclaimed the principles of
the empress of Russia, and afterwards included them in
their treaties with the Netherlands, with Sweden, and
with Prussia.

The other belligerent of that day was ready to bring the
question to an issue. The king and his ministry were of
the opinion that to tolerate the armed neutrality was to
confess that British supremacy on the high seas was broken.
A half-official rumor was set afloat that England would de-
clare war on the Netherlands, if they should accept the

17SL WAB MADE ON THE NETHERLANDS. 359

invitation of Russia ; and the cabinet established two points,
from neither of which they would depart : the one, to attack
any Netherlands convoy ; the other, to prevent the associa-
tion of the Netherlands with Russia at all hazards.

Even Lord Shelburne, the chief of the opposition in
the upper house, condemned the Russian manifesto as an
attempt by a " nation scarcely known as a maritime power
thirty years ago to dictate laws of navigation to Great
Britain." And Lord Camden denounced the declaration
of the empress as a dangerous and arbitrary edict, subver-
sive of the first principle of the law of nations.

Yet the British government avoided expressing any opin-
ion on the rules which had been laid down. " An ambig-
uous and trimming answer was given : " such is the severe
judgment of Harris. " We seemed equally afraid to accept
or dismiss the new-fangled doctrines. I was instructed
secretly to oppose, but avowedly to acquiesce in them."

The neutral powers on the continent from Archangel to
Constantinople, one after the other, accepted the code of
Catharine. Bernstorff, though very reluctant to do any
thing not agreeable to the English court with which he was
then conducting a private negotiation defining con-
traband, on the eighth of July announced the adhe- j{Jy°8.
sion of Denmark, and the next day confirmed the
declaration by a treaty with Russia. On the twenty- July 21.
first, Gustavus set forth to the belligerents that the
principles of Russia were his own, and Sweden acceded to
the treaty between Denmark and Russia, and Denmark to
that between Russia and Sweden. The three powers agreed
to support each other against every attack by reprisals
and other means. Each was to fit out a fleet, and the sev-
eral commanders were ordered to protect every mercan-
tile ship of the three nations against injury. When in
autumn it came to light that Bernstorff in a separate treaty
with Great Britain had compromised the rule respecting
contraband, the minister was for the time dismissed
from office. On the seventh of May, 1781, Frederic May1?,
of Prussia acceded to the armed neutrality, and ob-
tained its protection for the commerce of his people. Five

360 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.XUX

months later, Joseph II. overcame his ill-humored demurs,
and, yielding to the empress by treaty, gained advantages
for the commerce of Belgium. The accession of
1782. Portugal took place in July, 1782 ; that of Naples,
in February of the following year ; that of the Otto-
man Porte, in September, 1782, by its treaty with
17R3. Spain, confirmed in June, 1783, by its treaty with
Russia.
Even if the British had reason for suspending all trea-
ties with the Netherlands, the republic remained an inde-
pendent state, and had the rights of an unprivileged neutral ;
yet Stormont showed it no more respect than might have
been done to a vassal. " The best way," wrote he to Yorke,
"to bring the Dutch around to their senses is to wound
them in their most feeling part, their carrying trade. The
success of our cruisers has hitherto fallen much short
May so. of expectation." So on the thirtieth of May, in a
time of uninterrupted peace, Yorke was instructed
to collect the best intelligence on the voyages of the Dutch
merchants, that the British cruisers might know where to
go for the richest prizes.
„ M The condition of the Netherlands was truly diffi-

May 27.

cult to be borne ; their honor was trifled with ; their
commerce pillaged; they were weak and without promise
of help from any side; their stadholder did not support
them. The arrival of each English mail was waited for to
learn by what new measures the British cabinet would abuse
their power, and how many more Dutch ships had been
seized. The republic had no part to choose but submission
to Great Britain or an association with Russia. The draft
of the convention, which the empress had directed to be
offered to Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands, arrived
in June. The grand pensionary and the country wished at
once to accede to the confederacy of the North. But the
stadholder, who in May, acting in the interests of England,
refused to take a step till the conduct of all the other

neutral powers should be thoroughly understood, in
junew. June would not listen to any treaty with Russia,

unless it should include a guarantee of the possession!

1780. WAE MADE ON THE NETHERLANDS. 361

of the republic in both Indies. "A better idea," wrote
Yorke, "could not be started to overset the whole."

Yet Stormont, who on this subject guided the cabinet of
England, wrote to the British ambassador at the Hague :
" If the states-general proceed, they throw the die and leave
as no alternative ; " and he made the same unequivocal
declaration to Welderen, the Dutch representative at Lon-
don. Nor would he suffer any sentiments of attachment to
the house of Orange to bias his opinion or retard extreme
measures.

The commissioners for the Netherlands found in Panin a
statesman who regarded the independence of America as a
result very advantageous for all nations, and especially for
Russia, and who did not doubt that England would be
forced to recognise it. He could not grant the wished-for
guarantee of the Dutch possessions in America, at the
Cape of Good Hope, and in India; but, in the course
of September, he drafted a convention which he g™£
held to be the only possible one between Russia and
the republic. The draft did not include a general guaran-
tee ; yet, if the republic should be attacked on account of
the convention, the other powers were to take her part. A
separate article declared the object of the armed neutrality
to be the restoration of peace. At the same time, couriers
were despatched to the courts of Stockholm and Copen-
hagen ; so that, against the return of a favorable answer
from the Hague, all things might be prepared for receiving
the Dutch republic into the league of neutral powers.

Every step of this negotiation was watched by England.
Yet the ministry, who were all the time seeking an alli-
ance with Russia, disliked the appearance of going to war
with the republic solely on account of her intention
of joining the armed neutrality. In October, Henry Oct.
Laurens, whom the United States had accredited to
the Netherlands for the purpose of raising a loan, was taken
on his passage to Europe, and among his papers was found
the unauthorized project for a treaty, concerted, as we have
seen, between Neufville and William Lee. To Lord Stor-
mont, the " transaction appeared to be the act of individ-

862 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLIX

uals;" and the Earl of Hillsborough owned "that the
states-general had had no knowledge of the treaty, which
had never been signed except by private persons." But
the resolution was instantly taken to use the Laurens papers
so as to " give the properest direction to the war." After
an examination at the admiralty before the three secretaries
of state, Laurens was escorted through the streets of Lon-
don by a large guard, and confined as a state's prisoner in
the Tower, where he was debarred from all intercourse
and from the use of pen and paper, so as to produce upon
the public mind a strange and startling sensation.

When the courier from Petersburg arrived at the Hague
with the treaty that Panin had drafted, Stonnont

Octal. saw tnere was no time to be lost. On the last day of

October, Yorke announced that the states-general, at

Not. their meeting in the first week of November, would

disavow the transaction between Amsterdam and

America, but would decide to join the northern league.

On the third of November, this despatch was laid before
the king. On that same day, the states of Holland, after
full deliberation, condemned the conduct of Amsterdam
for the acts which Great Britain resented, and resolved
to give to the British government every reasonable satis-
faction, so as to leave not the slightest ground for just com-
plaint. Even Yorke, who saw every thing with the eyes
of an Englishman, thought their conduct rather fair. Yet
Stonnont would brook no delay ; and the British cabinet,
anticipating the peaceful intentions of the states of Holland
and the states-general, with the approval of the king,
came to a determination to make war upon the republic,
unless it should recede from its purpose of joining the
northern confederacy. In the very hours in which this
decision was taken, Yorke was writing that a war with
the republic would be a war with a government without
artillery, "in want of stores of all kinds, without fleet or
army, or any one possession in a state of defence." The
memorial to the states-general was drafted by Lord Stor-
mont himself, and was designed to conceal the real mo-
tives of Great Britain under a cloud of obloquy relating

1780. WAR MADE ON THE NETHERLANDS. 363

to Amsterdam, and by demands impossible to be complied
with. The memorial was not to be presented if the ambas-
sador had certain information that the majority of the
provinces would refuse to join the maritime league of the
north. "We do not wish," wrote Stormont, "to give a
deep wound to our old and natural allies. Our object is to
core their madness by stunning them into their senses."

On the sixth, Yorke represented to the stadholder nso.
the opportunity of the republic for repentance and Nov*
amendment. The prince, shrugging his shoulders, answered :
" I foresee consequences which may be fatal to my house and
the republic." Yorke replied that the stadholder might do a
secondary and passive kind of service by starting difficulties
and delaying the fresh instructions to the ministers at
Petersburg. The stadholder answered: "England cannot
impute a wish for war to those who are for concluding a
neutral alliance with Russia, nor blame a vote of convoy
from which masts and ship-timber are excluded." Yorke
urged that the alliance with the north was pushed by men
of warlike views. The stadholder answered : " The regents
in general have not that view." Yorke turned the con-
versation to the negotiation with America. The stadholder
observed : " I have reason to believe Holland will, as it
ought to do, disavow and disapprove that transaction."
"And give satisfaction too?" asked Yorke. The prince
answered : " I hope they will communicate their disavowal
to England." But he did not deny that the plurality of
the provinces was in favor of the connection with Russia
on the terms which that empire had proposed.

Just after this interview, Yorke received from Stormont
an inquiry as to where blows could be struck at the
republic with the most profit, and on the seventh of Nov. 7.
November Yorke replied : " This country is by no
means prepared for war. It is the fashion still to suppose
a war against England impossible. The executive part of
the government has been averse to it all along. As to the
Butch settlements in the East and West Indies, their own
avowal proves them in a deplorable state ; but St Eustatius,
above all St. Eustatius, is the golden mine of the moment "

864 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLIX

This letter of Yorke was received by Stormont on
No7v°i2. the twelfth; and the passage relating to St. Eustatius

was secretly sent forthwith to the British admiralty
for its guidance.

Already on the tenth Torke had presented to the
' states-general Lord Stormont's memorial. " The king
insists," so ran its words, " on the exemplary punishment of
the pensionary Van Berckel and his accomplices, as dis-
turbers of the public peace and violators of the rights of
nations. His majesty flatters himself that the answer of
your high mightinesses will be speedy, and to the purpose
in every respect." " To pass over in silence so just a re-
quest will be deemed a denial, and his majesty will think
himself obliged to take such steps as become his dignity."
Three days after the delivery of the memorial, Yorke
caused it to be printed. It seemed to the patriots singular
for the English to demand the punishment of Van Berckel,
when they themselves did not even bring Laurens to trial.
People in the towns under English influence said: "Van
Berckel and accomplices deserve to be ' De-Witted.' " " If
a small mob," wrote Yorke from the Hague, M receive the
deputies of Amsterdam when they next come here, the
affair will be soon decided. But how promise for work
with the tools I have?"

" The die is thrown," wrote Stormont to Yorke on
Nov. 14. the fourteenth, as he asked him again for the best

information respecting all the vulnerable parts of the

republic. At that time there still reigned among the
Not. 28. Dutch confidence in peace. On the twenty-third, the

states of Holland, acting on a communication from
the stadholder, entirely disavowed and disapproved what-
ever had been done by the burgomasters and regents of the
town of Amsterdam respecting negotiations with congress.
Before further proceeding, inquiry needed to be made as to
the nature of Van Berckel's offence and the tribunal before
which he could be brought to trial. The states-general
confirmed the disavowal, and declared their wish to pre-
serve a good understanding with England. Every post
Drought to the court of London concurrent proofs that the

1781 WAR MADE ON THE NETHERLANDS. 365

cities, the people, every branch of the government, all the
ministers, desired to continue at peace. Even the stad-
holder, the great partisan of England, thought that the
Dutch government had done enough to remove from itself
every suspicion.

Yet, on the first of December, Stormont renewed the
demand for the immediate punishment of the Amsterdam
offenders ; and on the fifth he asked of Yorke some ideas
for a manifesto, for he was preparing " to send secret orders
to seize the Dutch settlements in the West Indies." Then,
on the sixteenth, before he even knew that his second me-
morial had been presented, having been informed that on
the afternoon of the eleventh the states-general had re-
solved to make the declaration required before admission to
the armed neutrality, he sent orders to Yorke " as soon as
might be to quit Holland without taking leave."

While Yorke was still negotiating at the Hague, British
cruisers pounced upon the unsuspecting merchant-men of
their ally of a hundred and six years, and captured two
hundred ships of the republic, carrying cargoes worth fif-
teen millions of guilders. Four days at least before he left
the Hague, a swift cutter was sent to Rodney at Barbados
with orders, founded upon the ambassador's letter of the
seventh of November, to seize St. Eustatius.

Suddenly, on the third of February, 1781, the Brit- ngi.
ish West India fleet and army, after a feint on the Feb* *•
coasts of Martinique, appeared off the island and demanded
of De Graat, the governor, its surrender within an hour.
"The surprise and astonishment of the inhabitants was
scarcely to be conceived." Unable to offer resistance and
ignorant of a rupture between Great Britain and the repub-
lic, the governor gave up his post and its dependencies,
invoking clemency for the town. The wealth of the island,
which was a free port for all nations, astonished even those
who had expected most, "the whole of it being one con-
tinued store of French, American, Dutch," and also Eng-
lish "property." In the words of Rodney: "All the
magazines, the storehouses, are filled, and even the beach
covered, with tobacco and sugar." The value of the mer-

366 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. XLIX.

chandise, at a moderate estimate, considerably exceeded
three millions of pounds sterling. Besides this, there were
taken in the bay upwards of one hundred and fifty mer-
chant vessels, a Dutch frigate and five smaller vessels of
war, all complete and ready for service. Thirty richly
freighted ships, which had left the island about thirty-six
hours before, were overtaken by a detachment from Rod-
ney's fleet, and captured with the ship of sixty guns which
was their convoy. The Dutch flag was kept flying on the
island, and decoyed no less than seventeen vessels into the
port after its capture. Three large ships from Amsterdam,
laden with all kinds of naval stores, were taken and carried
into St. Christopher. At St. Eustatius, in the order of sale,
English stores were, for form's sake, excepted ; but all prop-
erty was seized, and the confiscation .was general, without
discrimination between friend and foe, between neutral
powers and belligerents, between Dutch and British. A
remonstrance from British merchants, written by the king's
solicitor-general in St. Christopher, Rodney scorned to
read, and answered : " The Island of St. Eustatius is
Feb^i Dutch ; every thing in it is Dutch ; every thing is
under the protection of the Dutch flag, and as Dutch
it shall be treated."

Besides St. Eustatius, all the settlements of the republic
in South America were taken during the season. Of the
Dutch possessions in Africa and Asia, the undefended Cape
of Good Hope, as the half-way house on the voyage to
India; the feebly garrisoned Negapatam; and the unique
harbor of Trincomalee on Ceylon, — were held to be most
desirable objects for Great Britain.

The Dutch republic was relatively weak; yet, if her
finances were impaired, it was by debts contracted during
her alliance with England and in rendering service to that
power. The administration of Lord North lost its remain-
ing influence on the continent of Europe by this cruel and
unjust war. With no nation had it any connection on the
score of principle ; to not one was it drawn by regard for
the higher interests of humanity.

1780. FRANCE HAS NEED OF PEACE. 367

CHAPTER L.

FRANCE HAS NEED OF PEACE.
1780, 1781.

"England," said Vergennes, "has declared war against
the Netherlands from hatred of their accession to the
neutrality. The more I reflect, the more I am per- rreo.
plexed to know whether we ought to be glad or
sorry." A new obstacle was created to the general peace
for which we must now trace the negotiations. Spain had
calculated every thing for a single campaign. The invasion
of England having failed, the querulous King Charles, after
but seven months of hostilities, complained "that France
had brought Spain into the war for its own interests alone,
and had caused the first mishaps" to his flag. Florida
Blanca, speaking to the French ambassador, called himself
a great fool for having induced his king to the declaration
against England. He was ready to assent to the conquest
and division of Turkey by Austria and Russia, if these two
powers would but conform as mediators to his plan of
peace. "With regard to the United States, Vergennes al-
ways maintained that France was held in honor to sustain
their independence, but that their boundaries were contin-
gent on events ; and, to conciliate the pride of England
and quiet the apprehensions of Spain, he was willing at the
peace to leave to the former country Canada according to
the old French claims, and the country west and north-west
of the Ohio. But King Charles desired to retain the United
States, if possible, in some kind of vassalage to Great Britain,
or give them up to helpless anarchy. He would not receive
Jay as an envoy, and declined even a visit from the late
minister of France at Philadelphia, on his way back from

868 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. L.

his mission. If American independence was to be granted,
it must be only on such terms as would lead to endless
quarrels with England. It was the constant reasoning of
Florida Blanca that the northern colonies preserved a strong
attachment for their mother country, and, if once possessed
of independence, would become her useful ally; while, if
they were compelled to submit to her rule, they would be
only turbulent subjects. Tossed by danger and doubt
1780. fro/n one expedient to another, Spain, through the
government of Portugal, sought to open a secret
negotiation with England ; and the king of France, in an
autograph letter, acquiesced in the attempt.

On the other hand, an unexpected ally offered itself to
England. The sentiment of nationality and the influence
of the Jesuits had swayed the Catholic Irish of the United
States to the side of Great Britain ; the same influence was
to show itself in a wider sphere. Pius VI., the pope of that
day, was a friend to the Jesuits, and was said even to wish
the restoration of their order. No sooner had Spain de-
clared war against England, than from Rome it was signified
to the British that the natives of Mexico were notoriously
disaffected toward their government, and universally hated
the Spanish ; that, since the suppression of the order of the
Jesuits, the Spanish government had no medium of control
over the natives ; that ex-Jesuits, who were conversant with
the Mexican and Peruvian languages, were violently in-
censed at their treatment, were willing to use their superior
influence in the Spanish colonies in favor of Great Britain,
and stood ready to take any hazard, if assured of the tree
exercise of their religion; that well-instructed emissaries
could do more than a military force, especially if they might
promise to the natives the choice of their governor and mag-
istrates. In the course of the year, Lord North laid before
the cabinet a plan for an expedition to South America, by
way of India, and it was approved. But I cannot find that
any thing came of it.

When in February, 1780, John Adams arrived in Paris
with full powers to treat with Great Britain for peace and
commerce, the French minister desired that the object of

1780 FRANCE HAS NEED OF PEACE. 869

bis commission should for the present remain unknown.
Adams replied by enumerating the reasons for communi-
cating it to Great Britain without delay ; but he was not
obstinate, and waited for the opinion of congress. A dis-
cussion next followed on subjecting French creditors to the
reduction by congress in the value of its paper money.
Adams argued vigorously that the reduction must affect all
nations alike, for which he obtained the approbation of con-
gress. These points being disposed of, he not only assumed
a right to give advice to the king of France on the conduct
of the war, but, to a court where the sanctity of regal power
formed the accepted creed, he laid it down as certain that
"in this intelligent age the principle is well agreed on in
the world that the people have a right to a form of govern-
ment according to their own judgments and inclinations."
Vergennes broke off correspondence with him, as not being
accredited to France, and complained to the French min-
ister at Philadelphia of his want of a conciliatory temper.
Franklin, too, though with reluctance, suffered himself to
be made the channel of communicating officially the cen-
sures which Vergennes did not spare. In the favor of con-
gress Franklin lost ground by his compliance, while Adams
was supported more heartily than before.

In midsummer, from his eagerness for peace, Maurepas
forgot himself so far as to insinuate biff wish in a letter to
Forth, formerly secretary of the British embassy at Paris.
Nothing came of the overture. "Peace will be a^great
good," wrote Marie Antoinette ; u but, if our enemies do
not demand it, I shall be very much afflicted by a humiliat-
ing one." After the capture of Charleston and the rout of
the army under Gates, the British parliament, which came
together in November, granted all the demands of the min-
istry for money and for men by vast majorities ; and the
dread of disorder in the cities of England gave new
strength to the government. At such a moment, nJJH\t
Necker, who was ready to take every thing upon
himself, wrote secretly to Lord North, proposing peace on
the basis of a truce during which each party should keep
possession of all that it had acquired. The terms thus clan-
vol. vi. 24

370 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.L.

destinely offered were those which Vergennes had always
rejected, as inconsistent with the fidelity and honor of
France. In England, they were no farther heeded than as
a confession of exhaustion and weakness.

In January, 1781, Vergennes said of Necker: WI
will express no opinion on his financial operations ;
hut in all other parts of the administration he is short-
sighted and ignorant." Called to the conferences of the
ministers, Necker continually dinned into their ears " Peace !
peace 1 " " Peace," replied Vergennes, " is a good thing,
only you should propose the means of attaining it in an
honorable manner." In his clamor for peace, Necker did
but echo the opinion of all Paris. Maurepas, too, gave out
that peace must be restored before the close of the year; and
the king declared that he was tired of the war, and that an
end must be made of it before the year should go out. The
negotiations for peace belonged to Vergennes, and for their
success he needed mediation or great results in the field.
Thus far the war had been carried on without a plan, for
which the cause lay in the heart of the government itself.
There could be no vigorous unity of administration with
a young, feeble, and ignorant king who prided himself on
personally governing, and left the government without a
real head to be swayed by the different cabals which from
day to day followed each other in the court. By the influ-
ence of the queen, Sartine, towards the end of the former
year, had been superseded in the ministry of the marine by
the Marquis de Castries, and the imbecile Montbarey by the
Marquis de Segur. All the while, France was drawing
nearer to inevitable bankruptcy, its debt verging upon a
fourth milliard.

Environed by difficulties, Vergennes attempted a com-
promise with England on the basis of a truce of at least
twenty years, during which South Carolina and Georgia
would remain with the English in return for the evacu-
ation of New York. He had sounded Washington and
others in America on the subject, and they all had repelled
the idea. " There are none but the mediators," wrote Ver-
gennes, " who could make to the United States bo grievous

1781. FRANCE HAS NEED OF PEACE. 371

an offer. It wotfld be hard for France to propose it, because
she has guaranteed the independence of the thirteen states."
Kannitz, accordingly, set himself to work to bring the me-
diation to a successful issue.

In the month of April, young Laurens arrived at Ver-
sailles, preceded by importunate letters from Bochambean
and Lafayette to the ministry. His demand was for a loan
of twenty-five million livres to be raised for the United
States on the credit of the king of France, and in support
of it he communicated to the French ministry his letter of
advice from Washington. Franklin had lately written:
"If the new government in America is found unable to
procure the aids that are wanted, its whole system may
be shaken." The French minister at Philadelphia had re-
ported these words from Greene : " The states in the south-
ern department may struggle a little while longer; but,
without more effectual support, they must fall." Washing-
ton represented immediate and efficacious succor from abroad
as indispensable to the safety of his country ; but, combined
with maritime superiority and "a decided effort of the
allied arms on this continent," so he wrote, " it would bring
the contest to a glorious issue." In pressing the demands
of congress, the youthful envoy said menacingly that the
failure of his mission might drive the Americans back to
their old allegiance, to fight once more against France in
the armies of Great Britain. The confession of the ineffi-
ciency of their own general government was suited to raise
a doubt of their power finally to establish their indepen-
dence; and Yergennes complained that an excessive and
ever increasing proportion of the burdens of the war was
thrown upon France. Yet the cabinet resolved to go far
in complying with the request of the United States.
Franklin had already obtained the promise of a gift itsi.
of six millions of livres and a loan of four millions ;
Necker consented to a loan often millions more, to be raised
in Holland in the name of the king of France.

To insure to the United States a maritime superiority, De
Grasse, who had the naval command in America, received
orders to repair from the West Indies to the north in the

872 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chji*.L.

course of the year, and conform himself to the counsels
of Washington and Rochambean. On the other hand, the
great expense of re-enforcing Rochambean by another de-
tachment from the French army was on Washington's rec-
ommendation avoided ; and America was left to herself to
find men for the straggle on land. The decision displeased
Rochambean, who understood little of the country to which
he was sent, and nothing of its language, and be
t78i. entreated leave to return to Europe ; but he received
fresh orders to regard himself as the commander of
auxiliary troops, and to put them as well as himself under
the orders of Washington.

To the sole direction of Washington, the French govern
ment would have gladly reserved the disbursement of its
gift of six millions ; but he refused a trust which would
have roused the jealousy of congress. The first use made
of the money was a spendthrift one. South Carolina had
an unexecuted contract in Holland for supplies. Laurens,
acting for his own state and for the United States, made a
transfer of that contract to the latter, and, without taking
the pains to understand the condition of the business and
without superintending it, paid all arrears out of the fund
which Franklin had obtained from France. South Carolina
was relieved from a burdensome engagement ; while great
and, as it proved, useless expenses were thrown on the
United States.

During these negotiations, Necker aspired to become the
head of the administration. The octogenarian Maurepas
could not be duped ; he roused himself from apathy, and,
when Necker was preparing through the king to take the
cabinet by storm, Maurepas quietly let him know that the
king expected his resignation. "The king had given his
word to support me," said Necker, in recounting his fall,
" and I am the victim of having counted upon it too much."
He had refused all pay as minister, yet in his period of
office he doubled his fortune. His hands were clean from
embezzlement, but his banking house had profited enor-
mously in its business.

While the disgrace of Necker was passionately discussed,

1781. FRANCE HAS NEED OF PEACE. 373

the government of Louis XVI. persecuted in Paris the prin-
ciples which it was spending the blood and treasure of
France to establish on immovable foundations in America.
Just at this time, there appeared in Paris a new edition of
Raynal's philosophic and political History of the Two Indies,
with the name of the author on the title-page. His work
abounded in declamations against priestcraft, monarchical
power, and negro slavery. He described the United States
of America as a country that more than renewed the simple
heroism of antiquity, which otherwise, in the depravity of
the laws and manners of Europe, would have been esteemed
but a fiction. Here at last, especially in New England, was
found a land that knew how to be happy " without kings
and without priests." " Philosophy," he wrote, " desires to
see all governments just and all peoples happy. If the love
of justice had decided the oourt of Versailles to the alliance
of a monarchy with a people defending its liberty, the first
article of its treaty with the United States should have
been, that all oppressed peoplejs have the right to
rise against their oppressors." The advocate-general nsi.
Segur having drawn up the most minatory indict-
ment, Raynal left his volumes to be burnt by the hangman,
and fled through Brussels to Holland.

The book went into many a library, and its proscription
found for it new readers. Young men of France, even of
the nobility, shared its principles, which infiltrated them-
selves through all classes. The new minister of the marine'
had in the army of Bochambeau a son, and sons of the new
minister of war and of the Duke de Broglie were soon to
follow. But the philosophers, like the statesmen of France,
would not have the United States become too great : they
rather desired to preserve for England so much strength in
North America that the two powers might watch, restrain,
and balance each other.

Meantime, Prince Kaunitz, in preparing the preliminary
articles for the peace congress at Vienna, adopted the idea
of Vergennes, that the United States should be represented,
so that direct negotiations between them and Great Britain
might proceed simultaneously with those of the European

874 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.L.

power* ; and his paper was pronounced by Marie Antoinette
to be a masterpiece of political wisdom. But all was in
vain. England would still have no negotiation with France
for peace till that power should give up its connection
with insurgent America ; John Adams was ready to go to
Vienna, but only on condition of being received by the
mediating powers as the plenipotentiary of an independent
state ; Spain shunned all mediation, knowing that no media-
tor would award to her Gibraltar.

Mortified at his ill success, Kaunitz threw the blame of it
upon the unreasonable pretensions of the British ministry ;
and Austria joined herself to the powers which held
1781. that the British government owed concessions to
America. He consoled his emperor for the failure of
the mediation by saying : " As to us, there is more to gain
than to lose by the continuation- of the war, which becomes
useful to us by the mutual exhaustion of those who carry it
on and by the commercial advantages which accrue to us so
long as it lasts."

The British ministry was willing to buy the alliance of
Catharine by the cession of Minorca, and to propitiate
Joseph by opening the Scheldt; but the desires of both
were mainly directed to the east and south. Catharine
could not conceive why Europe should be unwilling to see
Christianity rise again into life and power on the Bosphorus.
" We will guarantee to you," said Potemkin to Joseph, " all
the conquests that you may make, except in Germany or in
Poland." "Rome," wrote the empress, "is a fit acquisition
for a king of the Romans." Joseph, on his part, aspired to
gain the eastern shore of the Adriatic, the Danube to Bel-
grade, and all the country north of the straight line drawn
from Belgrade to the southernmost point of thd Gulf of
Drina, sparing the possessions neither of Turkey nor of the
republic of Venice. But he insisted that the king of Prus-
sia should never acquire another foot of land, nor even
round off his territory by exchanges. So the two eastern
powers divided the Orient and Italy between them, know-
ing that, so long as the war lasted, neither France nor Great
Britain could interfere.

1781. FRANCE HAS NEED OF PEACE. 375

Spain had just heard of an insurrection begun by ex-
Jesuits in Peru, and supported by Tupac Amaru,
who claimed descent from the ancient royal family 1781.
of the Incas. But the first reports were not alarm-
ing, and she was still disposed to pursue the separate nego-
tiation with Great Britain. The suggestion of Hillsborough
to exchange Gibraltar for Porto Rico was rejected by Flor-
ida Blanca ; and Cumberland, the British agent at Madrid,
having nothing to propose which King Charles was willing
to accept, returned from his fruitless expedition. It was
known to the British cabinet that South America was dis-
posed to revolt ; and that especially Chili and Peru wished
to shake off the Spanish yoke.

The results of the campaign outside of the United States
were indecisive. The French again made an unsuccessful
attempt to recover the Isle of Jersey. The garrison of
Gibraltar was once more reduced to a state of famine, and,
ere the middle of April, was once more relieved. The Eng-
lish and Dutch fleets encountered each other in August
near the Dogger Bank, and for three hours and a half
fought within musket-shot. Victoiy belonged to neither
party. The Dutch, who had given proof of the hardihood
of their race, bore away for the Texel ; the British admiral
returned to the Nore, to receive a visit from his king, and
on the plea of age to refuse to serve longer under so feeble
an administration. The name and fame of Hyder Ali spread
from the Mysore through Europe and the United States ;
and he seemed with his army of one hundred thousand men
about to beat back the few troops of the British ; but he
proved unable to withstand their discipline. On the ninth
of May, Pensacola, after a most gallant defence against the
many times superior force of the Spaniards, was surren-
dered under an honorable capitulation. The British garri-
son were made to promise not to serve during the war
against Spain or her allies, but they were left free to be
employed against the United States.

Meantime, Vergennes, through the French minister at
Philadelphia, complained of John Adams as an embarrass-
ing negotiator. At first, a majority of congress was dis-

876 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.L

posed to insist on Adams as their sole plenipotentiary for
peace ; Virginia, with Madison for one of her delegates,
being unanimous in his favor. But, on reflection, it was
wisely decided to associate with the New England man
other commissioners selected from the chief sections of the
country. In advance of their election, they were empowered
to conduct the negotiation under the mediation of the em-
peror of Austria and the empress of Russia. In case "of
the backwardness of Great Britain to make a formal ac-
knowledgment of independence, they were at liberty to
agree to a truce, provided that that power be not left in
possession of any part of the thirteen United States." But
Luzerne further insisted on making their instructions such
as Vergennes might have drafted, and such as would leave
the negotiation for both countries in the hands of the king
of France. In repeated interviews with a special commit-
tee of congress, he sounded the alarm, that a war on the
continent of Europe might disable France from continu-
ing the powerful diversions which thus far had been the
salvation of the United States, so that England would be
left at liberty to fall upon them with her undivided strength ;
that, while in their ultimatum they should include every
concession to which they could ever consent, they should
still hope that at the peace France would procure for them
complete satisfaction.

On the eleventh of June, the instructions as

1781.

amended by Luzerne, were laid before Congress for
its acceptance. The commissioners of the United States
were to insist on no points but independence and the valid-
ity of the treaties with Louis XVI. " As to disputed boun-
daries,"— that is, whether New England should extend to
the Kennebec, the Penobscot, or the St. Croix, whether New
York should resign all lands within the water-shed of the St.
Lawrence, whether the republic should touch the Mississippi
or stop at the crest of the Alleghanies, — " and as to other
particulars," — that is, the fisheries and the compensation of
loyalists for their confiscated property, — the commissioners
were left at liberty to act "as the state of the belligerent"
France "might require." For this purpose, they were

1781. FRANCE HAS NEED OP PEACE. 377

charged " to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace
or truce without the knowledge and concurrence of the
ministers of France, and ultimately to govern themselves
by their advice and opinion."

These amendments were debated in a body which was con-
scious of its want of power, and of its dependence on France
for the chances of victory in the coming campaign ; and they
were accepted by Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina,
Virginia, and New Jersey, all of which were wholly or in
part held by the enemy. Jenifer, who was always disin-
clined to an extended boundary, was dragged from a sick
bed to assist in casting the vote of Maryland. A seventh
state was still needed, and was sought in New England.
Luzerne had made a personal appeal to Huntington of Con-
necticut, then president of congress ; but though he showed
great moderation, and would have sacrificed the western
lands of his own commonwealth rather than delay the peace,
neither he nor Sherman could brook the thought of the
British sweeping down in the rear of the country, and occu-
pying as their province the lands which now form the state
of Ohio. It fell, therefore, to Sullivan, who was in the pay
of France, to carry the amendments by the vote of his state.
Luzerne ascribed the result to the absence of all the dele-
gates from the state of New York, the absence of
Samuel Adams, and the success of Sullivan in divid- mi.
ing the vote of New England. In requital, Sullivan
was recommended by the French envoy to the cabinet of
Versailles for prolonged rewards.1

1 Je regarde en effet la negotiation comme £tant actuellement entre
leg mains de S. M. sauf l'independance et les traitls, et j'ai applaudi
moi-meme a ces deux reserves. Je desire que vous accordiez votre ap-
probation a ces mesures qui me paraissent remplir les ordres que vous
m'avez donne* le 9 mars dernier. J'attribue la promptitude avec la-
quelle le congres s'est rendu a mes representations a deux causes prin-
cipales : la premiere est l'absence de M. Samuel Adams ; je crois €tre
parvenu par le moyen de mon correspondant a le faire connaitre aux
principaux de ses commettants, et si les dispositions pr^sentes se sou-
tiennent, il ne sera plus renvoye' au congres. La seconde est la rupture
de la ligue des feats de la Nouvelle Angleterre, et rane^antissement du
Bysteme qu'elle s'ltait propose pour la prolongation de la guerre : c'est
au general Sullivan seul que j'en ai l'obligation ; ce delegue a developpe*

878 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chaf.L.

On the ballot, Jay, Franklin, Henry Laurens, and Jefferson
were chosen colleagues of John Adams in the commission.
In securing the election of Franklin, Sullivan, acting in con-
cert with Luzerne, rendered excellent service. Jefferson
was detained in America by the illness of his wife. " Con-
gress have done very well," wrote John Adams to Franklin,
"to join others in the commission for peace, who have some
faculties for it. My talent, if I have one, lies in making
war." At the same time, he saw so wide a dissemination of

the principles of the American revolution that, in his
1781. opinion, "despotisms, monarchies, and aristocracies

must conform to them in some degree in practice,
or hazard a total revolution in religion and government
throughout all Europe."

The kingdom of Ireland had been subjected to all the
restrictions of the colonial system, and others of her own.
Tet the Irish refused to follow the example of resisting
evil laws by force; and, taking skilful advantage of the
habitual, indolent want of forethought of Lord North, they
gained more complete emancipation than could have been
won through insurrection. When the tidings from Lex-
ington and Bunker Hill reached them, their parliament
voted that "it heard of the rebellion with abhorrence,
and was ready to show to the world its attachment to
the sacred person of the king." Taking advantage of its
eminently loyal disposition, Lord North obtained its leave
to employ four thousand men of the Irish army for service
in America. That army should, by law, have consisted of
twelve thousand men ; but it mustered scarcely more than
nine thousand. Out of these, the strongest and best, with-

dans toute cette affaire autant de patriotisme que d'attachement a l'al-
liance et je crois pouvoir compter que les efforts de ce dele'gue' [S.
Adams] pour r6tablir cette association seront inutiles aussi longtemps
qu'il restera dans le congres. Je pense meme qu'il sera avantageux pour
l'alliance de nourrir son attachement pour nous-mgmes apres qu'il sera
retourne* dans l'ltat de New Hampshire, ou il jouit de beaucoup d'in-
fluence. II a renonce* au projet dont il est fait mention dans ma depeche
No. 140. L'absence de tous les dele*gue*s de l'etat de New York a Itl
line autre circonstance heureuse, vu qu'ils sont encore moins traitables
que les Virginiens, sur l'e'tendue des limites qu'ils ont imagine' de fixer an
Canada dans l'ouest. Extract of Luzerne to Vergennes, 11 June, 1781.

1781. FRANCE HAS NEED OF PEACE. §79

out regard to the prescribed limitation of numbers, were
selected; and eight regiments, all that could be formed,
were shipped across the Atlantic. Ireland itself being left
defenceless, its parliament offered the national remedy of a
militia. This was refused by Lord North ; and in conse-
quence, instead of a force organized and controlled by the
government, self-formed bands of volunteers started
into being. After reflection, the militia bill was sent mi.
over for enactment : but the opportunity had been
missed; the Irish parliament had learned to prefer volun-
teer corps supported by the Irish themselves. When, in
1778, it appeared how much the commissioners sent to
America had been willing to concede to insurgents for the
sake of reconciliation, the patriots of Ireland awoke to a
sense of what they might demand. The man who had ob-
tained the lead of them was Henry Grattan, who, in a venal
age and in a venal house of commons, was incorruptible. No
one heard the eloquence of Chatham with more delight ; and
no one has sketched in more vivid words the character of
the greatest Englishman of that age. At the opening of
the session of October, 1779, Grattan, then but thirty-three
years of age, and for hardly four years a member of the
house, moved an amendment to the address, that the nation
could be saved only by free export and free import, or,
according to the terser words that were finally chosen, by
free trade. The friends of government dared not resist the
amendment, and it was carried unanimously. New taxes
were refused. The ordinary supplies, usually granted for
two years, were granted for six months. The house was in
earnest ; the people were in earnest ; an inextinguishable
sentiment of nationality was aroused ; and fifty thousand
volunteers stood in arms under officers of their own choos-
ing. Great Britain being already tasked to the uttermost,
Lord North gave way, and persuaded its parliament to con-
cede the claim to commercial equality. The Irish entered
into possession of their natural rights ; yet their happiness
was clouded. by the thought that the new freedom rested on
the act of a legislature which exclusively represented another
kingdom, and which yet pretended to full power to bind the
kingdom of Ireland.

880 THE AMEBICAN REVOLUTION. Chap LI

CHAPTER LI.

THB SOUTHERN CAMPAIGN. MORGAN AT THE COWPEXS.

1780, 1781.

After the defeat of Gates, congress subjected its fa-
vorite to a court of inquiry, and, conforming to
(^Jjot the advice of Washington, selected Major-general
Greene for the command of the southern department.
Gates had received his appointment and his instructions
directly from congress, and his command had been co-ordi-
nate and independent. On confirming the nomination of
Greene, congress assigned to him all . the regular troops,
raised or to be raised, in Delaware and the states south of
it; and conferred on him all the powers that had been
vested in Gates, but " subject to the control of the comman-
der in chief." Thus the conduct of the war obtained, for
the first time, the harmony and unity essential to success.

Washington was in danger of being shortly without men ;
yet he detached for the service in the Carolinas Lieutenant-
colonel Henry Lee, his best cavalry officer, with the corps
called the legion, consisting of three troops of horse and
three companies of infantry : in all, three hundred and fifty
men. For Greene he prepared a welcome at the south,
writing to George Mason : " I introduce this gentleman as
a man of abilities, bravery, and coolness. He has a compre-
hensive knowledge of our affairs, and is a man of fortitude
and resources. I have not the smallest doubt, therefore, of
his employing all the means which may be put into his
hands to the best advantage, nor of his assisting in pointing
out the most likely ones to answer the purposes of his com-
mand."

1781. MORGAN AT THE COWPENS. 381

As he moved south, Greene left Steuben in Vir-
ginia. At Charlotte, where he arrived on the second dJc°'2.
of December, he received a jcomplaint from Corn-
wallis respecting the prisoners of King's Mountain, who
had been put to death by the soldiery, coupled with a threat
of retaliation. Avowing his own respect for the principles
of humanity and the law of nations, Greene answered by
sending him a list of about fifty men who had been Ranged
by Lord Cornwallis himself, and by others high in the Brit-
ish service ; and he called on mankind to sit in judgment
on the order of Lord Cornwallis to Balfour after the action
near Camden, on Lord Rawdon's proclamation, and on the
ravages of Tarleton. Throughout his career, he was true
to the principles which he then announced. No one, except
a deserter, ever died by his order. No American officer in
his department ever imitated the cruelties systematically
practised by the British. Sumter spared all prisoners,
though the worst men were among them. Marion was
famed for his mercy. Cruelty was never imputed to Wil-
liams, Pickens, or any other of the American chiefs. But
the British officers continued to ridicule the idea of observ-
ing capitulations with citizens ; insisting that those who
claimed to be members of an independent state could derive
no benefit from any solemn engagement, and were but van-
quished traitors who owed their lives to British clemency.

In the course of the winter, Colonel William
Cunningham, under orders from Colonel Balfour at
Charleston, led one hundred and fifty white men and negroes
into the interior settlements. On his route, he killed all
whom he suspected of being friends to the United States,
to the number of about fifty, and burned their habitations.
At length, he came to a house which sheltered an Ameri-
can party of thirty-five men under Colonel Hayes. These
refusing to surrender at discretion, a fire from both sides
was kept up for about three hours, when the British were
able to set fire to the house. In this extremity, the be-
sieged capitulated under the agreement that they should be
treated as prisoners of war until they could be exchanged.
The capitulation was formally signed and interchanged ; and

882 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LL

yet the Americans had no sooner marched out than the
British hanged Colonel Hayes to the limb of a tree. The
second in command was treated in like manner ; after
which, Cunningham, with his own hands, slew some of the
. prisoners, and desired his men to follow his example. One
of them traversed the ground where his old neighbors
and acquaintances lay dead and dying, and ran his sword
through those in whom he saw signs of life. These facts
were afterwards established by a judicial investigation.
1780. On coming into a new region, Greene ordered

Doc* observations to be made on the fords and capacity
for transportation of the Dan, the Yadkin, and the Catawba.
Before his departure, Gates had brought together two thou-
sand three hundred and seven men, of whom only a little
more than one half were militia, and " eight hundred were
properly clothed and equipped." The men had been accus-
tomed to leave the camp at their own will, and make visits
to their homes. This Greene forbade as an act of desertion,
and the first who was caught after the order was issued was
shot in the presence of the whole army drawn up to witness
the execution. Opinion among the troops approved the
decision, and by degrees the discipline of the southern con-
tinental troops became equal to their courage. The cam-
paign was sure to be one of danger and hardship; the
firm and adventurous commander gained the confidence and
love of his troops by sharing every peril and more than
(sharing every toil.

The country around Charlotte had been ravaged. Send-
ing Kosciuszko in advance to select a site for an encamp-
ment, he marched his army to the head of boat navigation
on the Pedee. There, in a fertile and unexhausted country,
at the falls of the river, he established his "camp of repose"
to improve the discipline and spirits of his men, and "to
gain for himself an opportunity of looking about."

Greene had expected new and singular difliculties; but
they exceeded all that he had feared. Shoals of militia,
kept on foot since the defeat of Gates, had done little but
waste the country. The power of government was far less
than in the north. The inhabitants were averse to control.

1781. MORGAN AT THE COWPENS. 383

Coming from all quarters of the globe, they were still from
their early education so various in opinions and habits that
there was a want of national character and sentiment. Yet
several corps of partisans were bold and daring, and there
was a great spirit of enterprise among the black people who
came out as volunteers. " General Washington's influence,"
so he wrote to Hamilton, " will do more than all the assem-
blies upon the continent. I always thought him exceed-
ingly popular; but in many places he is little less than
adored, and universally admired. From being the friend of
the general, I found myself exceedingly well received."

Confirmed in his detached command, Morgan with his
small force crossed the Catawba just below the mouth of
the Little Catawba, and, passing Broad River, on the
twenty-fifth of December encamped on the north Ij^°25.
bank of the Pacolet. Here he was joined by about
sixty mounted Carolinians under Colonel Pickens, and two
hundred Georgians under Major Maccall. General
Davidson, of North Carolina, on the twenty-ninth Deo. 29
brought one hundred and twenty men into camp, but
left immediately to collect more.

Hearing that about two hundred and fifty Georgia tories
were plundering the neighborhood of Fair Forest, Morgan
sent Lieutenant-colonel Washington with his own regiment,
and two hundred mounted riflemen under Maccall, to attack
them. Coming up with them at about twelve o'clock
on the thirtieth, Washington extended his mounted Dec. so.
riflemen on the wings, and charged them in front
with his own . cavalry. The tories fled without resistance,
losing one hundred and fifty killed and wounded, and about
forty who were taken prisoners.

Cornwallis, who, when joined by the re-enforcement sent
from New York under Leslie, could advance with thirty-
five hundred fighting men, was impatient of the successes of
Morgan, and resolved to intercept his retreat. On
the second of January, 1781, he ordered Tarleton jJJ?.1;,
with his detachment to pass Broad River and to
push him to the utmost. " No time," wrote he, " is to be
lost." Tarleton answered by promising either to destroy

384 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Chap. IX

Morgan's corps, or push it before him over Broad River
towards King's Mountain ; and he wished the main army to
advance, so as to be ready to capture the fugitives. " I feel
bold in offering my opinion," he wrote, " as it flows from
well-founded inquiry concerning the enemy's designs." To
this Cornwallis replied : " You have understood my inten-
tions perfectly."

The danger to Morgan was imminent; for the light
troops were pursuing him on the one side, and the main

army preparing to intercept his retreat on the other.
Jan!1!*, ^n the fourteenth, Tarleton passed the Enoree and

Tyger Rivers above the Cherokee ford. On the

afternoon of the fifteenth, Morgan encamped at
Jan. is. Burr's Mills on Thickety Creek ; and wrote to

Greene his wish to avoid an action. "But this,"
he added, " will not be always in my power." His scouts,
whom he kept within half a mile of the camp of his
enemy, informed him that Tarleton had crossed the Tyger

at Musgrove's Mills, with a force of eleven or twelve
Jan. 16. hundred men. On the sixteenth, he put himself and

his party in full motion towards Broad River, while
in the evening the camp which he had abandoned was
occupied by Tarleton's party. The same day, Cornwallis
with his army reached Turkey Creek.

In the genial clime of South Carolina, where the grass is
springing through every month of winter, cattle in those
days grazed all the year round ; never housed, nor fed
by the hand of man, but driven from time to time into
cowpens, where each inhabitant gave salt to his herd and
marked them for his own. Two miles from such an enclos-
ure, on a wide plain covered with primeval pines and chest-
nut and oak, about sixteen miles from Spartanburg, seven
miles from the Cherokee ford on the Broad River, and a
little less than five miles from the line of North Carolina,
Morgan encamped his party for the night. Greene had left
Morgan to his discretion, yet with warning against risking
an encounter ; his best officers now urged him beyond all
things to avoid an engagement. With a noble confidence
in himself and in his troops, he resolved to give battle to

1781. MORGAN AT THE COWPENS. 385

his pursuers. In the evening, he moved among his men,
inspiring them with cheerfulness. During the night, Pick-
ens, who had been for a few days absent, returned with
about one hundred and fifty militia, and another party of
fifty came in.

At an hour before daylight, Morgan, through his 1751.
excellent system of spies, knew that Tarleton's troops Jan* 17,
were approaching his camp. His men were roused, quietly
breakfasted, and prepared for battle. The ground chosen
was an open wood between the springs of two little
rivulets, with a slight ridge extending from one of them
to the other. In the wood, free from undergrowth, no
thicket offered covert, no swamp a refuge from cavalry.
The best troops, about four hundred in number, were placed
in line on the rising ground. Two hundred and eighty
of the Maryland light infantry, commanded by Lieutenant-
colonel Howard, formed the centre; two companies of
approved Virginia riflemen were on each wing. Lieuten-
ant-colonel Washington's regiment of dragoons, consisting
of eighty men, was placed as a reserve out of sight and
out of fire. The volunteers from the Carolinas and Georgia,
four hundred in number, were posted under Pickens in
advance, so as to defend the approaches. Of these, sixty
sharpshooters of the North Carolina volunteers were to act
as skirmishers on the right flank one hundred and fifty
yards in front of the line, and as many more of the Geor-
gians at the same distance on the left.

Tarleton's troops, numbering about eleven hundred, hav-
ing two field-pieces and a great superiority in bayonets
and cavalry, after a march of twelve miles, came in sight
at eight o'clock, and drew up in one line. The legion
infantry formed their centre with the seventh regiment
on the right, the seventy-first on the left, and two light
companies of a hundred men each on the flanks. The
artillery moved in front. Tarleton, with two hundred and
eighty cavalry, was in the rear. No sooner were they
formed than they rushed forward with shouts. They were
received by a heavy and well-directed fire, — first from the
American skirmishers, and then from the whole of Pick-

VOL. yi. 25

886 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LL

ens's command. At the main line, they were resisted with
obstinate courage. During a bloody conflict, their supe-
riority of numbers enabled them to gain the flanks of the
Americans both on their right and left. At this moment,

Morgan ordered the Maryland line, which shared his
Jw?i7. own self-possession, to retreat fifty yards and form

anew. The British eagerly pressed on, thinking the
day their own, and were \vithin thirty yards of the Amer-
icans when the latter halted and turned upon them. The
Virginia riflemen, who had kept their places, instinctively
formed themselves on the sides of the British, so that they
who two or three minutes before had threatened to turn the
Americans found themselves as it were within a pair of open
pincers, exposed to the converging oblique fire of two com-
panies of sharpshooters on each flank and a direct fire from
the Marylanders in front. The change was so sudden that
the British were stunned -with surprise. Seeing their dis-
order, the line of Howard charged them with bayonets,
and broke their ranks so that they fled with precipitation.
The cavalry of Washington, hitherto unseen, sprang for-
ward and charged successfully the cavalry of the British.
The enemy was completely routed and pursued for upwards
of twenty miles.

Of the Americans, only twelve were killed and sixty
wounded. Of the enemy, ten commissioned officers were
killed, and more than a hundred rank and file ; two hun-
dred were wounded ; twenty-nine commissioned officers and
more than five hundred privates were taken prisoners, be-
side seventy negroes. Two standards, upwards of a hun-
dred dragoon horses, thirty-five wagons, eight hundred
muskets, and two field-pieces that had been taken from the
British at Saratoga and retaken at Camden, fell into the
hands of the victors. The immense baggage of Tarleton's
party, which had been left in the rear, was destroyed by
the British themselves. " Our success," wrote the victor in
his modest report, " must be attributed to the justice of
our cause and the gallantry of our troops. My wishes would
induce me to name every sentinel in the corps."

Aware that the camp of Cornwallis at Turkey Creek was

1781. MOBGAN AT THE COWPENS. 387

within twenty-five miles, and as near as the battle-ground
to the ford on the Catawba, Morgan destroyed the cap-
tured baggage-wagons, paroled the British officers, intrusted
the wounded to the care of the few residents of the neigh-
borhood, and, leaving his cavalry to follow him on their
return from the pursuit, on the day of the battle crossed
the Broad River with his foot soldiers and his prisoners,
the captured artillery, muskets and ammunition. Proceed-
ing by easy marches of ten miles a day, on the
twenty-third he crossed the Catawba at Sherrald's j^Jf^i.
ford. Taking for his troops a week's rest in his camp
north of the river, he sent forward his prisoners to Salisbury,
under the guard of Virginia militia, whose time of service
had just expired; and he recommended by letter to Greene
that the militia under General Stevens, whose term of ser-
vice had also expired, and who had passed a month in repose,
should conduct the prisoners to a place of safety in Virginia.
The fame of the great victory at the Cowpens spread in
every direction. Greene announced it in general orders, and
his army saluted the victors as " the finest fellows on earth,
more worthy than ever of love." Rutledge of South Car-
olina repeated their praises, and rewarded Pickens with
a commission as brigadier. Davidson of North Carolina
wrote that the victory " gladdened every countenance, and
paved the way for the salvation of the country." The
state of Virginia voted to Morgan a horse and a sword in
testimony of "the highest esteem of his country for his
military character and abilities so gloriously displayed."
The United States in congress placed among their records
"the most lively sense of approbation of the conduct
of Morgan and the men and officers under his command."
To him they voted a gold medal, to Howard and Washing-
ton medals of silver, and swords to Pickens and Triplet.

The health of Morgan gave way soon after the battle ; and,
in three weeks more, a severe acute attack of rheumatism,
consequent on the exposures of this and his former campaigns,
forced him to take a leave of absence. Wherever he had
appeared, he had always heralded the way to daring action,
almost always to success. He first attracted notice in the

888 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LI.

camp round Boston, was foremost in the march through
the wilderness to Canada, and foremost in the attempt to
take Quebec by storm ; he bore the brunt of every engage-
ment with Burgoyne's army, and now he had won the
most extraordinary victory of the war at the Cowpens.

He took with him into retirement the praises of all
178L the army, and of the chief civil representatives of the

country. Again and again hopes rose that he might
once more appear in arms; but the unrelenting malady
obliged him to refuse the invitation of Lafayette and even
of Washington.

I78L BATTLE OF GUILFORD. 889

CHAPTER LIL

THB SOUTHERN CAMPAIGN. BATTLE OF GUILFORD COURT-
HOUSE.

January — March, 1781.

•

Morgan's success lighted the fire of emulation in the
breast of Greene, and he was " loath it should stand alone."
The defeat at the Cowpens took Cornwallis by sur-
prise. " It is impossible," so he wrote on the eigh- jI^m,
teenth of January, to his superior, Sir Henry Clinton,
"to foresee all the consequences that this unexpected and
extraordinary event may produce. But nothing but the
most absolute necessity shall induce me to give up the
important object of the winter's campaign. Defensive
measures would be certain ruin to the affairs of Britain in
the southern colonies." Instead of remaining in South Car-
olina, as he should have done, he without orders and on his
own responsibility persisted in his original plan of striking
at the heart of North Carolina, establishing there a royal
government, and pressing forward to a junction with the
British troops on the Chesapeake. Morgan divined
his thoughts, and on the twenty-fifth wrote to Greene Jan. 26.
the advice to join their forces. Receiving this letter,
Greene, attended by a few dragoons, rode across the
country, and on the thirtieth arrived in Morgan's Jan. so.
camp at Sherrald's ford on the Catawba.

Leaving Lord Rawdon with a considerable body of troops
to defend South Carolina, Cornwallis, having formed a
junction with the corps under Leslie, began his long march,
avoiding the lower roads, there being so few fords in
the great rivers below their forks. On the twenty- Jan. 28.
fifth, he collected his army at Ramsower's mill, on
the south fork of the Catawba. Here he resolved to give

89U THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.UL

up his communications with South Carolina, and to turn
his army into light troops. The measure, if not in every
respect an absurd one, was adopted many days too late.
Two days he devoted to destroying superfluous baggage and
all wagons except those laden with hospital stores, salt, and
ammunition, and four reserved for the sick and wounded,
thus depriving his soldiers even of a regular supply of provi-
sions. Then, by forced marches through floods of .rain, he
approached the river, and prepared to pass it as soon as the
high waters should subside.

Arriving in Morgan's camp, Greene agreed immediately
with him that the plan of Cornwallis must extend to a co-
operation with the British troops in Virginia, and he entered
full of hope on the great career that was opening be-
jw?1^). f°re him. To his forces on the Pedee, he on the thirti-
eth sent orders to prepare to form at Guilford court-
house a junction with those under Morgan, writing to
Huger : " I am not without hopes of ruining Lord Corn-
wallis, if he persists in his mad scheme of pushing through
the country. Here is a fine field and great glory ahead."
On the same day, " the famous Colonel William Campbell "
was asked to " bring without loss of time a thousand good
volunteers from over the mountains." A like letter was
addressed to Shelby, though without effect. To the officers
commanding in the counties of Wilkes and Surry, Greene
said : «* If you repair to arms, Lord Cornwallis must be
inevitably ruined." He called upon Sumter, as soon as his
recovery should permit, to take the field at the head of the
South Carolina militia ; he gave orders to General Pickens
to raise as many troops as he could in the district of
Augusta and Ninety-Six, and hang on the rear of the
enemy; and he sought out powerful horses and skilful
riders to strengthen the cavalry of Washington.

Meantime, parties sent out by Morgan brought in near a
hundred British stragglers. He had sent his prisoners be-
yond the Yadkin on their way towards Virginia,
Feb. l. when on the first day of February Cornwallis with a
part of his army passed the Catawba at Macgowan's
ford. The dark stream was near five hundred yards wide,

1781. BATTLE OF GUILFORD. 391

with a rocky bottom and a strong current, and was dis-
puted by General Davidson of North Carolina with three
hundred militia. By forsaking the true direction of the
ford, the British escaped a direct encounter, but forty of
their light infantry and grenadiers were killed or wounded ;
and the horse under Cornwallis was struck while in the
stream, but reached the shore before falling. The other
division passed the Catawba at Beattie's ford, and the
united army encamped about five miles from the river on
the road to Salisbury. " I waited that night," writes Greene,
"at the place appointed for the militia to collect at till
past midnight, and not a man appeared." On the
second and third of February, the American light pjjfj's.
infantry, continuing their march, with the British at
their heels, crossed the Yadkin at the Trading ford, partly
on flats, during the latter part of the time in a heavy rain.
After the Americans were safe beyond the river and Morgan
had secured all water craft on its south side, it rose too high
to be forded. To the Americans it seemed that Providence
was their ally.

Cornwallis was forced to lose two days in ascending the
Yadkin to the so-called Shallow ford, where he crossed
on the seventh. On the night of the ninth he en- Feb. 7, 9.
camped near the Moravian settlement of Salem,
where, upon the very edge of the wilderness, gentle and
humble and hospitable emigrants, bound by their faith never
to take up arms, had chosen their abodes, and for their sole
defence had raised the symbol of the triumphant Lamb.
Among them equality reigned. No one, then or thereafter,
was held in bondage. There were no poor, and none
marked from others by their apparel or their dwellings.
Everywhere appeared the same simplicity and neatness.
The elders watched over the members of the congregation,
and incurable wrong-doers were punished by expulsion.
After their hours of toil came the hour of prayer, exhorta-
tions, and the singing of psalms and hymns. Under their
well-directed labor on a bountiful soil, in a genial clime,
the wilderness blossomed like the rose.

While Cornwallis rested for the night near Salem, at the

\

892 THE AMEBICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.LII

distance of five-and-twenty miles the two divisions of the
American army effected their junction at Guilford court-
house. The united force was too weak to offer battle ; a
single neglect or mistake would have proved its ruin.
Edward Carrington of Virginia, the wise selection of
Greene for his quartermaster, advised to cross the Dan
twenty miles below Dix's ferry at the ferries of Irwin and
Boyd, which were seventy miles distant from Guilford
court-house, and where he knew that boats could be col-
lected. The advice was adopted. To carry it out, Greene

placed under Otho Williams the flower of his troops
Vebho. M a light corps, which on the morning of the tenth

sallied forth to watch and impede the advance of
Cornwallis, to prevent his receiving correct information,
and by guarding the approaches of Dix's ferry to lead him
in that direction. They succeeded in keeping Cornwallis
for a day or two in doubt.

Meantime, the larger part of the army under Greene,
without tents, poorly clothed, and for the most part without
shoes, " many hundreds of the soldiers tracking the ground
with their bloody feet," retreated at the rate of seventeen
miles a day along wilderness roads where the wagon-wheels

sunk in deep mire and the creeks were swollen by
Feb. 11 heavy rains. On the fourteenth, they arrived at the

ferries. Greene first sent over the wagons, and at
half-past five in the afternoon could write "that all his
troops were over and the stage clear."

So soon as Cornwallis gained good information, he pur-
sued the light troops at the rate of thirty miles a day, but

he was too late. On the evening of the fourteenth,
Feb. 14. Otho Williams brought his party, whioh on that day

had marched forty miles, to the ferries. The next
Feb. 15. morning, Cornwallis made his appearanoe there, only

to learn that the Americans, even to their rear-guard,
had crossed the river the night before.

The safety of the southern states had depended on the
success of this retreat of two hundred miles from the
Catawba to the north bank of the Dan. On the march
from Guilford court-house, Greene scarcely slept four hours

1781. BATTLE OF GUILFOBD. 893

in as many days ; and his care was so comprehensive that
nothing, however trifling, was afterwards found to have
been overlooked or neglected. " Your retreat before Corn-
wallis," wrote Washington, "is highly applauded by all
ranks, and reflects much honor on your military abilities."
" Every measure of the Americans," so wrote a British his-
torian, " during their march from the Catawba to Virginia,
was judiciously designed and vigorously executed." Special
applause was awarded to Carrington and to Otho Williams.

In the camp of Greene every countenance was lighted
up with joy. Soldiers in tattered garments, with but one
blanket to four men, without shoes, without regular food,
without pay, were proud and happy in the thought of having
done their duty to their country. They all were ready to
cross the Dan once more and attack.

After giving bis troops a day's rest, Cornwallis moved
by easy marches to Hillsborough, where on the
twentieth he invited by proclamation all loyal sub- yJJJV
jects in North Carolina to repair to the royal stand-
ard which he erected, being himself ready to concur with
them in re-establishing the government of the king.

No sooner had the British left the banks of the Dan, than
Lee's legion recrossed the river. They were followed
on the twenty-first by the light troops, and on the Feb. 21.
twenty-second by Greene with the rest of his army, Feb. 22.
including a re-enforcement of six hundred militia-men
of Virginia.

The loyalists of North Carolina, inferring from the proc-
lamation of Cornwallis that he was in peaceable possession
of the country, rose in such numbers that seven independent
companies were formed in one day ; and Tarleton with the
British legion was detached across the Haw River for their
protection. By the order of Greene, Pickens, who had
collected between three and four hundred militia, and Lee
formed a junction and moved against both parties. Missing
Tarleton, they fell in with three hundred royalists under
Colonel Pyle, and routed them with "dreadful carnage."
Tarleton, who was refreshing his legion about a mile from
the scene of action, hurried back to Hillsborough, and all

894 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LII.

royalists who were on their way to join the king's standard
returned home. Cornwallis describes himself as being
" among timid friends and adjoining to inveterate rebels."

To compel Greene to accept battle, Cornwallis on
FetJar. tne twenty-seventh moved his whole force in two col-
umns across the Haw, and encamped near Allemance
Creek. For seven days, Greene lay within ten miles of the
British camp, but baffled his enemy by taking a new position
every night. No fear of censure could hurry his
March, determined mind. He waited till in March he was
joined by the south-west Virginia militia under Wil-
liam Campbell, by another brigade of militia from Virginia
under General Lawson, by two from North Carolina under
Butler and Eaton, and by four hundred regulars
Mar. 10. raised for eighteen months. Then on the tenth,
while Cornwallis was on his march to New Garden
or the Quaker meeting-house, he prepared to hazard
Mar. 14. an engagement. On the fourteenth, he encamped
near Guilford court-house, within eight miles of
Cornwallis.

At dawn of day on the fifteenth, Cornwallis, having
* sent off his baggage under escort, set in motion the
rest of his army, less than nineteen hundred in number, all
of them veteran troops of the best quality. To oppose them,
Greene had sixteen hundred and fifty-one men equal to the
best of the British, and more than two thousand militia, in
all twice as many as his antagonist. But he himself had
not taken off his clothes since he left his camp on the Pedee ;
and on this most eventful day of his life he found himself
worn out with fatigue and constant watching.

The ground on which his army was to be drawn up was
a large hill, surrounded by other hills and almost every-
where covered with massive forest trees and a thick under-
growth. To receive the enemy, he selected three separate
positions : the first, admirably chosen ; the second, three
hundred yards in the rear of the first, was entirely in the
woods ; between one quarter and one third of a mile in the
rear of the second was the third position, where he drew
up his best troops obliquely, according to the declivities of

1781. BATTLE OF GUILFORD. 395

a hill on which they were posted, most of them in a forest.
The positions were so far apart that they could give each
other no support ; so that Cornwallis had to engage, as it
were, three separate armies, and in each engagement he
would have a superiority in numbers. Greene had always
differed with the commander in chief on the proper manner
of using militia, — Washington being convinced that they
should be used as a reserve to improve an advantage, while
Greene insisted that they ought to be plaoed in front ; and
he now acted on that opinion.

The position selected for the first line is described 1731.
by Greene as the most advantageous he ever saw. It Mar* ^
was on the skirt of the wood, protected on the flanks and
rear, having in the centre a fence, with open ground over
which the British army was obliged to advance, exposed to
a fire that must have torn them in pieces, had they encoun-
tered troops who would have stood their ground. Here
Greene placed the two brigades of North Carolina militia,
not quite eleven hundred in number, his poorest troops, sud-
denly called together, ignorant of war, of each other, and of
their general officers. On their right were posted two six-
pounders, and Lieutenant-colonel Washington with an able
corps of observation ; on their left, a like corps was formed
of Lee's command and the riflemen from beyond the
mountains.

The battle began with cannonading about one in the
afternoon. The undivided force of Cornwallis displayed
into line, advanced at quick step, gave their fire, shouted,
and rushed forward with bayonets. While they were still
in the open field, at a distance of one hundred and forty
yards, the North Carolina brigade fled, " none of them hav-
ing fired more than twice, very few more than once, and
near one half not at all." Lee and Campbell with their
troops were separated from the main army, which they did
not rejoin till the next day.

Without pausing to take breath, the British line, which
had not escaped without loss, advanced to attack the second
position of the Americans, defended by the Virginia bri-
gade. The men were used to forest warfare, and they made

396 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Co**. LH

a brave and obstinate resistance. They would discharge
their pieces, draw back behind the brow of the hill to load,
and return to renew their well-directed fire. In dislodging
some Americans from their post on a woody height, the
ranks of the first battalion of the guards were thinned and
many of their officers fell. The brigade did not retreat till
the British drew near enough to charge with the bayonet.

The British army, though suffering from fatigue and
weakened by heavy losses, pressed forward to the third
American line, where Greene himself was present. A fierce
attack was made on the American right by Colonel Webster
with the left of the British. After a bloody and long-con-
tinued enoounter, the British were beaten back by
Mar^is. *ne continentals, and with great loss were forced to
recross a ravine. Webster himself received wounds
which in a few days proved to be mortal.

The second battalion of the guards, led by Lieutenant-
colonel Stewart, broke through the second Maryland regi-
ment, captured two field-pieces, and pursued their advantage
into more open ground. Immediately Lieutenant-colonel
Washington, who had brought his cavalry once more into
the field, made a charge upon them with his mounted men;
and the first regiment of Marylanders, led by Gunby and
seconded by Howard, engaged with their bayonets. Stew-
art fell under a blow from Captain Smith ; and the British
party was driven back with great slaughter and the loss of
the cannon which they had taken. The first battalion of the
guards, although already crippled, advanced against the
Americans. A severe American fire on its front and flanks
completely broke its ranks. At this moment, Du Buy's
Hessian regiment, which had thus far suffered but little,
came up in compact order on the left of the guards, who
rallied behind them, renewed the attack, and in turn de-
feated the Americans.

The British army appeared to be gaining the American
right. The battle had raged for two hours. Greene could
still order into the fight two Virginia regiments of conti-
nentals, of which one had hardly been engaged, the other
had been withheld as a reserve ; but he hesitated. After

1781. BATTLE OF GUILFORD. 397

deliberating for some moments, not knowing how much the
British had suffered, he left his cannon and the field to the
enemy, and used his reserve only to cover the retreat of his
army. The last as well as the first in the engagement were
the riflemen of Campbell, who continued firing from
tree to tree till they were compelled to fly by the Marf 15.
cavalry of Tarleton. After the Americans were en-
camped in safety, Greene fainted from extreme exhaustion,
and, on recovering consciousness, still remained far from
well.

Although the battle at Guilford drew after it, for the
British, all the consequences of a defeat, and put an end to
their power in North Carolina, no praise is too great for
the conduct of their officers and troops throughout the day.
On their side, five hundred and seventy were killed or
wounded ; and their wounded, dispersed over a wide space
of country, asked for immediate care. Of the Americans,
the loss was, of continentals, three hundred and twenty-six ;
of the militia, ninety-three. But nearly three hundred of
the Virginia militia and six hundred of those of North Car-
olina, whose time of service had almost expired, seized the
occasion to return home. The battle of King's Mountain
drove Cornwallis back into South Carolina; the defeat at
the Cowpens made his second invasion of North Carolina
a desperate enterprise ; the battle at Guilford court-house
transformed the American army into pursuers, the British
into fugitives.

Virginia furnished to the army that fought at Guilford
sixteen hundred and ninety-three of her militia and seven
hundred and seventy-eight of her continental troops. " The
great re-enforcements," wrote Cornwallis to Germain, " sent
by Virginia to General Greene whilst General Arnold was
in the Chesapeake, are convincing proofs that small expedi-
tions do not frighten that powerful province."

This act of magnanimity was deliberate. " Your state,'9
wrote Washington to Jefferson, its governor, " will experi-
ence more molestation ; but the evils from predatory incur-
sions are not to be compared to the injury of the common
cause. 1 am persuaded the attention to your immediate

898 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LII.

safety will not divert you from the measures intended to
re-enforce the southern army. The late accession of force
makes the enemy in Carolina too formidable to be resisted
without powerful succors from Virginia." And he gave
orders to Steuben : " Make the defence of the state as little
as possible interfere with the measures for succoring Gen-
eral Greene. Every thing is to be apprehended, if he is not
powerfully supported from Virginia." Jefferson made the
advice of Washington his rule of conduct, though accused
in his own state of doing too much for the Carolinas. On
the third day after the battle, Greene wrote to Washing-
ton : " Virginia has given me every support I could wish."
In his report of the day of Guilford, Greene hardly did
himself justice ; public opinion took no note of his mistakes
in the order of battle, and acknowledged the greatness of
his general plan and its successful result. Virginia and the
whole south confided in his capacity.

i78i. On the eighteenth, committing his wounded to the
Mar. is. tender mercies of the Americans, Cornwallis, with the
wreck of his victorious but ruined army, began his flight ;
and, as he hurried away, distributed by proclamation news
of his victory, offers of pardon to repentant rebels, and
promises of protection to the loyal. He was pursued by

Greene, who was now eager for battle. On the
Mar. 28. morning of the twenty-eighth, the Americans arrived

at Ramsay's Mills, on Deep River; but Cornwallis
had just a few hours before crossed the river on a tempo-
rary bridge. No longer in danger of being overtaken, he
moved by way of Cross Creek, now Lafayette, towards
Wilmington. His rapid march through a country thinly
inhabited left no tracks which the quickening of spring
did not cover over, except where houses had been burnt
and settlements broken up. But it taught the loyalists of
North Carolina that they could put no trust in the prom-
ises of British generals or the protection of the British king.
All North Carolina, except Wilmington, was left to the
Americans.

" From the report of Cornwallis," said Fox, on the
June 12. twelfth of June, to the house of commons, " there

178L BATTLE OF GUILFO&D. 399

is the most conclusive evidence that the war is at once
impracticable in its object and ruinous in its progress.
In the disproportion between the two armies, a victory
was highly to the honor of our troops ; but, had our army
been vanquished, what course could they have taken ? Cer-
tainly they would have abandoned the field of action,
and flown for refuge to the seaside ; precisely the j^f1^.
measures the victorious army was obliged to adopt."
And he moved the house of commons to recommend to the
ministers every possible measure for concluding peace.

In the course of the very long debate, the younger Wil-
liam Pitt, then just twenty-two, avoiding the question of
independence, and thus unconsciously conciliating the favor
of George III., explained to a listening house the princi-
ples and conduct of his father on American affairs. Then,
referring to Lord Westcote, he said: "A noble lord has
called the American war a holy war : I affirm that it is a
most accursed war, wicked, barbarous, cruel, and unnatural ;
conceived in injustice, it was brought forth and nurtured
in folly ; its footsteps are marked with slaughter and dev-
astation, while it meditates destruction to the miserable
people who are the devoted objects of the resentments
which produced it. The British nation, in return for its
vital resources in men and money, has received ineffective
victories and severe defeats, which have filled the land with
mourning for the loss of dear relations slain in the im-
pious cause of enforcing unconditional submission, or nar-
ratives of the glorious exertions of men struggling under
all difficulties in the holy cause of liberty. Where is the
Englishman who can refrain from weeping, on whatever
side victory may be declared?" The voice was listened
to as that of Chatham, " again living in his son with all
his virtues and all his talents." " America is lost, irrecov-
erably lost, to this country," added Fox. " We can lose
nothing by a vote declaring America independent."

On the division, an increased minority revealed the grow-
ing discontent of the house of commons at the continuance
of the war.

400 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LIU

CHAPTER Lin.

THE SOUTHERN CAMPAIGN. GREENE IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

1781.

On the seventh of April, Cornwallis brought the relies
of his army to Wilmington, where a party sent by
ApxUT. n*8 orders from Charleston awaited him. He could
not move by land towards Camden without exposing
his troops to the greatest chances of being lost. He should
have sped to Charleston by water, to retain possession of
South Carolina; but such a movement would have pub-
lished to the world that all his long marches and victories
had led only to disgrace. A subordinate general, sure of
the favor and approval of Germain, he forced his plans
on his oommander in chief, to whom he wrote : " I cannot
help expressing my wishes that the Chesapeake may be-
come the seat of war, even, if necessary, at the expense
of abandoning New York." And without waiting for an
answer, in the last days of April, with a force of fourteen
hundred and thirty-five men, all told, he left Wil-
May. mington for Virginia. Clinton replied: "Had you
intimated the probability of your intention, I should
certainly have endeavored to have stopped you; as I did
then as well as now consider such a move likely to be dan-
gerous to our interests in the southern colonies."
April. He had just received from the secretary this mes-
sage : " Lord George Germain strongly recommends
it to Sir Henry Clinton either to remain in good humor,
in full confidence to be supported as much as the nature
of the service will admit of, or avail himself of the leave
of coming home; as no good can arise to the service if
there is not full confidence between the general and the
minister." But, instead of resigning, he hastened to warn

178L GREENE IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 401

Germain: "Operations in the Chesapeake are attended
with great risk, unless we are sure of a permanent supe-
riority at sea. I cannot agree to the opinion given me
by Lord Cornwallis." "I tremble for the fatal conse-
quences which may ensue."

But the subordinate general had from Wilmington writ-
ten to the secretary " that a serious attempt upon Virginia
would be the most solid plan;" and Germain hastened
to instruct Clinton : " Lord Cornwallis's opinion entirely
ooincides with mine of the great importance of pushing
the war on the side of Virginia with all the force that oan
be spared."

In his march from Wilmington, Cornwallis met little
resistance. At Halifax, his troops were let loose to commit
enormities that were a disgrace to the name of man. For
the place of junction with the British army in Virginia,
he fixed upon Petersburg on the Appomattox.

So soon as Cornwallis had escaped beyond pursuit, rrei.
Greene " determined to carry the war immediately Mar* ^
into South Carolina." Dismissing those of the militia
whose time was about to expire, he retained nearly eighteen
hundred men, with small chances of re-enforcements or of
sufficient subsistence. He knew the hazards which he was
incurring ; but, in case of untoward accidents, he believed
that Washington and his other friends would do justice to
his name.

The possession of the interior of South Carolina depended
on the posts at Camden and Ninety-Six in that state,
and at Augusta in Georgia. On the sixth of April, April c
Greene detached a force under Lee, which joined
Marion, and threatened the connections between Camden
and Charleston; Sumter, with three small regiments of
regular troops of the state, had in charge to hold the
country between Camden and Ninety-Six; and Pickens
with the western militia to intercept supplies on their way
to Ninety-Six and Augusta.

After these preparations, Greene on the seventh April 7.
began his march from Deep River, and on the twen-
tieth encamped his army a half-mile from the strong Apr. 90
vol. vi. 26

402 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.LIII

and well-garrisoned works of Camden. In the hope of
intercepting a party whom Rawdon had sent out, Greene
moved to the south of the town ; but, finding that he
JLpt^ii. na^ been misled, his army, on the twenty-fourth, took
a well-chosen position on Hobkirk's Hill. The emi-
nence was covered with wood, and flanked on the left
by an impassable swamp. The ground towards Camden,
which was a mile and a half distant, was protected by
Apr. 28. a forest and thiok shrubbery. On the twenty-eighth,
the men, having been under arms from daylight,
were dismissed to receive provisions and prepare their
morning repast. The horses were unsaddled and feeding;
Greene was at breakfast.

By keeping close to the swamp, Rawdon, with about
nine hundred men, gained the left of the Americans, "in
some measure by surprise," 1 and opened a fire upon their
pickets. The good discipline which Greene had intro-
duced now stood him in stead. About two hundred and
fifty North Carolina militia, who had arrived that morning,
did nothing during the day; but his cavalry was soon
mounted, and his regular troops, about nine hundred and
thirty in number, were formed in order of battle in one
line without reserves. Of the two Virginia regiments, that
under Hawes formed the extreme right, that of Campbell
the right centre ; of the two Maryland regiments, that of
Ford occupied the extreme left, that of Gunby the left
centre. The artillery was placed in the road between the
two brigades. In this disposition, he awaited the attack
of Rawdon.

Perceiving that the British advanced with a narrow
front, Greene, with full confidence in gaining the victory,
ordered Ford's regiment on the left and Campbell's on the
right to wheel respectively on their flanks, the regiments of
Hawes and Gunby to charge with bayonets without firing,
and Washington with his cavalry to double the right flank
and attack the enemy in the rear. Had every one of these
movements succeeded, the army of Rawdon would have

1 "In some measure by surprise." — Washington's Diary, Thursday,
26 May, 1790.

1781. GREENE IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 403

been rained ; but they were not executed with the prompt-
ness of veteran troops. Rawdon had time to extend his
front by ordering up his reserves. Colonel Ford, in leading
on his men, was disabled by a severe wound ; and his regi-
ment, without executing their orders, only replied by a
loose scattering fire. On the other flank, the regiment of
Campbell, composed of new troops, could not stand the
brunt of the enemy, though they could be rallied and formed
anew. Exposing himself greatly, Greene led up the regi-
ment several times in person. Meantime, the regiments
under Hawes and Gunby advanced in front with courage,
while the artillery played effectively on the head of the
British column. But, on the right of Gunby's regiment,
Captain Beatty, an officer of the greatest merit, fell mortally
wounded; his company, left without his lead, began to
waver, and the wavering affected the next company. See-
ing this, Gunby absurdly ordered the regiment to retire,
that they might form again. The British troops seized the
opportunity, broke through the American centre, advanced
to the summit of the ridge, and brought their whole force
into action on the best ground ; so that Greene was
forced to a retreat. Each party lost about three Ap™ 2g.
hundred men. The battle was over before Washing-
ton with his cavalry could make the circuit through the
forest and attack their rear.

u Had we defeated the enemy," wrote Greene, " not a
man of the party would have got back into town. The dis-
grace is more vexatious than any thing else." The Amer-
icans lost no more than the British ; Rawdon was compelled
to leave the field and return to Camden, followed by the
congratulations of Cornwallis on " his most glorious victory,
by far the most splendid of this war." Greene saved his
artillery and collected all his men. Receiving a re-enforce-
ment of five hundred, Rawdon crossed the Wateree in pur-
suit of him ; but he skilfully kept his enemy at bay.

No sooner had Marion been re-enforced by Lee than they
marched against the fort on Wright's bluff below Camden,
the principal post of the British on the Santee, garrisoned
by one hundred and fourteen men. The Americans were

404 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.LIII

without cannon, and the bluff was forty feet high ; but the
forest stretched all around them ; in the night, the troops
cut and hauled logs, and erected a tower so tall that the
1781. garrison could be picked off by riflemen. Two days
Apr. is. before the battle of Hobkirk's Hill, it capitulated.
The connection of Camden with Charleston being thus

broken, the post became untenable. On the tenth of
May 10. May, after destroying all public buildings and stores

and many private houses, the British abandoned it,
May n. and they never held it again. On the eleventh, the

post at Orangeburg, held by sixty British militia and
twelve regulars, gave itself up to Sumter. Meantime, Raw-
don marched down the Santee on the north side, anxious to
save the garrison of Fort Motte, to which Marion had laid
siege. To hasten its surrender, Rebecca Motte, the owner

of the house in which they were quartered, on the
May 12. twelfth brought into camp a bow and a bundle of

Indian arrows; and, when the arrows had carried

fire to her own abode, the garrison of a hundred and
M»yi4. sixty-five men surrendered. Two days later, the

British evacuated their post at Nelson's ferry. On
May 16. the fifteenth, Fort Granby with three hundred and

fifty-two men surrendered by capitulation. General
Marion turned his arms against Georgetown ; and, on the
first night after the Americans had broken ground, the
British retreated to Charleston. The troops under Rawdon
did not halt until they reached Monk's Corner.

The north-western part of South Carolina was thus re-
covered, but the British still held Ninety-Six and Augusta.
Conforming to the plan which Greene had forwarded from

Deep River, General Pickens and Colonel Clarke with
May ao. militia kept watch over the latter. On the twentieth

of May, they were joined by Lieutenant-colonel Lee.

The outposts were taken one after another, and on the
June 5. fifth of June the main fort with about three hundred

men capitulated. One officer, obnoxious for his
cruelties, fell after the surrender by an unknown hand.
Lieutenant-colonel Brown, the commander, had himself
hanged thirteen American prisoners, and delivered citizens

1781. GREENE IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 405

of Georgia to the Cherokees to suffer death with all the
exquisite tortures which savage barbarity could contrive ;
but on his way to Savannah an escort protected him from
the inhabitants whose houses he had burnt, whose relations
he had sent to the gallows.

On the twenty-second of May, Greene, with Kos- ngi.
ciuszko for his engineer, and nine hundred and eighty- May 22-
four men, began the siege of Ninety-Six. The post, though
mounting but three pieces of artillery, was strongly forti-
fied ; the garrison of five hundred and fifty was ample for
the place ; and the commander, Lieutenant-colonel Cruger,
was an officer of ability and enterprise.

A fleet from Ireland having arrived at Charleston
with re-enforcements, Rawdon on the seventh of June 7.
June marched with two thousand men to the relief
of Ninety-Six. Loath to be baffled, Greene, on the
eighteenth, ordered & party of Marylanders and of June is.
Virginians to make a lodgement in the fort, in which
no justifying breach had been made. Of the brave men
who were sent into the ditch, one third were killed, and but
one in six came out of it un wounded. The next day, the
general raised the siege and withdrew to the north, com-
plaining of fortune which had neither given him victory at
Guilford, nor at Camden, nor now at Ninety-Six. But hip
fortitude always rose above disasters, and his resources dia
not fail him. He retreated as far as the Enoree.

Giving over pursuit, the British commander returned to
Ninety-Six. That insulated post could no longer be main-
tained. Leaving the largest part of his force to assist in
removing the loyalists, he marched with a thousand men to
establish a detachment on the Congaree. Greene followed ;
and his cavalry, detached to watch the enemy's motions,
made prisoners of forty-eight British dragoons within one
mile of their encampment.

Avoiding an encounter, Lord Rawdon retired to Orange-
burg, where he was re-enforced. On the other side, Greene,
after forming a junction with the men of Sumter and
Marion, pursued him, and on the twelfth of July July 12.
offered him battle. The offer was refused. On the

406 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LEO

17§1 thirteenth, Greene detached the cavalry of the legion,
July is. the state troops and militia of South Carolina, to com-
pel the evacuation of Orangeburg by striking at the posts
around Charleston ; the rest of the army was ordered to the
high hills of the Santee, famed for pure air and pure water.
On the same day, Cruger, who had evacuated Ninety-Six,
joined Rawdon with his troops. He had called around him
the royalists in the district of Ninety-Six, avowed to them
that the post from its insulation could no longer be main-
tained, and set before them the option of making their peace
with the Americans or fleeing under his escort to Charleston.
Those who had signalized themselves by devoted service to
the king now learned from his officer that he could no
longer protect them in their own homes; and, forced to
elect the lot of refugees, they brought into the camp of
Cruger their wives, children, and slaves, wagons laden with
the little of their property that they could carry away, sure
to be thrust aside by the English at Charleston as trouble-
some guests, and left to wretchedness and despair.

The British when united were superior in number; bat
their detachments were attacked with success. They could
not give the protection which they had promised, and the
people saw no hope of peace except in driving them out of
the land. Weary of ceaseless turmoil, Rawdon repaired to
Charleston, and, pretending ill health, sailed for England,
but not till after a last act of vengeful inhumanity. Isaac
Hayne, a planter in the low country whose affections were
always with America, had, after the fall of Charleston, sur-
rendered himself and obtained British protection, at the
same time that he avowed his resolve never to meet a call
for military service under the British flag. When the
British lost the part of the country in which he resided and
could protect him no longer, he resumed his place as an
American citizen, and led a regiment of militia against
them. Taken prisoner, Balfour hesitated what to do with
him ; but Rawdon, who was Balfour's superior in command,
had no sooner arrived in Charleston, than, against the en-
treaties of the children of Hayne, of the women of Charles-
ton, of the lieutenant-governor of the province, he sent

1781. GBEENB IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 407

him to the gallows. The execution was illegal ; for 1781#
the loss of power to protect forfeited the right to Au«- *■
enforce allegiance. It was most impolitic ; for it uprooted
all remaining attachment of moderate men for the English
government, and roused the women of Charleston to impla-
cable defiance. After the departure of Rawdon, there re-
mained in South Carolina no British officer who would have
repeated a like act. His first excuse for the execution was
that same order of Cornwallis which had filled the woods of
Carolina with assassins. Feeling the act as a stain upon his
name, he attempted, but only after the death of Balfour, to
throw on that officer the blame that belonged especially to
himself. The ship in which he embarked was captured by
the French at sea, but his rights as a prisoner of war were
respected.

After a short rest, Greene moved his army from the hills
of Santee in a roundabout way to attack the British at their
post near the junction of the Wateree and Congaree. They
retreated before him, and halted at Eutaw Springs. He
continued the pursuit with so much skill that the British
remained ignorant of his advance. At four o'clock
on the morning of the eighth of September, his army Sept. 8.
was in motion to attack them. The centre of the
front line was composed of two small battalions from North
Carolina, and of one from South Carolina on each wing,
commanded respectively by Marion and Pickens. The sec-
ond line was formed of three hundred and fifty continentals
of North Carolina, led by General Sumner; of an equal
number of Virginians, commanded by Lieutenant-colonel
Campbell ; and of two hundred and fifty Marylanders, under
Otho Williams. Long and gallantly did the militia main-
tain the action, those with Marion and Pickens proving
themselves equal to the best veterans. As they began to
be overpowered by numbers, they were sustained by the
North Carolina brigade under Sumner ; and the Virginians
under Campbell, and the Marylanders under Williams,
charged with the bayonet. The British were routed. On
a party that prepared to rally, Colonel Washington bore
down with his cavalry and a small body of infantry, and

408 THE AMERICAN BE VOLUTION. Chap. UI1

drove them from the field. Great numbers of the British
fell, or were made prisoners.

Many of the Americans who joined in the shouts of tri-
umph were doomed to bleed. A brick house sheltered the
British as they fled. Against the house Greene ordered
artillery to play ; but the gunners were shot down by rifle-
men, and the field-pieces abandoned to the enemy. Upon a
party in an adjacent wood of barren oaks, Washington was
ordered to charge with his horsemen ; and the close, stiff
branches of the stubborn trees made the cavalry useless.
Colonel Washington himself, after his glorious share in the
campaign, at the last moment of this last encounter, was
wounded, disabled, and taken prisoner. So there were at
Eutaw two successive engagements. In the first, Greene
won a brilliant victory and with little loss ; in the second,
he sustained a defeat, with the death or capture of many
of his bravest men. In the two engagements, the
gJJJIg Americans lost in killed, wounded, and missing, five
hundred and fifty-four men ; they took five hundred
prisoners, including the wounded ; and the total loss of the
British approached one thousand.

The cause of the United States was the cause of Ireland.
Among the fruits of the battles of the former was the re-
covery for the latter of her equal rights in trade and legisla-
tion. Yet such is the sad complication in human affaire
that the people who of all others should have been found
taking part with America sent some of their best troops and
their ablest men to take the field against the defenders of
their own rights. Irishmen fought in the British ranks at „
Eutaw. Lord Edward Fitzgerald, who received on this
day wounds that were all but mortal, had in later years no
consolation for his share in the conflict ; " for," said he,
"I was then fighting against liberty."

Occupying the field of battle by a strong picket, Greene
drew off for the night to his morning's camp, where his
troops could have the refreshment of pure water, and pre-
pare to renew the attack. But the British in the night,
after destroying stores and breaking in pieces a thousand
muskets, retreated to Charleston, leaving seventy of their

1781. GREENE IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 409

wounded. Besting one or two days, Greene with his troops,
which were wasted not only by battle, but by disease, re-
gained his old position on the heights of Santee.
Like the commander in chief, he had to contend 1781.
with every evil that could come from defects in the
central government. From Morris, the financier, he re-
ceived good words and little else ; but his cheerful activity
and fortitude never failed him. He says of himself, " We
fight, get beaten, and fight again ; " and, if his career was
not marked by victories, he always gained the object for
which he risked an engagement. He had been in command
less than nine months ; and in that time the three southern
states were recovered, excepting only Wilmington which
was soon after evacuated, Charleston, and Savannah. In
the opinion of his country, he gained for himself- as a general
in the American army the place next to Washington. The
legislature of South Carolina, at its next meeting, in testi-
mony of its approbation and gratitude, voted him an estate
in their " country " to the value of ten thousand guineas.
To this Georgia afterwards added five thousand guineas;
and North Carolina, four-and-twenty thousand acres of
the most fertile land in Tennessee.

410 THE AMEBICAN REVOLUTION. Chat.UT.

CHAPTER LIV.

CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA.

1781.

Clinton had himself resolved to hold a station in the

Chesapeake Bay ; and on the second of January,
Jiau'2. 1781, Arnold, with sixteen hundred men, appeared

by his order in the James River. The generous state
had sent its best troops and arms to the southern army.
Nelson had received timely orders from Governor Jefferson
to call out the militia of the low country ; but, in the region
of planters with slaves, there were not freemen enough at
hand to meet the invaders ; and Steuben, thinking Peters-
burg the object of attack, kept his small force on the south
side of the river. Arnold offered to spare Richmond, if he

might unmolested carry off its stores of tobacco ; the
Jan. 5. proposal being rejected with scorn, on the fifth and
Jan. 6. sixth, all its houses and stores, public and private,

were set on fire. In the hope of capturing Arnold
and his corps, Washington detached Lafayette with about
twelve hundred rank and file to Virginia ; and, repairing to

Newport, persuaded the French naval commander to
Mar. 6. send to the Chesapeake ten ships-of-war to co-operate

with him. They were followed by the British squad-
ron, and twelve leagues east of the bay an action took place.
The French were compelled to return to Newport, while
Arbuthnot entered the Chesapeake.

On the twenty-sixth of March, General Phillips,

who brought from New York a re-enforcement of
two thousand picked men, took the command in Virginia.
All the stores of produce which its planters in five quiet
years had accumulated were now carried off or destroyed.
Their negroes, so desired in the West Indies, formed the
staple article of plunder.

1781. CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA. 411

By a courier from Washington, Lafayette received in-
formation that Virginia was about to become the centre of
active operations, and was instructed to defend the state
as well as the weakness of his means would permit. His
troops were chiefly from New England, and dreaded the
unwholesome and unknown climate of lower Vir-
ginia. Besides, they were destitute of every thing. ^™ Jf
To prevent desertion, Lafayette, as soon as he found
himself on the south side of the Susquehannah, in an order
of the day, offered leave to any of them to return to the
north ; and not one would abandon him. At Baltimore, he
borrowed two thousand pounds sterling, supplied his men
with shoes and hats, and bought linen, which the women of
Baltimore made into summer garments. Then, by a forced
march of two hundred miles, he arrived at Richmond
on the twenty-ninth of April, the evening before Apr. 29.
Phillips reached the opposite bank of the river.
Having in the night been joined by Steuben with militia,
Lafayette was enabled to hold in check the larger British
force. Wayne should have accompanied Lafayette with
the Pennsylvania line, but they were detained week after
week for needful supplies. Meantime, Clinton, stimulated
by Germain's constant praises of the activity of Cornwallis,
sent another considerable detachment to Virginia.

On the thirteenth of May, General Phillips died May 13.
of malignant fever. Arnold, on whom the command
devolved, though only for seven days, addressed a letter to
Lafayette. The young man returned it with scorn, refus-
ing to correspond with a traitor ; upon which Arnold
threatened to send to the Antilles all American prisoners,
unless a cartel should be immediately concluded.
But on the twentieth Cornwallis arrived at Peters- May 20.
burg ; and, to free his camp of one whom he despised,
he ordered Arnold back to New York.

Clinton had little reason to be satisfied with an Sept
officer who had represented to the ministry that he
might have taken the American posts in the Highlands in
a few days by a regular attack. Nevertheless, he detached
him once more, and this time against his native state.

412 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LIV.

Grossing from Long Island, the troops under his
Sept '& command, on the sixth of September, landed on each
side of New London. The town, which offered lit-
tle resistance, was plundered and burnt. After a gallant
defence of forty minutes by Colonel Ledyard, with about
one hundred and fifty ill-armed militia-men, Fort Griswold
was carried by storm, the Americans having lost not more
than six men. When Ledyard had surrendered, the British
officer in command ran him through with his sword, and
refused quarter to the garrison. Seventy-three of them
were killed, and more than thirty wounded; about forty
were carried off as prisoners. With this expedition, Arnold
disappears from history.

Cornwallis now found himself where he had so ardently
desired to be, — in Virginia, at the head of seven thousand
effective men, with not a third of that number to oppose
him by land, and with undisputed command of the water.

The statesmen of Virginia, in the extremity of their peril,
were divided in opinion. " Wanting a rudder in the storm,"
said Richard Henry Lee, " the good ship must inevitably be
cast away ; " and he proposed to send for General Washing-
ton immediately, and invest him with u dictatorial powers."
But Jefferson, on the other hand, reasoned : " The thought
alone of creating a dictator is treason against the people ; is
treason against mankind in general, giving to their oppres-
sors a proof of the imbecility of republican government in
times of pressing danger. The government, instead of
being braced and invigorated for greater exertions under
difficulties, would be thrown back." As governor of Vir-
ginia, speaking for its people and representing their
M*y 28. distresses, he wrote to Washington : " Could you
lend us your personal aid ? It is evident, from the
universal voice, that the presence of their beloved country-
man would restore full confidence, and render them equal
to whatever is not impossible. Should you repair to your
native state, the difficulty would then be how to keep men
out of the field." These words sunk deeply into Washing-
ton's mind.

During the summer, congress improved the methods of

178L CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA. 413

administration. Against the opinion of Samuel Adams,
and without aid from Massachusetts, it substituted for its
own executive oommittees a single head of each of the
most important departments. Robert Morris was placed in
charge of the finances of the confederation ; in conformity
with the wish of the French minister, which was ably sus-
tained by Sullivan, the conduct of foreign affairs was
intrusted to Robert Livingston of New York. Washing-
ton would have gladly seen Schuyler elected to the war
department.

Outside of congress, Hamilton persevered in recommend-
ing an efficient government. His views were so identical
with those of Robert Morris that it is sometimes hard to
say in whose mind they first sprung up. Many who agreed
with them in wishing a stronger union might think they
laid too much stress on the institution of a national bank ;
the opinion that a national debt, if not excessive, would be
a national blessing, a powerful cement to union and a spur
to industry, did not rise out of the best traditions of the
country, and was carried, at least by the elder of the two,
to a most perilous extreme.

Meantime, the conduct of the war continued to languish
for the want of a central government. In the states from
which the most was hoped, Hancock of Massachusetts was
vain and neglectful of business ; the president of Pennsyl-
vania was more ready to recount what the state had done
than what it meant to do : so that the army was not wholly
free from the danger of being disbanded for want of sub-
sistence. Of the armed vessels of the United States, all
but two frigates had been taken or destroyed.

Madison still persevered in the effort to obtain power for
congress to collect a revenue, and that body named a com-
mittee to examine into the changes which needed to be
made in the articles of confederation. " The difficulty of
continuing the war under them," so wrote Luzerne,
on the twenty-seventh of August, " proves equally A JJ*1^
the necessity of reforming them, produced, as they
were, at an epoch when the mere name of authority inspired
terror, and by men who thought to make themselves agree-

414 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. UV.

able to the people. I can scarcely persuade myself that
they will come- to an agreement on this matter. Some per-
sons even believe that the actual constitution, all vicious as
it is, can be changed only by some violent revolution."

The French government declined to furnish means for
the siege of New York. After the arrival of its final
instructions, Rochambeau, attended by Ghastellux, in a
meeting with Washington at Weathersfield on the
May2i. twenty-first of May, settled the preliminaries of the
campaign. The French land force was to march to
the Hudson River, and, in conjunction with the American
army, be ready to move to the southward. De Grasse was
charged anew on his way to the north to enter the Chesa-
peake. In the direction of the war for the coming season,
there would be union ; for congress had lodged the highest
power in the northern and southern departments in the
hands of Washington, and France had magnanimously
placed her troops as auxiliaries under his command.

Before his return, the American general called upon the
governors of the four New England states, " in earnest and
pointed terms," to complete their continental battalions, to
hold bodies of militia ready to march in a week after being
called for, and to adopt effective modes of supply. Gov-
ernor Trumbull, of Connecticut, cheered him with the opin-
ion that he would obtain all that he needed.

In June, the French contingent, increased by fifteen hun-
dred men, newly arrived in ships-of-war, left Newport for
the Hudson River. The inhabitants crowded around them
on their march, glad to recognise in them allies and de-
fenders, and, mingling at their encampments with officers
and soldiers, listened with delight to the bands of their reg-
iments. The rights of private property were most scrupu-
lously respected, and the petty exigencies of local laws
good-naturedly submitted to.

Cornwallis began his career in Virginia by seizing the
fine horses on the James River, and mounting a gallant and
most effective cavalry, five or six hundred in number. He
then started in pursuit of Lafayette, who, with about one
thousand continental troops, was posted between Wilton

1781. CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA. 415

and Richmond, waiting for re-enforcements from Pennsyl-
vania. " Lafayette, I think, cannot escape him," wrote Clin-
ton to Germain. The youthful commander warily kept to
the north of his pursuer ; passing South and North Anna,
went through the wilderness across the Rapidan ;
and on the seventh of June made a junction with jJJJJt.
Wayne not far from Raccoon ford. Small as was his
force, he compared the British in Virginia to the French
in Hanover at the time of the seven years' war, and confi-
dently predicted analogous results. Cornwallis advanced
as far as Hanover court-house, then crossed South Anna,
and, having failed in his first object, he sent out two detach-
ments : one of cavalry under Tarleton to capture or break
up the Virginia assembly, then in session at Charlottesville ;
the other of mixed troops under Simcoe to proceed to the
Point of Fork, where Steuben, with five hundred Virginians
of the line and a few of the militia, kept guard over large
stores intended for the south. The main body of his army,
in its camp on the James River, just below Byrd Creek,
awaited the return of the expeditions. For the next ten
days, Cornwallis established his head-quarters at Elk Hill
on a plantation belonging to Jefferson.

With one hundred and eighty dragoons and forty mounted
infantry, Tarleton rode seventy miles in twenty-four hours,
destroying public stores on the way; but the assembly,
having received warning, had adjourned, and Jefferson had
gone to the mountains on horseback. The dragoons over-
took seven of the legislature; otherwise, the expedition
was fruitless.

Steuben had transported his magazine across the Flu-
vanna, and was safe, the water being too deep to be forded ;
but Simcoe made him believe that the whole British army
was in pursuit of him ; and he fled, leaving behind him
some part of his stores.

The two detachments rejoined the camp of Cornwallis,
which extended along the James River from the Point of
Fork to a little below the mouth of Byrd Creek. Tarle-
ton had suffered nothing of Jefferson's at Monticello to
be injured. At Elk Hill, under the eye of Cornwallis,

416 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. UV.

all the barns and fences were burnt ; the growing crops de-
stroyed; the fields laid absolutely waste; the throats cut
of all the horses that were too young for service, and the
rest carried off. He took away about thirty slaves, but not
to give them freedom. The rest of the neighborhood was
treated in like manner, but with less of destructive fury.
In the march of the British army from Elk Hill down
the river to Williamsburg, where it arrived on the
junkie, twenty-fifth of June, all dwelling-houses were plun-
dered. The trusty band of Lafayette hung upon its
rear, but could not prevent its depredations. The Amer-
icans of that day computed that Cornwallis, in his midsum-
mer marchings up and down in Virginia, destroyed property
to the value of three million pounds sterling. He nowhere
gained a foothold, and he obtained no supplies except
through the terror of his arms. His long travels had only
taught him that the bulk of the people were bent on inde-
pendence.

At Williamsburg, to his amazement and chagrin, he
received from his chief orders to send back about three
thousand men. Clinton's letter of the eleventh expressed
his fear of being attacked in New York by more than
twenty thousand ; there was, he said, no possibility of re-
establishing order in Virginia, so general was the disaffec-
tion to Great Britain. Cornwallis should therefore take a
defensive situation in any healthy station he might choose,
be it at Williamsburg or Yorktown. On the fifteenth, he
added : " I do not think it advisable to leave more troops in
that unhealthy climate at this season of the year than are
absolutely wanted for a defensive and a desultory water
expedition." "De Grasse," so he continued on the nine-
teenth, " will visit this coast in the hurricane season, and
bring with him troops as well as ships. But, when he hears
that your lordship has taken possession of York River before
him, I think that their first efforts will be in this quarter.
I am, however, under no great apprehensions, as Sir George
Rodney seems to have the same suspicions of De Grasse's
intention that we have, and will of course follow him
hither."

1781. CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA. 417

From this time, the hate which had long existed be-
tween the lieutenant-general and the commander in chief
showed itself without much reserve. The former was eager
to step into the chief command ; the latter, though he had
threatened to throw up his place, clung to it tenaciously,
and declared that he would not be " duped " by his rival
into resigning.

w To your opinions it is my duty implicitly to submit,"
was the answer of Cornwallis to the orders of Clin-
ton ; and on the fourth of July he began his march jjfy 4.
to Portsmouth. On that day, the royal army arrived
near James Island, and in the evening the advanced guard
reached the opposite bank of the James River. Two or
three more days were required to carry over all the stores
and the troops. The small American army followed at a
distance. Beside fifteen hundred regular troops, equal to
the best in the royal army, Lafayette drew to his side as
volunteers gallant young men mounted on their own horses
from. Maryland and Virginia. Youth and generosity, cour-
age and prudence, were his spells of persuasion. His
perceptions were quick ; his vigilance never failed ; and in
his methods of gaining information of the movements of the
enemy he excelled every officer in the war except Washing-
ton and Morgan. All accounts bear testimony to his can*
tion, and that he never once committed himself during a
very difficult campaign. Of his self-possession in danger he
was now called upon to give proof.

On the sixth, Lafayette judged correctly that the Julys,
great body of the British army was still on the north
side of the James River ; but Wayne, without his knowl-
edge, detached a party under Colonel Galvan to carry off
a field-piece of the enemy which was said to lie exposed.
The information proved false. The party with Galvan
found themselves suddenly in front of the advancing British
line; and they retreated in column till they met Wayne
with the Pennsylvania brigade. It suited the character of
that officer to hazard an encounter. The British moved on
with loud shouts and incessant fire. Wayne, discovering
that he had been tempted to engage a greatly superior
vol. vi. 27

418 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LIV.

force, saw bis only safety in redoubling his courage ; and he
kept up the fight, till Lafayette, braving the hottest fire, in
which his horse was killed under him, brought up the light
infantry, and rescued the Pennsylvanians from their danger.
Two of Wayne's field-pieces were left behind. In killed
and wounded, each side lost about one hundred and twenty.
The action took its name from the Greene Springs farm,
about eight miles above Jamestown, where Lafayette en-
camped for the night.

After passing the river, Cornwallis, on the eighth, wrote
orders to Tarleton with mounted troops to ravage Prince
Edward's and Bedford counties, and to destroy all stores,
whether public or private. The benefit derived from the
destruction of property was not equal to the loss in skir-
mishes on the route and from the heats of midsummer.

From his camp on Malvern Hill, Lafayette urged Wash-
ington to march to Virginia in force ; and he predicted in
July that, if a French fleet should enter Hampton Roads,
the English army must surrender. In like manner, on the
eighth of the same month, Cornwallis in reply to Clinton
reasoned earnestly against a defensive post in the Chesa-
peake : " It cannot have the smallest influence on the war
in Carolina : it only gives us some acres of an unhealthy
swamp, and is for ever liable to become a prey to a foreign
enemy with a temporary superiority at sea." Thoroughly
disgusted with the aspect of affairs in Virginia, he asked
leave to transfer the command to General Leslie, and go
back to Charleston. Meantime, transport ships arrived in
the Chesapeake ; and, in a letter which he received on the
twelfth, he was desired by his chief so to hasten the embar-
kation of three thousand men that they might sail for New
York within forty-eight hours ; for, deceived by letters which
were written to be intercepted, he believed that the enemy
would certainly attack that post.

But the judgment of Clinton was further confused by
another cause. The expectation of a brilliant campaign in
Virginia had captivated the minds of Lord George Germain
and the king; and, now that Cornwallis was thoroughly
cured of his own presumptuous delusions, they came back

1781. CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA- 419

to Clinton in the shape of orders from the American secre-
tary, who dwelt on the vast importance of the occupation
of Virginia, and on the wisdom of the present plan of push-
ing the war in that quarter. It was a great mortification to
him that Clinton should think of leaving only a sufficient
force to serve for garrisons in the posts that might he estab-
lished there, and he continued: "Your ideas of the im-
portance of recovering that province appearing to be so
different from mine, I thought it proper to ask the advice
of his majesty's other servants upon the subject, and, their
opinion concurring entirely with mine, it has been sub-
mitted to the king ; and I am commanded by his majesty
to acquaint you that the recovery of the southern provinces
and the prosecution of the war from south to north is to be
considered as the chief and principal object for the employ-
ment of all the forces under your command which can be
spared from the defence of the places in his majesty's
possession."

On Cornwallis he heaped praises, writing to him
in June : " The rapidity of your movements is justly jgg^
matter of astonishment to all Europe." To Clinton
he repeated in the same month : " Lord Cornwallis's opin-
ion entirely coincides with mine ; " and on the sev-
enth of July: "The detachments sent to Virginia July 7.
promise more towards bringing the southern colo-
nies to obedience than any offensive operation of the war ; "
a week later : " Vou judiciously sent ample re-enforcements
to the Chesapeake ; " and on the second of August :
"As Sir George Rodney knows the destination of Aug. 2.
De Grasse, and the French acknowledge his ships
sail better than theirs, he will get before him and be in
readiness to receive him when he comes upon the coast.
I see nothing to prevent the recovery of the whole coun-
try to the king's obedience." So the troops in Virginia
which were already embarked were ordered to remain
there. "As to quitting the Chesapeake entirely," wrote
Clinton in a letter received by Cornwallis on the
twenty-first of July, "I cannot entertain a thought July si.
of such a measure. I flatter myself you will at least

42U THE AMERICAN BE VOLUTION. Chap. UV

hold Old Point Comfort, if it is possible to do it without
York." And four days later Clinton urged again: "It
ever has been, is, and ever will be, my firm and unal-
terable opinion that it is of the first consequence to his
majesty's affairs on the continent that we take possession
of the Chesapeake, and that we do not afterwards relin-
quish it." " Remain in Chesapeake, at least until the sta-
tions I have proposed are occupied and established. It
never was my intention to continue a post on Elizabeth
River." Now the post of Portsmouth on Elizabeth River
had, as Lafayette and Washington well understood, the
special value that it offered in the last resort the chance of
an escape into the Carolinas.

The engineers, after careful and extensive surveys, re-
ported unanimously that a work on Point Comfort would
not secure ships at anchor in Hampton Roads. To General
Phillips on his embarkation in April, Clinton's words had
been : " With regard to a station for the protection of the
king's ships, I know of no place so proper as Yorktown."
Nothing therefore remained but, in obedience to the spirit
of Clinton's orders, to seize and fortify York and Glou-
An«!i,2.ce8ter* Cornwallis accordingly, in the first week of
August, embarked his troops successively, and, evac-
Aug.8. uating Portsmouth, transferred his whole force to
Yorktown and Gloucester. Yorktown was then but
a small village on a high bank, where the long peninsula
dividing the York from the James River is less than eight
miles wide. The water is broad, bold, and deep ; so that
ships of the line may ride there in safety. On the opposite
side lies Gloucester, a point of land projecting into the
river and narrowing its width to one mile. These were
occupied by Cornwallis, and fortified with the utmost dili-
gence; though, in his deliberate judgment, the measure
promised no honor to himself and no advantage to Great
Britain.

On the other hand, Lafayette, concentrating his forces
in a strong position at a distance of about eight miles, in-
dulged in the happiest prophecies, and wrote on
Aug. 24. the twenty-fourth of August to Maurepas : " I owe

1781. CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA. 421

you so much gratitude, and feel for you so much attach*
ment, that I wish sometimes to recall to your recollection
the rebel commander of the little Virginia army. Tour
interest for me will hare been alarmed at the dangerous
part which has been intrusted to me in my youth. Sepa-
rated by five hundred miles from every other corps and
without any resources, I am to oppose the projects of the
court of St. James and the fortunes of Lord Cornwallis.
Thus far, we have encountered no disaster.9' On the same
day, his words to Vergennes were : " In pursuance of the
immense plan of his court, Lord Cornwallis left the two
Carolinas exposed, and General Greene has largely profited
by it. Lord Cornwallis has left to us Portsmouth, from
which place he was in communication with Carolina, and
he now is at York, a very advantageous place for one who
has the maritime superiority. If by chance that superi-
ority should become ours, our little army will participate in
successes which will compensate it for a long and fatiguing
campaign. They say that you are about to make peace. I
think that you should wait for the events of this campaign."
On the very day on which Cornwallis took possession
of York and Gloucester, Washington, assured of the assist-
ance of De Grasse, turned his whole thoughts towards mov-
ing with the French troops under Rochambeau and the best
part of the American army to the Chesapeake. While hos-
tile divisions and angry jealousies increased between the two
chief British officers in the United States, on the American
side all things conspired happily together. De Barras, who
commanded the French squadron at Newport, wrote as to his
intentions : " M. de Grasse is my junior ; yet, as soon as he
is within reach, I will go to sea to put myself under his
orders." The same spirit insured unanimity in the mixed
council of war. The rendezvous was given to De Grasse
in Chesapeake Bay; and, at the instance of Washington,
he was to bring with him as many land troops as could
be spared from the West Indies. Clinton was so certain
in his own mind that the siege of New York was the great
object of Washington, that, although the force under his
eommand, including militia, was nearly eighteen thousand,

422 THB AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. UV.

1781 ^e suffered the Hudson River to be crossed on tho
Aug. 23. twenty-third and twenty-fourth of August without
* seizing the opportunity to give annoyance. Von
Wurmb, a Hessian colonel, who had command at King's
Bridge, again and again reported that the allied armies
were obviously preparing to move against Cornwallis ; but

the general insisted that the appearances were but
s«pt. 2. a stratagem. On the second of September, it first

broke on his mind that Washington was moving
southward.

In the allied camp, all was joy. The love of freedom
took possession not of the French officers only, but inflamed
the soldiers. Every one of them was proud of being a de-
fender of the young republic. The new principles entered
into their souls, and became a part of their nature. On
the fifth of September, they encamped at Chester. Never
had the French seen a man penetrated with a livelier or

more manifest joy than Washington, when he there
Aug. 80. learned that, on the last day but one in August, the

Count de Grasse, with twenty-eight ships of the line
and nearly four thousand land troops, had entered the Ches-
apeake, where without loss of time he had moored most of
the fleet in Lynnhaven Bay, blocked up York River, and,
without being in the least annoyed by Cornwallis, had
disembarked at James Island three thousand men under
the command of the Marquis de Saint-Simon. Here, too,
prevailed unanimity. Saint-Simon, though older in mili-
tary service as well as in years, placed himself and his
troops as auxiliaries under the orders of Lafayette, because
he was a major-general in the service of the United States.
The combined army in their encampment could be ap-
proached only by two passages, which were in themselves
difficult and were carefully guarded, so that Cornwallis
could not act on the offensive, and found himself effect-
ually blockaded by land and by sea.

One more disappointment awaited Cornwallis. If

a bad king or a bad minister pursues bad ends, he
naturally employs bad men. No great naval officer wished
to serve against the United States. Lord Sandwich, after

1781. CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA. 423

the retirement of Howe, gave the naval command at New
York to officers without ability ; and the aged and imbecile
Arbuthnot was succeeded by Graves, a coarse and vulgar
man, of mean ability and without skill in his profession.
Rodney should have followed De Grasse to the north ; but
he had become involved in pecuniary perils by his indis-
criminate seizures at St. Eustatius, and laid himself open to
censure for his inactivity during the long-continued sale
of his prize-goods. Pleading ill-health, he escaped from
uncongenial cares by sailing for England, and sent in his
stead Sir Samuel Hood, with fourteen sail of the line, frig-
ates, and a fire-ship into the Chesapeake, where a junction
with Graves would have given the English the supremacy.
But Graves, who was of higher rank than Hood, was out
of the way on a silly cruise before Boston, which had no
purpose unless to pick up a few prizes. Meantime, De
Barras, with eight ships of the line, sailed from Newport,
convoying ten transports, which contained the ordnance for
the siege of Yorktown.

There was no want of information at New York, yet the
British fleet did not leave Sandy Hook until the day after
De Grasse had arrived in the Chesapeake. Early on
the fifth of September, Graves discovered the French gJJSJJ'g.
fleet at anchor in the mouth of that bay. De Grasse,
though eighteen hundred of his seamen and ninety offi-
cers were on duty in James River, ordered his ships to
slip their cables, turn out from the anchorage ground, and
form the line of battle. The action began at four o'clock in
the afternoon, and continued till about sunset. The British
sustained so great a loss that, after remaining five days in
sight of the French, they returned to New York. On
the first day of their return voyage, they evacuated Sept. 11
and burned "The Terrible," a ship of the line, so
much had it been damaged in the engagement. De Grasse,
now undisturbed master of the Chesapeake, on his way back
to his anchoring ground captured two British ships, each
of thirty-two guns, and he found De Barras safely at anchor
in the bay.

Leaving the allied troops to descend by water from Elk

424 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. MV.

River and Baltimore, Washington, with Rochambeau and
Chastellux, riding sixty miles a day, on the evening
sJpt!"9. of the ninth reached his " own seat at Mount Ver-
non." It was the first time in more than six years
that he had seen his home. From its lofty natural terrace
above the Potomac, his illustrious guests commanded a
noble river, a wide expanse, and the heights, then clothed in
forest, within a generation to become the capital of the
united republic.

Two days were given to domestic life. On the
Sept. 14. fourteenth, the party arrived at Williamsburg, where
Lafayette, recalling the moment when in France the
poor rebels were held in light esteem, and when he never-
theless came to share with them all their perils, had the
pleasure of welcoming Washington, as generalissimo of
the combined armies of the two nations, to scenes of
glory.

The first act of Washington was to repair to the u Ville
de Paris," to congratulate De Grasse on his victory. The
system of co-operation between the land and naval forces
was at the same time concerted.

At this moment, Gerry wrote from Massachusetts to Jay :
" You will soon have the pleasure of hearing of the capture
. of Lord Cornwallis and his army." " Nothing can save
Cornwallis," said Greene, "but a rapid retreat through
North Carolina to Charleston." On the seventeenth, Corn-
wallis reported to Clinton : " This place is in no state of
defence. If you cannot relieve me very soon, you must be
prepared to hear the worst." On that same day, a council
of war, held by Clinton at New York, decided that Corn-
wallis must be relieved ; " at all events before the end of
October." The next day Rear-admiral Graves answered:
"I am very happy to find that Lord Cornwallis is in no
immediate danger."

One peril yet menaced Washington. Count de Grasse,
hearing of a re-enforcement of the fleet at New York, was
bent on keeping the sea, leaving only two vessels at the
mouth of the York River. Against this, Washington ad-
dressed the most earnest remonstrance : " I should esteem

1781. CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA. 425

myself deficient in my duty to the common cause of France
and America, if I did not persevere in entreating
you to resume the plans that hare been so happily gep*1^.
arranged." The letter was taken by Lafayette, who
joined to it his own explanations and reasonings ; and De
Grasse, though reluctant, was prevailed upon to remain
within the capes. Washington wrote in acknowledgment :
" A great mind knows how to make personal sacrifices to
secure an important general good."

The troops from the north having been safely
landed at Williamsburg, on the twenty-eighth the Sept. 28.
united armies marched for the investiture of York-
town, drove every thing on the British side before them,
and lay on their arms during the night.

The fortifications of Yorktown, which were nothing but
earthworks freshly thrown up, consisted on the right of
redoubts and batteries, with a line of stockade in the rear,
which supported a high parapet. Over a marshy ravine in
front of the right, a large redoubt was placed. The morass
extended along the centre, which was defended by a stock-
ade and batteries. Two small redoubts were advanced
before the left. The ground in front of the left was in some
parts level with the works, in others cut by ravines ; alto-
gether very convenient for the besiegers. The space within
the works was exceedingly narrow, and except under the
cliff was exposed to enfilade.

The twenty-ninth was given to reconnoitring, and Sept. 2a
forming a plan of attack and approach. The French
entreated Washington for orders to storm the exterior
posts of the British ; in the course of the night be-
fore the thirtieth, Cornwallis ordered them all to be sept. so.
abandoned, and thus prematurely conceded to the
allied armies ground which commanded his line of works in
a very near advance, and gave great advantages for opening
the trenches.

At Gloucester, the enemy was shut in by dragoons under
the Duke de Lauzun, Virginia militia under General Weedon,
and eight hundred marines. Once, and once only, Tarleton
and his legion, who were stationed on the same side, under-

426 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. UV.

took to act offensively ; but the Duke de Lauzun and his
dragoons, fall of gayety and joy at the sight, ran against
them and trampled them down. Tarleton's horse was
taken ; its rider barely escaped.

1781 In the night before the sixth of October, every

Oct- *• thing being in readiness, trenches were opened at six
hundred yards' distance from the works of Cornwallis, —
on the right by the Americans, on the left by the French ;
and the. labor was executed in friendly rivalry, with so
much secrecy and despatch that it was first revealed to the
enemy by the light of morning. Within three days, the
first parallel was completed, the redoubts were finished, and
batteries were employed in demolishing the embrasures of

the enemy's works and their advanced redoubts. On
Oot.io. the night before the eleventh, the French battery

on the left, by red-hot shot, set on fire the frigate
" Charon " of forty-four guns, and three large transport
ships which were entirely consumed.

On the eleventh, at night the second parallel was

begun within three hundred yards of the lines of the
besieged. This was undertaken so much sooner than the
British expected, that it could be conducted with the
same secrecy as before; and they had no suspicion of
the working parties till daylight discovered them to their
pickets.

All day on the fourteenth, the American batteries

Oct. 14.

were directed against the abattis and salient angles
of two advanced redoubts of the British, both of which
needed to be included in the second parallel ; and breaches
were made in them sufficient to justify an assault That on
the right near York River was garrisoned by forty-five men,
that on the left by thrice as many. The storming of the
former fell to the Americans under the command of Lieu-
tenant-colonel Hamilton ; that of the latter to the French,
of whom four hundred grenadiers and yagers of the regi-
ments of Gatinois and of Deux Ponts, with a large reserve,
were intrusted to Count William de Deux Ponts and to
Baron de l'Estrade.
At the concerted signal of six shells consecutivelydischarged,

1781. CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA. 427

the corps under Hamilton advanced in two columns without
firing a gun, — the right composed of his own battalion, led
by Major Fish, and of another commanded by Lieutenant-
colonel Gimat ; the left, of a detachment under Lieutenant-
colonel Laurens, destined to take the enemy of reverse and
intercept their retreat. All the movements were executed
with exactness, and the redoubt was at the same moment
enveloped and carried in every part. Lieutenant Mansfield
conducted the vanguard with coolness and punctuality, and
was wounded with a bayonet as he entered the work.
Captain Olney led the first platoon of Gimat's battalion
over the abattis and palisades, and gained the parapet,
receiving two bayonet wounds in the thigh and in the body,
but not till he had directed his men to form. Laurens was
among the foremost to climb into the redoubt, making pris-
oner of Major Campbell, its commanding officer. Animated
by his example, the battalion of Gimat overcame every ob*
stacle by their order and resolution. The battalion under
Major Fish advanced with such celerity as to participate in
the assault. Incapable of imitating precedents of barbarity,
the Americans spared every man that ceased to resist ; so
that the killed and wounded of the enemy did not exceed
eight. The conduct of the affair brought conspicuous honor
to the talents and gallantry of Hamilton.

Precisely as the signal was given, the French on the left,
in like manner, began their march in the deepest silence.
At one hundred and twenty paces from the redoubt, they
were challenged by a German sentry from the parapet ; they
pressed on at a quick time, exposed to the fire of the enemy.
The abattis and palisades, at twenty-five paces from the
redoubt, being strong and well preserved, stopped them for
some minutes and cost them many men. So soon as the
way was cleared by the brave carpenters, the storming
party threw themselves into the ditch, broke through the
fraises, and mounted the parapet. Foremost was Charles
de Lameth, who had volunteered for this attack, and who
was wounded in both knees by two different musket-balls.
The order being now given, the French leaped into the
redoubt, and charged the enemy with the bayonet. At this

428 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LIV.

moment, the Count de Deux Ponts raised the cry of " Vive
le roi," which was repeated by all of his companions who
were able to lift their voices. De Sireuil, a very young
captain of yagers who had been wounded twice before, was
now wounded for the third time and mortally. Within six
minutes, the redoubt was mastered and manned; but in
that short time nearly one hundred of the assailants were
killed or wounded.

On that night, u victory twined double garlands around
the banners " of France and America. Washington acknowl-
edged the emulous courage, intrepidity, coolness, and firm-
ness of the attacking troops. Louis XVI. distinguished the
regiment of Gatinois by naming it the " Royal Auvergne."
By the unwearied labor of the French and Americans,
both redoubts were included in the second parallel in the

night of their capture. Just before the break of day
Oct lis. °* the sixteenth, the British made a sortie upon a part

of the second parallel and spiked four French pieces
of artillery and two of the American ; but, on the quick ad-
vance of the guards in the trenches, they retreated precipi-
tately. The spikes were easily extracted ; and in six hours
the cannon again took part in the fire which enfiladed the
British works.

On the seventeenth, Cornwallis, who could neither hold

his post nor escape into the country, proposed to sur-
oct. is. render. On the eighteenth, Colonel Laurens and the

Viscount de Noailles as commissioners on the Amer-
ican side met two high officers of the army of Cornwallis, to
draft the capitulation. The articles were the same as those
which Clinton had imposed upon Lincoln at Charleston.
All the troops were to be prisoners of war ; all public prop-
erty was to be delivered up. Runaway slaves and the
plunder taken by officers and soldiers in their marches
through the country might be reclaimed by their owners ;
with these exceptions, private property was to be respected.
All royalists were abandoned to trial by their own country-
men. But, in the packet which took the despatches to Sir
Henry Clinton, Cornwallis was permitted to convey away
such persons as were most obnoxious to the laws of Virginia.

1781. CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA 429

Of prisoners, there were seven thousand two hundred
and forty-seven regular soldiers, the flower of the British
army in America, beside eight hundred and forty sailors.
The British loss during the siege amounted to more than
three hundred and fifty. One hundred and six guns were
taken, of which seventy-five were of brass. The land forces
and stores were assigned to the Americans, the ships and
mariners to the French. At four o'clock in the after-
noon of the nineteenth, Cornwallis remaining in oct8i9.
his tent, Major-general O'Hara marched the British
army past the lines of the combined armies, and, not with-
out signs of repugnance, made his surrender to Washington.
His troops then stepped forward decently and piled their
arms on the ground.

Nor must impartial history fail to relate that the French
provided for the siege of Yorktown thirty-seven ships of
the line, and the Americans not one ; that while the Amer-
icans supplied nine thousand troops, of whom fifty-five hun-
dred were regulars, the contingent of the French consisted
of seven thousand.

Among the prisoners were two battalions of Anspach,
amounting to ten hundred and seventy-seven men ; and two
regiments of Hesse, amounting to eight hundred and thirty-
three. On the way to their camp, they passed in front of
the regiment of Deux Ponts. At the sight of their country-
men, they forgot that they had been in arms against each
other, and embraced with tears in their eyes. The English
soldiers affected to look at the allied army with scorn;
their officers conducted themselves with decorum, yet felt
most keenly how decisive was their defeat.

When the letters of Washington announcing the capitula-
tion reached congress, that body, with the people streaming
in their train, went in procession to the Dutch Lutheran
church to return thanks to Almighty God. Every breast
swelled with joy. In the evening, Philadelphia was illumi-
nated with greater splendor than at any time before. Con-
gress voted honors to Washington, to Rochambeau, and to
De Grasse, with special thanks to the officers and troops.
A marble column was to be erected at Yorktown, with

430

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LIV.

emblems of the alliance between the United States and his
most Christian majesty.

The Duke de Lauzun, chosen to take the news across the

Atlantic, arrived in twenty-two days at Brest, and
K™k reached Versailles on the nineteenth of November. '

The king, who had just been made happy by the
birth of a dauphin, received the glad news in the queen's
apartment. The very last sands of the life of the Count de
Maurepas were running out; but he could still recognise
De Lauzun, and the tidings threw a halo round his death-
bed. The joy at court penetrated the whole people, and
the name of Lafayette was pronounced with veneration.
" History," said Vergennes, " offers few examples of a suc-
cess so complete." "All the world agree," wrote Frank-
lin to Washington, "that no expedition was ever better
planned or better executed. It brightens the glory that
must accompany your name to the latest posterity."
The first tidings of the surrender of Cornwallis reached

England from France about noon on the twenty-fifth
Hot. 25. of November. "It is all over," said Lord North

many times, under the deepest agitation and distress.
Fox — to whom, in reading history, the defeats of armies of
invaders, from Xerxes' time downwards, gave the greatest
satisfaction — heard of the capitulation of Yorktown with
wild delight. He hoped it might become the conviction of
all mankind, that power resting on armed force is invidious,
detestable, weak, and tottering. The official report from

Sir Henry Clinton was received the same day at mid-
Nov. 27. night. When on the following Tuesday parliament

came together, the speech of the king was confused,
the debates in the two houses augured an impending change
in the opinion of parliament, and the majority of the min-
istry was reduced to eighty-seven. A fortnight later, the
motion of Sir James Lowther to give up " all further at-
tempts to reduce the revolted colonies " was well received
by the members from the country, and the majority of the
ministry after a very long and animated debate dwindled to
forty-one. The city of London entreated the king to put
an end to "this unnatural and unfortunate war." Such,

1781. CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA. 431

too, was the wish of public meetings in Westminster, in
Southwark, and in the counties of Middlesex and Surrey.

The house of commons employed the recess in grave
reflection. The chimes of the Christmas bells had hardly
died away, wnen the king wrote as stubbornly as ever :
"No difficulties can get me to consent to the getting of
peace at the expense of a separation from America."

Yet Lord George Germain was compelled to retire m-
gloriously from the cabinet. It was sought to palliate his
disgrace with a peerage ; but, when for the first time he
repaired to the house of lords, he was met at its threshold
by the unsparing reprobation of his career of cowardice
and blindly selfish incapacity.

432 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LV

CHAPTER LV.

ENGLAND REFUSES TO CONTINUE THE AMEBICAN WAE.

1782,

The campaign in Virginia being finished, Washington
and the eastern army were cantoned for the winter
Ju?7. *n the\i °ld- positions around New York; Wayne,
with the Pennsylvania line, marched to the south to
re-enforce Greene ; the French under Rochambeau encamped
in Virginia ; and De Grasse took his fleet to the West Indies.
From Philadelphia, Robert R. Livingston, the first Ameri-
can secretary for foreign affairs, communicated to Franklin
the final instructions for negotiating peace; and the firm
tone of Franklin's reply awakened new hopes in congress.

While the conditions of peace were under consideration,
America obtained an avowed friend in the Dutch republic.
John Adams had waited more than eight months for an
audience of reception, unaided even indirectly by the
French ambassador at the Hague, because interference
would have pledged France too deeply to the support of
the United Provinces, whose complicated form of govern-
ment promised nothing but embarrassment to an ally.
Encouraged by the success at Yorktown, on the ninth of
January he presented himself to the president of the states-
general, and, renewing his formal request for an opportunity
of presenting his credentials, " demanded a categorical an-
swer which he might transmit to his sovereign." He next
went in person to the deputies of the several cities of Hol-
land, following the order of their rank in the confedera-
tion, and repeated his demand to each one of them. The
attention of Europe was drawn to the adventurous and
sturdy diplomatist, who dared alone and unsustained to

1782. ENGLAND REFUSES TO CONTINUE THE WAR. 433

initiate so bold and novel a procedure. Not one of the
representatives of foreign powers at the Hague believed
that it could succeed.

On the twenty-sixth of February, Friesland, famous for
the spirit of liberty in its people, who had retained in their
own hands the election of their regencies, declared in favor
of receiving the American envoy ; and its vote was the
index of the opinion of the nation. A month later, the
states of Holland, yielding to petitions from all the princi-
pal towns, followed the example. Zealand adhered on the
fourth of April ; Overyssel, on the fifth ; Groningen, on the
ninth ; Utrecht, on the tenth ; and Guelderland, on the sev-
enteenth. On the day which chanced to be the seventh
anniversary of " the battle of Lexington," their high mighti-
nesses, the states-general, reporting the unanimous decision
of the seven provinces, resolved that John Adams should be
received.

The Dutch republic was the second power in the U82.
world to recognise the independence of the United
States of America ; and the act proceeded from its heroic
sympathy with a young people struggling against oppres-
sion, after the example of its own ancestors. The American
minister found special pleasure in being introduced to the
court where the first and the third William accomplished
such great things for the Protestant religion and the rights
of mankind. " This country," wrote he to a friend, " ap-
pears to be more a home than any other that I have seen.
I have often been to that church at Leyden, where the
planters of Plymouth worshipped so many years ago, and
felt a kind of veneration for the bricks and timbers."

The liberal spirit that was prevailing in the world pleaded
for peace. The time had not come, but was coming, when
health-giving truth might show herself everywhere and
hope to be received. The principles on which America
was founded impressed themselves even on the rescripts of
the emperor of Austria, who proclaimed in his dominions
freedom of religion.

If liberty was spreading through all realms, how much
more should it make itself felt by the people who regarded
vol. vi. 28

434 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.LV

their land as its chosen abode ! It might suffer eclipse dur-
ing their struggle to recover their transatlantic possessions
by force ; but the old love of freedom, which was fixed by
the habit of centuries, must once more reassert its sway. In
the calm hours of the winter recess, members of the house
of commons reasoned dispassionately on the war with their
ancient colonists. The king, having given up Germain,
superseded Sir Henry Clinton by the humane Sir Guy
Carleton, and owned it impossible to propose great conti-
nental operations. The estimates carried by the ministry
through parliament for America were limited to defensive
measures, and the house could no longer deceive itself as
to the hopelessness of the contest. Accordingly, on the
twenty-second of February, a motion against continuing
the American war was made by Conway ; was supported by
Fox, William Pitt, Barre, Wilberforce, Mahon, Burke, and
Cavendish; and was negatived by a majority of but one.
Five days later, his resolution of the same purport for an
address to the king obtained a majority of nineteen.

The next day, Edmund Burke wrote to Franklin: "I
congratulate you as the friend of America ; I trust not as
the enemy of England; I am sure as the friend of man-
kind ; the resolution of the house of commons, carried in
a very full house, was, I think, the opinion of the whole.
I trust it will lead to a speedy peace between the two
branches of the English nation ."

The address to the king having been answered
Marfk. m equivocal terms, on the fourth of March Conway
brought forward a second address, to declare that
the house would consider as enemies to the king and coun-
try all those who would further attempt the prosecution
of a war on the continent of America for the purpose of
reducing the revolted colonies to obedience ; and, after a
long discussion, it was adopted without a division. With
the same unanimity, leave was the next day granted to
bring in a bill, " enabling " the king to make a peace or a
truce with America. The bill for that purpose was accord-
ingly brought in by the ministers ; but more than two and
a half months passed away before it became a law under

1782. ENGLAND REFUSES TO CONTINUE THE WAR. 435

their successors, in an amended form. Forth repaired to
France as the agent of the expiring administration, to par-
ley with Vergennes on conditions of peace, which did
not essentially differ from those of Necker in a former
year.

To anticipate any half-way change of ministry, Fox, in
the debate of the fourth, denounced Lord North and his
colleagues as " men void of honor and honesty," a coalition
with any one of them as an infamy; but on the seventh
he qualified his words in favor of Lord Thurlow. In the
majesty of upright intention, William Pitt, now in his
great days, which were the days of his youth, stood aloof
from all intrigue, saying: "I cannot expect to take any
share in a new administration, and I never will accept a
subordinate situation." The king toiled earnestly to retard
the formation of a ministry till he could bring Rockingham
to accept conditions, but the house of commons would
brook no delay. On the twentieth, more members M™,
appeared than on any occasion thus far during that
reign, and the crowds of spectators were unprecedented.
Lord North, having a few days before narrowly escaped a
vote of censure, rose at the same moment with a member
who was to have moved a want of confidence in the minis-
ters. The two parties in the house shouted wildly the names
of their respective champions. The speaker hesitated ; when
Lord North, gaining the floor on a question of order, with
good temper but visible emotion, announced that his admin-
istration was at an end.

The outgoing ministry was the worst which England
had known since parliament had been supreme. " Such a
bunch of imbecility," said the author of " Taxation no Tyr-
anny," and he might have added, of corruption, "never
disgraced the country ; " and he has left on record that he
"prayed and gave thanks" when it was dissolved. Pos-
terity has been towards Lord North more lenient and less
just. America gained, through his mismanagement, inde-
pendence, and can bear him no grudge. In England, no
party claimed him as their representative, or saw fit to
bring him to judgment ; so that his scholarship, his unruf-

436 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LV.

fled temper, the purity of his private life, and good words
from Burns, from Qibbon, and more than all from Macau-
lay, have retained for him among his countrymen a better
repute as minister than he deserved.

The people were not yet known in parliament as a
power ; and outside of them three groups only could
contribute members to an administration. The new tory
or conservative party, toward which the part of the whigs
represented by Portland and Burke were gravitating, had
at that time for its most conspicuous and least scrupulous
defender the chancellor, Thurlow. The followers of Chat-
ham, of whom it was the cardinal principle that the British
constitution recognises a king and a people no less than a
hereditary aristocracy, and that to prevent the overbearing
weight of that aristocracy the king should sustain the lib-
erties of the people, owned Shelburne as their standard-
bearer. In point of years, experience, philosophic culture,
and superiority to ambition as a passion, he was their fittest
leader, though he had never enjoyed the intimate friend-
ship of their departed chief. It was he who reconciled
George III. to the lessons of Adam Smith, and recom-
mended them to the younger Pitt, through whom they
passed to Sir Robert Peel; but his habits of study, and
his want of skill in parliamentary tactics, had kept him
from political connections as well as from political intrigues.
His respect for the monarchical element in the British con-
stitution invited the slander that he was only a counter-
feit liberal, at heart devoted to the king; but in truth he
was very sincere. His reputation has comparatively suf-
fered with posterity, for no party has taken charge of his
fame. Moreover, being more liberal than his age, his
speeches sometimes had an air of ambiguity, from his at-
tempt to present his views in a form that might clash as
little as possible with the prejudices of his hearers. The
third set was that of the old whigs, which had governed
England from the revolution till the coming in of George
III., and which deemed itself invested with a right to gov-
ern for ever. Its principle was the paramount power of
the aristocracy ; its office, as Rockingham expressed it, "to

1782. ENGLAND REFUSES TO CONTINUE THE WAR 437

fight up against king and people.'9 They claimed to be
liberal, and many of them were so ; but they were more
willing to act as the trustees of the people, than with the
people and by the people. Like the great Roman lawyers,
the best of them meant to be true to their clients, but never
respected them as their equals. An enduring liberal govern
ment could at that time be established in England only by
a junction of the party then represented by Shelburne and
the liberal wing of the supporters of Rockingham. Such a
union Chatham for twenty years had striven to bring about.

The king kept his sorrows, as well as he could, pent up in
his own breast, but his mind was " truly torn to pieces " by
the inflexible resolve of the house of commons to stop the
war in America. He blamed them for having lost the feel-
ings of Englishmen. Moreover, he felt keenly " the cruel
usage of* all the powers of Europe," of whom every one
adhered to the principles of the armed neutrality, and every
great one but Spain desired the perfect emancipation of the
United States. The day after the ministry announced its
retirement, he proposed to Shelburne to take the adminis-
tration with Thurlow, Gower, and Weymouth, Camden,
Grafton, and Rockingham. This Shelburne declined as
"absolutely impracticable," and from an equal regard to
the quiet of the sovereign and the good of the country he
urged that Rockingham might be sent for. The king could
not prevail with himself to accept the advice, and he spoke
discursively of his shattered health, his agitation of mind,
his low opinion of Rockingham's understanding, his horror
of Charles Fox, his preference of Shelburne as com-
pared to the rest of the opposition. For a day he MJJ?^2.
contemplated calling in a number of principal per-
sons, among whom Rockingham might be included; and,
when the many objections to such a measure were pointed
out, he still refused to meet Rockingham face to face, and
could not bring himself further than to receive him through
the intervention of Shelburne.

In this state of things, the latter consented to be the
bearer of a message from the king, but only on the condition
of " full power and full confidence ; " a clear approval at

438 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.LV.

first setting out of every engagement to which he stood
already committed as to men and as to measures; and
authority to procure u the assistance and co-operation of the
Rockinghams, cost what it would, more or less." " Neces-
sity," relates the king, "made me yield to the advice of
Lord Shelburne." Thus armed with the amplest powers,
the mediator fulfilled his office. Before accepting the offer
of the treasury, Rockingham, not neglecting two or three
minor matters, made but one great proposition, that there
should be " no veto to the independence of America." The
king, though in bitterness of spirit, consented in writing
to the demand. " I was thoroughly resolved," he says of
himself, " not to open my mouth on any negotiation with
America."

In constructing his ministry, Rockingham wisely com-
posed it of members from both fractions of the liberal party.
His own connection was represented by himself, Fox,
Cavendish, Keppel, and Richmond; but he retained as
chancellor Thurlow, who bore Shelburne malice and had
publicly received the glowing eulogies of Fox. Shelburne
took with him into the cabinet Camden ; and, as a balance
to Thurlow, the great lawyer Dunning, raising him to the
peerage as Lord Ashburton. Conway and Grafton might
be esteemed as neutral, having both been members alike of
the Rockingham and the Chatham administrations. Men
of the next generation asked why Burke was offered no seat
in the cabinet. The new tory party would give power to
any man, however born, that proved himself a bulwark to
their fortress ; the old whig party reserved the highest
places for those cradled in the purple. " I have no views to
become a minister," Burke said; "nor have I any
1782. right to such views. I am a man who have no pre-
tensions to it from fortune ; " and he was more than
content with the rich office of paymaster for himself, and
lucrative places for his kin.

Franklin in Paris had watched the process of the house
of commons in condemning the war, and knew England so
well as to be sure that Shelburne must be a member of the
new administration. Already, on the twenty-second, he

1782. ENGLAND REFUSES *0 CONTINUE THE WAR. 439

seized the opportunity of a traveller returning to England
to open a correspondence with his friend of many years,
assuring him of the continuance of his own ancient respect
for his talents and virtues, and congratulating him on the
returning good disposition of his country in favor of Amer-
ica. "I hope," continued he, "it will tend to produce a
general peace, which I am sure your lordship, with all good
men, desires; which I wish to see before I die; and to
which I shall with infinite pleasure contribute every thing
in my power." In this manner began the negotiation which
was to bring a breathing time to the world.

Franklin had rightly divined the future, and his overture
arrived most opportunely. Shelburne, as the elder secre-
tary of state having his choice, elected the home depart-
ment, which then included America; so that he had by
right the direction of all measures relating to the
United States. On the fourth of April, he instructed Ap^f 4
Sir Guy Carleton to proceed to New York with all
possible expedition; and he -would not suffer Arnold to
return to the land which he had bargained to betray. On
the same day, he had an interview with Laurens, then in
England, as a prisoner on parole ; and, having learned of
him the powers of the American commissioners, before
evening he selected for his diplomatic agent to treat with
them Richard Oswald of Scotland. The king, moved by
the acceptable part which Shelburne had " acted in the
whole negotiation for forming the present administration,"
departed from his purpose of total silence and gave his
approval, alike to the attempt " to sound Mr. Franklin "
and to the employment of Oswald, who had passed many
years in America, understood it well, on questions of com-
merce agreed with Adam Smith, and engaged in the busi-
ness disinterestedly. By him, writing as friend to friend,
Shelburne answered the overture of Franklin in a letter,
which is the key to the treaty that followed.

" London, 6 April, 1782. Dear Sir, I have been favored
with your letter, and am much obliged by your remem-
brance. I find myself returned nearly to the same situa-
tion which you remember me to have occupied nineteen

440 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. I- V.

years ago ; and I should be very glad to talk to you as I
did then, and afterwards in 1767, upon the means of pro-
moting the happiness of mankind, a subject much more
agreeable to my nature than the best concerted plans for
spreading misery and devastation. I have had a high opin-
ion of the compass of your mind, and of your foresight. I
have often been beholden to both, and shall be glad to be
so again, as far as is compatible with your situation. Your
letter, discovering the same disposition, has made me send
to you Mr. Oswald. I have had a longer acquaintance with
him than even with you. I believe him an honorable man,
and, after consulting some of our common friends, I have
thought him the fittest for the purpose. He is a pacifical
man, and conversant in those negotiations which are most
interesting to mankind. This has made me prefer him to
any of our speculative friends, or to any person of higher
rank. He is fully apprised of my mind, and you may give

full credit to any thing he assures you of. At the
1782. same time, if any other channel occurs to you, I am

ready to embrace it. I wish to retain the same sim-
plicity and good faith which subsisted between us in trans-
actions of less importance. Shelburne."

With this credential, Oswald repaired to Paris by way of
Ostend. Laurens, proceeding to the Hague, found Adams
engrossed with the question of his reception as minister in
Holland, to be followed by efforts to obtain a loan of money
for the United States, and to negotiate a treaty of com-
merce and a triple alliance. Besides, believing that Shel-
burne was not in earnest, he was willing to wait till the
British nation should be ripe for peace. In this manner,
the American negotiation was left in the hands of Franklin
alone.

1782. BOCKINGHAM'S MINISTBY. 441

CHAPTER LVL

BOCKINGHAM'S MINISTBY ASSENTS TO AMERICAN

INDEPENDENCE.

1782.

The hatred of America as a self-existent state became
every day more intense in Spain from the desperate
weakness of her authority in her transatlantic pos- im
sessions. Her rule was dreaded in them all ; and, as
even her allies confessed, with good reason. The seeds of
rebellion were already sown in the vice-royalties of Buenos
Avres and Peru; and a union of Creoles and Indians
might prove at any moment fatal to metropolitan domin-
ion. French statesmen were of opinion that England, by
emancipating Spanish America, might indemnify itself for
all loss from the independence of a part of its own colonial
empire ; and they foresaw in such a revolution the greatest
benefit to the commerce of their own country. Immense
naval preparations had been made by the Bourbons for the
conquest of Jamaica ; but now, from the fear of spreading
the love of change, Florida Blanca suppressed every wish to
acquire that hated nest of contraband trade. When the
French ambassador reported to him the proposal of
Vergennes to constitute its inhabitants an indepen- Aprtt.
dent republic, he seemed to hear the tocsin of insur-
rection sounding from the La Plata to San Francisco, and
from that time had nothing to propose for the employment
of the allied fleets in the West Indies. He was perplexed
beyond the power of extrication. One hope only remained.
Minorca having been wrested from the English, he concen-
trated all the force of Spain in Europe on the one great
object of recovering Gibraltar, and held France to her

442 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap LVI

promise not to make peace until that fortress should be
given up.

With America, therefore, measures for a general peace
must begin. As the pacification of the late British depen-
dencies belonged exclusively to the department of Lord
Shelburne, the other members of the cabinet should have
respected his right. As a body they did so; but Fox,
leagued with young men as uncontrollable as himself, re-
solved to fasten a quarrel upon him, and to get into his

own hands every part of the negotiations for peace.
Ap^ii At a cabinet meeting on the twelfth of April, he told

Shelburne and those who sided with him that he
was determined to bring the matter to a crisis ; and on the
same day he wrote to one of his young friends: "They
must yield entirely. If they do not, we must go to war
again; that is all: I am sure I am ready." Oswald at

the time was on his way to Paris, where on the
▲pr. 16. sixteenth he went straightway to Franklin. The

latter, speaking not his own opinion only, but that of
congress and of every one of his associate commissioners,
explained that the United States could not treat for peace
with Great Britain unless it was also intended to treat with
France; and, though Oswald desired to keep aloof from
European affairs, he allowed himself to be introduced by
Franklin to Vergennes, who received with pleasure assur-
ances of the good disposition of the British king, recipro-
cated them on the part of his own sovereign, and invited an
offer of its conditions. He wished America and France to
treat directly with British plenipotentiaries, each for itself,
the two negotiations to move on with equal step, and the
two treaties to be simultaneously signed.

From Amsterdam, John Adams questioned whether, with
Canada and Nova Scotia in the hands of the English, the
Americans could ever have a real peace. In a like spirit,
Franklin intrusted to Oswald "Notes for Conversation,"
in which the voluntary cession of Canada was suggested as
the surety " of a durable peace and a sweet reconciliation."
At the same time, he replied to his old friend Lord Shel-
burne : " I desire no other channel of communication be-

1782. ROCKINGHAM'S MINISTRY. 443

tween us than that of Mr. Oswald, which I think your
lordship has chosen with much judgment. He will be
witness of my acting with all the sincerity and good faith
which you do me the honor to expect from me ; and if he
is enabled, when he returns hither, to communicate more
fully your lordship's mind on the principal points to be
settled, I think it may contribute much to the blessed work
our hearts are engaged in."

Another great step was taken by Franklin. He excluded
Spain altogether from the American negotiation. Entreat-
ing Jay to come to Paris, he wrote : " Spain has taken four
years to consider whether she should treat with us or not,
Give her forty, and let us in the mean time mind our own
business."

On the twenty-third, shortly after the return of 1782.
Oswald to London, the cabinet on his report agreed Apr ^
to send him again to Franklin to acquaint him of their
readiness to treat at Paris for a general peace, conceding
American independence, but otherwise maintaining
the treaties of 1763. On the twenty-eighth, Shel- Apr. 28.
burne, who was in earnest, gave to his agent the
verbal instruction : " If America is independent, she must
be so of the whole world, with no ostensible, tacit, or secret
connection with France." Canada could not be ceded. It
was " reasonable to expect a free trade, unencumbered with
duties, to every part of America." " All debts due to Brit-
ish subjects were to be secure, and the loyalists to be
restored to a full enjoyment of their rights and privi-
leges." As a compensation for the restoration of New
York, Charleston, and Savannah, the river Penobscot might
be proposed for the eastern boundary of New England.
"Finally," he said, "tell Dr. Franklin candidly and confi-
dentially Lord Shelburne's situation with the king ; that his
lordship will make no use oE it but to keep his word with
mankind." With these instructions, Oswald returned im-
mediately to Paris, bearing from Shelburne to Franklin a
most friendly letter, to which the king had given his
thorough approval.

With the European belligerents, the communication was

444 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVL

necessarily to proceed from the department of which Fox
was the chief. He entered upon the business in a spirit
that foreboded no success ; for, at the very moment of his
selection of an emissary, he declared that he did not think
it much signified how soon he should break up the cabinet.
The person of whom he made choice to treat on the weight-
iest interests with the most skilful diplomatist of Europe
was Thomas Grenville, one of his own partisans, who was
totally ignorant of the relations of America to France, and
very young, with no experience in public business, and a
very scant knowledge of the foreign relations of his own
country.

1782. Arriving in Paris on the eighth of May, Grenville
May 8. delivered to Franklin a most cordial letter of intro-
duction from Fox, and met with the heartiest welcome.
After receiving him at breakfast, Franklin took him in his
own carriage to Versailles; and there the dismissed post-
master-general for America, at the request of the British
secretary of state, introduced the son of the author of the
American stamp act as the British plenipotentiary to the
minister for foreign affairs of the Bourbon king. States-
men at Paris and Vienna were amused on hearing that the
envoy of the " rebel " colonies was become " the introduce
tor " of the representatives of Great Britain at the court of
Versailles.

Vergennes received Grenville most cordially as the
nephew of an old friend, but smiled at his offer to grant
to France the independence of the United States; and
Franklin refused to accept at second hand that indepen-
dence which his country had already won. Grenville re-
marked that the war had been provoked by encouragement
from France to the Americans to revolt; to which Ver-
gennes answered with warmth that France had found and
not made America independent, and that American inde-
pendence was not the only cause of the war. On the
Hay io. next day, Grenville, unaccompanied by Franklin, met
Vergennes and De Aranda, and offered peace on the
basis of the independence of the United States and the
treaty of 1763. "That treaty," said Vergennes, "I can

1782. ROCKINGHAM'S MINISTRY. 445

never read without a shudder. The king, my master, can-
not in any treaty consider the independence of Amer-
ica as ceded to him. To do so would be injurious to $*?*.
the dignity of his Britannic majesty." The Spanish
ambassador urged with vehemence that the griefs of the
king of Spain were totally distinct from the independence
of America.

With regard to America, the frequent conversations of
the young envoy with Franklin, who received him with conr
stant hospitality, cleared up his views. It was explained to
him with precision that the United States were free from
every sort of engagement with France except those con-
tained in the public treaties of commerce and alliance.
Grenville asked if these obligations extended to the recov-
ery of Gibraltar for Spain ; and Franklin answered : " It is
nothing to America who has Gibraltar." But Franklin saw
in Grenville a young statesman ambitious of recommending
himself as an able negotiator ; in Oswald, a man who, free
from interested motives, earnestly sought a final settlement
of all differences between Great Britain and America. To
the former he had no objection, but he would have been
loath to lose the latter ; and, before beginning to treat of
the conditions of peace, he wrote to Shelburne his belief
that the u moderation, prudent counsels, and sound judg-
ment of Oswald might contribute much, not only to the
speedy conclusion of a peace, but to the framing of such a
peace as may be firm and lasting." The king, as he read
the wishes of Franklin, which were seconded by Vergennes,
"thought it best to let Oswald remain at Paris," saying
that " his correspondence carried marks of coming from a
man of sense."

While Oswald came to London to make his second report,
news that better reconciled the English to treat for peace
arrived from the Caribbean Islands. The fleet of De Grasse
in 1781, after leaving the coast of the United States, gave
to France the naval ascendency in the West Indies. St.
Eustatius was recaptured, and generously restored to the
United Provinces. St. Christopher, Nevis, and Montserrat
were successively taken. On the nineteenth of February,

446 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVX

1782, Rodney reappeared at Barbados with a re-enforce-
ment of twelve sail, and in the next week he effected a
junction with the squadron of Hood to the leeward of An-
tigua. To cope with his groat adversary, De Grasse, who
was closely watched by Rodney from St. Lucia, must unite
with the Spanish squadron. For that purpose, on the eighth
of April he turned his fleet out of Fort Royal in Martinique ;
and, with only the advantage of a few hours over the British,
he ran for Hispaniola. On the ninth, a partial engagement
took place near the Island of Dominica. At daylight on
the twelfth, Rodney by skilful manoeuvres drew near the
French in the expanse of waters that lies between the islands
of Guadaloupe, the Saintes, and Marie Galante. The sky
was clear, the sea quiet ; the trade-wind blew lightly, and,
having the advantage of its unvarying breeze, Rodney made
the signal for attack. The British had thirty-six ships ; the
French, with a less number, excelled in the weight of metal.
The French ships were better built ; the British in superior
repair. The complement of the French crews was the more
full, but the British mariners were better disciplined. The
fight began at seven in the morning, and without a respite
of seven minutes it continued for eleven hours. The French
handled their guns well at a distance, but in close fight
there was a want of personal exertion and presence of mind.
About the time when the sun was at the highest, Rodney
cut the line of his enemy ; and the battle was continued in
detail, all the ships on each side being nearly equally en-
gaged. The "Ville de Paris," the flag-ship of De
April. Grasse5 did not strike its colors till it was near foun-
dering, and only three men were left unhurt on the
upper deck. Four other ships of his fleet were captured ;
one sunk in the action.

On the side of the victors, about one thousand were killed
or wounded : of the French, thrice as many ; for their ships
were crowded with over five thousand land troops, and the
fire of the British was rapid and well aimed. The going
down of the sun put an end to the battle, and Rodney neg-
lected pursuit. Just at nightfall, one of the ships of which
the English had taken possession blew up. Of the poor .

1782. ROCKINGHAM'S MINISTRY. 447

wretches who were cast into the sea, some clang to bits
of the wreck ; the sharks, of which the fight had called
together shoals from the waters round about, tore them off,
and even after the carnage of the day could hardly be
glutted.

The feeling of having recovered the dominion of the sea
reconciled England to the idea of peace. On the eigh-
teenth of May, the day on which tidings of the victory
were received, the cabinet agreed to invite proposals from
Vergennes. Soon after this came a letter from Grenville,
in which he argued that, as America had been the road to
war with France, so it offered the most practicable way
of getting out of it ; and the cabinet agreed to a minute
almost in his words, " to propose the independency of Amer-
ica in the first instance, instead of making it a condition
of a general treaty." The proposition in the words of
Fox was accepted by Shelburne, was imbodied by him in
his instructions to Sir Guy Carleton at New York,
and formed the rule of action for Oswald on his $®\
return, with renewed authority, to Paris. Indepen-
dence was, as the king expressed it, " the dreadful price now
offered to America " for peace.

A commission was forwarded to Grenville by Fox to
treat with France, but with no other country; yet he
devoted nearly all his letter of instructions to the relations
with America, showing that in a negotiation for peace the
United States ought not to be encumbered by a power like
Spain, " which had never assisted them during the war> and
had even refused to acknowledge their independence."

When Grenville laid before Vergennes his credentials, he
received the answer that they were very insufficient, as
they did not enable him to treat with Spain and America,
the allies of France ; or with the Netherlands, her partner
in the war. Repulsed at Versailles, Grenville took upon
himself to play the plenipotentiary with America; on the
fourth of June, he confided to Franklin the minute of the
cabinet, and hoped to draw from him in return the Ameri-
can conditions for a separate peace. But Franklin would
not unfold the American conditions to a person not author-

448 THE AMERICAN BE VOLUTION. Chap. LVL

ized to receive them. Irritated by this " unlucky check,"
by which, as he thought, his hopes of a great diplomatic
success were " completely annihilated," he made bitter and
passionate and altogether groundless complaints of Oswald.
He would have Fox not lose one moment to fight the battle
with advantage against Shelburne, and to take to himself
the American business by comprehending all in one.
1782. Though Fox had given up all present hope of mak-

june. ^g peace, he enlarged the powers of Grenville so as
to include any potentate or state then at war with Great
Britain ; and he beat about for proofs of Shelburne's " du-
plicity of conduct," resolved, if he could but get them, to
"drive to an open rupture."

Under his extended powers, Grenville made haste to
claim the right to treat with America; but, when ques-
tioned by Franklin, he was obliged to own that he was
acting without the sanction of parliament. Within twenty
four hours of the passing of the enabling act, the powers for
Oswald as a negotiator of peace with the United States
were begun upon, and were "completely finished in the
four days following;" but, on the assertion of Fox that
they would prejudice every thing then depending in Paris,
they were delayed. Fox then proposed that America, even
without a treaty, should be recognised as an independent
power. Had he prevailed, the business of America must
Viave passed from the home department to that for foreign
affairs; but, after full reflection, the cabinet decided "that
independence should in the first instance be allowed as the
basis to treat on." Professing discontent, " Fox declared
that his part was taken to quit his office."

The next day, Lord Rockingham* expired. His ministry
left great memorials of its short career. Through the me-
diation of Shelburne, it forced the king to treat for peace
with the United States on the basis of their independence.
The success of America brought emancipation to Ireland,
which had suffered even more than the United States from
colonial monopoly. Its volunteer army, commanded by
officers of its own choice, having increased to nearly fifty
thousand well-armed men, united under one general in chief,

1782. ROCKINGHAM'S MINISTRY. 449

the viceroy reported that, " unless it was determined that
the knot which bound the two countries should be severed
for ever," the points required by the Irish parliament must
be conceded. Fox would rather have seen Ireland totally
separated than kept in obedience by force. Eden, one of
Lord North's commissioners in America in 1778, and lately
his secretary for Ireland, was the first in a moment of ill-
humor to propose the repeal of the act of George I., which
asserted the right of the parliament of Great Britain to
make laws to bind the people and the kingdom of Ireland ;
and after reflection the ministry of Rockingham adopted
and carried the measure. Appeals from the courts of law
in Ireland to the British house of peers were abolished ;
the restraint on legislation was done away with ; and Ire-
land, owning allegiance to the same king as Great Britain,
wrenched from the British parliament the independence
of its own. These were the first-fruits of the Ameri-
can revolution ; but the gratitude of the Irish nation 1782.
took the direction of loyalty to their king, and their
legislature voted one hundred thousand pounds for the levy
of twenty thousand seamen.

During the ministry of Rockingham, the British house
of commons for the first time since the days of Cromwell
seriously considered the question of a reform in the repre-
sentation of Great Britain. The author of the proposition
was William Pitt, then without office, but the acknowl-
edged heir of the principles of Chatham. The resolution
of inquiry was received with ill-concealed repugnance by
Rockingham. Its support by Fox was lukewarm, and bore
the mark of his aristocratic connections. Edmund Burke,
in his fixed opposition to reform, was almost beside himself
with passion, and was with difficulty persuaded to remain
away from the debate. The friends of Sheiburne, on the
contrary, gave to the motion their cordial support ; yet, by
the absence and opposition of many of the Rockingham con-
nection, the question on this first division in the house of
commons upon the state of the representation in the British
parliament was lost, though only by a majority of twenty.
vol. ti. 29

450 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVL

The freedom of Ireland and the hopes of reform in the Brit-
ish parliament itself went hand in hand with the triumph of
liberty in America.

The accession of a liberal ministry revived in Frederic of
Prussia his old inclination to friendly relations with Eng-
land. The empress of Russia now included the government
in her admiration of the British people ; and Fox on his
side, with the consent of the ministry, but to the great

vexation of the king, accepted her declaration of the
1782. maritime rights of neutrals. But for the moment

no practical result followed ; for the cabinet, as the
price of their formal adhesion to her code, demanded hex
alliance.

178* 8HELBUBNE OFFERS PEACE. 451

CHAPTER LVH.

8HBLBUBNB OFFEBS PEACE.

July, August, 1782.

On the death of Rockingham, the king offered to Shel-
burne by letter "the employment of first lord of
the treasury, and with it the fullest political confi- 1783.
dence." "Indeed," added the king, "he has had
ample sample of it by my conduct towards him since his
return to my service." No British prime minister had
professed more liberal principles. He wished a thorough re-
form of the representation of the people of Great Britain in
parliament. Far from him was the thought that the pros-
perity of America could be injurious to England. He
regarded neighboring nations as associates ministering to
each other's prosperity, and wished to form with France
treaties of commerce as well as of peace. But Fox, who
was entreated to remain in the ministry as secretary of
state with a colleague of his own choosing and an ample
share of power, set up against him the narrow-minded Duke
of Portland, under whose name the old aristocracy was to
rule parliament, king, and people. To gratify the violence
of his headstrong pride and self-will, he threw away the
glorious opportunity of endearing 'himself to mankind by
granting independence to the United States and restoring
peace to the world, and struck a blow at liberal government
in his own country from which she did not recover in his
lifetime.

The old whig aristocracy was on the eve of dissolution.
In a few years, those of its members who, like Burke and
the Duke of Portland, were averse to shaking the smallest
particle of the settlement at the revolution, were to merge

452 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.LVH

themselves in the new tory or conservative party : the rest
adopted the watchword of reform •, and, when they began to
govern, it was with the principles of Chatham and Shel-
burne. For the moment, Fox, who was already brooding
on a coalition with the ministry so lately overthrown, in-
sisted with his friends that Lord Shelburne was as fully
devoted to the court as Lord North in his worst days. But
the latter, contrary to his own judgment and political princi-
ples, had persisted in the American war to please the king ;
the former accepted power only after he had brought the
king to consent to peace with independent America.

The vacancies in the cabinet were soon filled up. Foi
the home department, the choice of the king fell on William
Pitt, who had not yet avowed himself in parliament for
American independence, and who was in little danger of
" becoming too much dipped in the wild measures " of " the
leaders of sedition ; " but it was assigned to the more ex-
perienced Thomas Townshend, who had ever condemned
the violation of the principles of English liberty in the ad-
ministration of British colonies in America. Pitt, at three-
and-twenty years old, became chancellor of the exchequer ;
the seals of the foreign office were intrusted to Lord
Grantham.

1782. In the house of commons, Fox made on the ninth
Juiyo. 0f juiy his self-defence, which, in its vagueness and
hesitation, betrayed his consciousness that he had no ground
to stand upon. In the debate, Conway said with truth that
eagerness for exclusive power was the motive of Fox, be-
tween whom and Shelburne the difference of policy for
America was very immaterial ; that the latter, so far from
renewing the old, exploded politics, had been able to con-
vince his royal master that a declaration of its indepen-
dence was, from the situation of the country and the
necessity of the case, the wisest and most expedient meas-
ure that government could adopt. Burke called heaven
and earth to witness the sincerity of his belief that "the
ministry of Lord Shelburne would be fifty times worse than
that of Lord North," declaring that " his accursed princi-
ples were to be found in Machiavel, and that but for want

1782. SHELBURNE OFFERS PEACE. 453

of understanding be would be a Catiline or a Borgia."
"Shelburne bas been faitbful and just to me," wrote Sir
William Jones to Burke, deprecating bis vebemence : " tbe
principles wbicb be bas professed to me are sucb as my
reason approved." "In all my intercourse with bim, I
never saw any instance of bis being insincere," wrote
Franklin, long after Shelburne had retired from of-
fice. On tbe tenth, Shelburne said in tbe house of j^fo.
lords : " I stand firmly upon my consistency. I never
will consent that a certain number of great lords should
elect a prime minister who is the creature of an aristocracy,
and is vested with the plenitude of power, while the king
is nothing more than a pageant or a puppet. In that case,
the monarchical part of the constitution would be absorbed
by the aristocracy, and the famed constitution of England
would be no more. The members of tbe cabinet can vouch
that no reason, relative to the business of America, has
been assigned or even hinted for tbe late resignations*
The principle laid down relative to peace with America bas
not in the smallest degree been departed from. Nothing
is farther from my intention than to renew the war in
America ; the sword is sheathed, never to be drawn there
again."

On the day on which Fox withdrew from the min- June so.
istry, Shelburne, who now had liberty of action,
wrote these, instructions to Oswald: "I hope to receive
early assurances from you that my confidence in the sin-
cerity and good faith of Dr. Franklin has not been mis-
placed, and that he will concur with you in endeavoring to
render effectual the great work in which our hearts and
wishes are so equally interested. We have adopted his
idea of tbe method to come to a general pacification by
treating separately with each party. I beg him to believe
that I can have no idea or design of acting towards him
and his associates but in the most open, liberal, and honor-
able manner."

Franklin, on his part, lost not a day in entering upon
definitive negotiations for peace. From his long residence
in England, he knew exactly the relations of its parties

454 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVU

and of its public men ; of whom the best were his personal
friends. He was aware how precarious was the hold of
Shelburne on power ; and he made all haste to bring
jSV about an immediate pacification. On the tenth of
July, in his own house and at his own invitation, he
had an interview with Oswald, and proposed to him the
American conditions of peace. The articles which could
not be departed from were : independence, full and com-
plete in every sense, to the thirteen states, and all British
troops to be withdrawn from them; for boundaries, the
Mississippi, and on the side of Canada as they were before
the Quebec act of 1774 ; and, lastly, a freedom of fishing off
Newfoundland and elsewhere as in times past.

Having already explained that nothing could be done
for the loyalists by the United States, as their estates had
been confiscated by laws of particular states which congress
had no power to repeal, he further demonstrated that Great
Britain had forfeited every right to intercede for them by
its conduct and example ; to which end, he read to Oswald
the orders of the British in Carolina for confiscating and
selling the lands and property of all patriots under the
direction of the military ; and he declared definitively that,
though the separate governments might show compassion
where it was deserved, the American commissioners for
peace could not make compensation of refugees a part of
the treaty.

Franklin recommended, but not as an ultimatum, a per-
fect reciprocity in regard to ships and trade. He further
directed attention to the reckless destruction of American
property by the British troops, as furnishing a claim to
indemnity which might be set off against the demands of
British merchants and of American loyalists. He was at
that time employed on a treaty of reimbursement to France
by the United States for its advances of money; and he
explained to Oswald, as he had before done to Grenville,
the exact nature and the limits of the obligations of Amer-
ica to France for loans of which the debt and interest
would be paid.

The interview closed with the understanding by Oswald

1782. SHELBURNE OFFERS PEACE. 455

that Franklin was ready to sign the preliminary articles
of the treaty so soon as they could be agreed upon. The
negotiation was opened and kept up with the knowledge and
at the wish of Vergennes ; but Franklin took upon himself
to disobey the instructions of congress, and to the last with-
held from him every thing relating to the conditions of the
peace.

So soon as Shelburne saw a prospect of a general paci-
fication, of which he reserved the direction to himself,
Fitzherbert, a diplomatist of not much experience and no
great ability, was transferred from Brussels to Paris, to be
the chatfnel of communication with Spain, France, and Hol-
land. He brought with him a letter to Franklin from Grant-
ham, who expressed his desire to merit Franklin's confidence,
and from Townshend, who declared himself the zealous
friend to peace upon the fairest and most liberal terms.

While the commission and instructions of Oswald were
preparing, Shelburne, who best understood American af-
fairs, accepted the ultimatum of Franklin in all its branches ;
only, to prevent the bickerings of fishermen and to respect
public opinion in England, he refused the privilege of dry-
ing fish on the Island of Newfoundland.

On the twenty-seventh, Shelburne replied to Os- 1782.
wald: "Your several letters give me the greatest J^y27*
satisfaction, as they contain unequivocal proofs of Dr.
Franklin's sincerity and confidence in those with whom he
treats. It will be the study of his majesty's ministers to
return it by every possible cordiality. There never have
been two opinions since you were sent to Paris upon the
acknowledgment of American independency, to the full
extent of all the resolutions of the province of Maryland,
enclosed to you by Dr. Franklin. But, to put this matter
out of all possibility of doubt, a commission will be imme-
diately forwarded to you, containing full powers to treat
and to conclude, with instructions from the minister who
has succeeded to the department which I lately held to
make the independency of the colonies the basis and pre-
liminary of the treaty now depending, and so far advanced
that, hoping as I do with you that the articles called advis-

456 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.LVH.

able will be dropped and those called necessary alone
retained as the ground of discussion, it may be speedily
concluded. You very well know I have never made a
secret of the deep concern I feel in the separation of coon-
tries united by blood, by principles, habits, and every tie
short of territorial proximity. But I have long since
given it up, decidedly though reluctantly; and the same
motives which made me perhaps the last to give up all hope
of reunion make me most anxious, if it is given up, that it
shall be done so as to avoid all future risk of enmity and
lay the foundation of a new connection, better adapted to
the temper and interest of both countries. In this view, I
go further with Dr. Franklin perhaps than he is aware of,
and further, perhaps, than the professed advocates of inde-
pendence are prepared to admit. I consider myself as
pledged to the contents of this letter. Tou will find the
ministry united, in full possession of the king's confidence,
and thoroughly disposed to peace, if it can be obtained upon
reasonable terms."

1782. The commission to Oswald, which followed in a
Aug. 7. few aav8j conformed to the enabling act of parlia-
ment. The king pledged his name and word to ratify and
confirm whatever might be concluded between him and the
American commissioners; "our earnest wish for peace,91
such were the words of instruction under the king's own
hand, " disposing us to purchase it at the price of acceding
to the complete independence of the thirteen states." The
merit of closing the murderous scenes of a war between
men of the same kindred and language, by moderation,
superiority to prejudice, a true desire of conciliation, an
unreluctant concession to America of her natural advan-
tages, together with a skilful plan through free trade to
obtain by commerce an immense compensation for the loss
of monopoly and jurisdiction, is among British statesmen
due to Shelburne. The initiating of the negotiation, equal
sincerity, benignity of temper, an intuitive and tranquil
discernment of things as they were, wisdom which never
spoke too soon and never waited too long, belonged to
Franklin, who had proceeded alone to the substantial con-
clusion of the peace.

1782. SHELBUBNE OFFERS PEACE. 457

At this moment, when the treaty seemed to need only to
be drafted in form and signed, Jay, having arrived in Paris
and recovered from illness, stayed all progress. Before
treating for peace, he said, the independence of the United
States ought to be acknowledged by act of parliament, and
the British troops withdrawn from America. But parlia-
ment was not in session, and was, moreover, the
most dangerous body to which America could have %££
appealed. Receding from this demand, Jay proposed
a proclamation of American independence under the great
seal ; but this also he yielded.

In America, Jay had been an enthusiast for the triple
alliance between France, Spain, and the "United States ; had
been moderate in his desire for territory; and, on fifteen
divisions in congress, had given his vote against making the
fisheries a condition of peace. As a consequence, all the
influence of the French minister in Philadelphia had been
used to promote his election as minister to Spain. His illu-
sions as to Spain having been very rudely dispelled, he
passed from too great confidence to too general mistrust.

The commission to Oswald spoke of the colonies and
plantations of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and the rest,
naming them one by one ; and Oswald was authorized to
treat with the American commissioners under any title
which they should assume, and to exchange with them
plenipotentiary powers. Vergennes, who was anxious that
there might be no impediment to a general peace, urged
upon Jay that the powers of Oswald were sufficient, saying :
" This acceptance of your powers, in which you are styled
commissioners from the United States of America, will be a
tacit confession of your independence." Franklin had made
no objection to the commission, and still believed that it
"would do." To Franklin, Jay made the remark: "The
count does not wish to see our independence acknowledged
by Britain until they have made all their uses of us." But
the shortest way of defeating such a plan was to proceed at
once to frame the treaty of peace with England.

Franklin saw with dismay how fast the sands of Shel-
burne's official life were running out, and that with his

458 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.LVII

removal the only chance of a favorable peace now so nearly
concluded would be lost ; but his advice brought upon him
. the suspicions of Jay. Oswald not only commtmi-
slpt i. cated a copy of his commission, but a part of his
instructions and a letter from the secretary of state,
promising in the king's name to grant to America "full,
complete, and unconditional independence in the most ex-
plicit manner as an article of treaty." But Jay " positively
refused to treat with Oswald under his commission;" so
that the negotiation was wholly suspended and put to the
greatest hazard.

It was time for the war in America to come to an end.
British parties, under leaders selected from the most brutal
of mankind, were scouring the interior of the southern coun-
try, robbing, destroying, and taking life at their pleas-
Mtr. 12. ure. " On the twelfth of March," writes David
Fanning, the ruffian leader of one of these bands,
" my men, being all properly equipped, assembled together
to give the rebels a small scourge, which we set out for."
They came upon the plantation of Andrew Balfour, of
Randolph county, who had been a member of the North
Carolina assembly, and held a commission in the militia.
Breaking into his house, they fired at him in the presence
of his sister and daughter, the first ball passing through
his body, the second through his neck. On their way to
another militia officer, they "burned several rebel houses."
It was late before they got to the abode of the officer, who
made his escape, receiving three balls through his shirt.
They destroyed the whole of his plantation. Reaching the
house of " another rebel officer," " I told him," writes Fann-
ing, " if he would come out of the house I would give him
parole, which he refused. With that, I ordered the house
to be set on fire. As soon as he saw the flames increasing,
he called out to me to spare his house for his wife's • and
children's sake, and he would walk out with his arms in his
hands. I answered him that, if he would walk out, his
house should be spared for his wife and children. When
he came out, he said : c Here I am ; ' with that, he received
two balls through his body. I proceeded on to one Major

1*82. SHELBUBNB OFFERS PEACE. 459

Dugin's plantation, and I destroyed all his property, and all
the rebel officers' property in the settlement for the distance
of forty miles. On our way, I catched a commissary from
Salisbury, and delivered him up to some of my men whom
he had treated ill when prisoners, and they immedi-
ately hung him. On the eighteenth of April, I set j^ffi&t
out for Chatham, where I learned that a wedding was
to be that day. We surrounded the house, and drove all out
one by one. I found one concealed upstairs. Having my
pistols in my hand, I discharged them both at his breast ;
he fell, and that night expired." * Tet this Fanning held a
British commission as colonel of the loyal militia in Ran-
dolph and Chatham counties, with authority to grant com-
missions to others as captains and subalterns ; and, after the
war, was recommended by the office of American claims as
a proper person to be put upon the half-pay list.

At the north, within the immediate precincts of Apr. is.
the authority of Clinton, Colonel James Delancy, of
West Chester, caused three " rebels " to be publicly executed
within the British lines, in retaliation for the pretended mur-
der of some of the refugees. In New York, the refugees were
impatient that American prisoners were not at once
made to suffer for treason. On the eighth of April, Apr. t
the directors of the associated loyalists ordered Lieu-
tenant Joshua Huddy, a prisoner of war in New York, to
be delivered to Captain Lippincot, and, under the pretext
of an exchange, taken into New Jersey, where he
was hanged by a party of loyalists on the heights of Apr. 12.
Middleton, in revenge for the death of a loyalist pris-
oner who had been shot as he was attempting to escape.
Congress and Washington demanded the delivery of Lip-
pincot as a murderer. Clinton, though incensed at the out-
rage and at the insult to his own authority and honor,
refused the requisition, but subjected him to a court-mar-
tial, which condemned the deed, while they found in the
orders under which he acted a loop-hole for his acquittal.
Congress threatened retaliation on a British officer, but
never executed the threat.

1 1 use Fanning1* Journal from an exact manuscript copy.

460 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVH

The American officers ever throughout the war set the
example of humanity. The same spirit showed itself on
the side of the British as soon as Shelburne became minis-
ter. Those who had been imprisoned for treason were
treated henceforward as prisoners of war. Some of the
ministers personally took part in relieving their distresses;
and in the course of the summer six hundred of them or
more were sent to America in cartels for exchange.
^im The arrival of Sir Quy Carleton at New York to

supersede Clinton was followed by consistent clem-
ency. He desired that hostilities of all kinds might be
stayed. He treated captives always with gentleness; and
some of them he set free. When Washington asked that
the Carolinians who had been exiled in violation of the
capitulation of Charleston might have leave to return to
their native state under a flag of truce, Carleton answered
that they should be sent back at the cost of the king of
England ; and that every thing should be done to make
them forget the hardships which they had endured. Two
hundred Iroquois, two hundred Ottawas, and seventy Chip-
pewas came in the summer to St. John's on the Chambly,
ready to make a raid into the state of New York. They
were told from Carleton to bury their hatchets and their
tomahawks.

Acting under the orders of Greene in Georgia,

Wayne, by spirited manoeuvres, succeeded in wrest-
ing the state from the hands of the British, obliging them to
abandon post after post and redoubt after redoubt, until they

were completely shut up in Savannah. A body of
May 21. British cavalry and infantry went out four miles

from Savannah to escort a strong party of Creeks
and Choctaws into the town. In the following night, Wayne
threw himself with inferior force between them and Savan-
nah, and, attacking them by surprise, totally defeated and
dispersed them. At Sharon, five miles from Savannah, at

half-past one in the morning of the twenty-fourth of

June, a numerous horde of Creek warriors, headed
by their ablest chiefs and a British officer, surprised his
camp, and for a few moments were masters of his artillery.

1782. SHELBURNE OFFERS PEACE. 461

Marshalling his troops under a very heavy fire of small-
arms and hideous yells of the savages, he attacked them in
front and flank with the sword and bayonet alone. The
Indians resisted the onset with ferocity heightened by their
momentary success. With his own hand, Wayne struck
down a war-chief. In the morning, Erristesego, the prin-
cipal warrior of the Creek nation and the bitterest enemy of
the Americans, was found among the dead.

Self-reliance and patriotism revived in the rural popula-
tion of Georgia; and its own civil government was restored.

On the eleventh of July, Savannah was evacuated, 1732.
the loyalists retreating into Florida, the regulars to July 1L
Charleston. Following the latter, Wayne, with his small
but trustworthy corps, joined the standard of Greene. His
successes had been gained by troops who had neither regu-
lar food nor clothing nor pay.

In South Carolina, Greene and Wayne and Marion, and
all others in high command, were never once led by the
assassinations committed under the authority of Lord
George Germain to injure the property or take the life of
a loyalist, although private anger could not always be
restrained. In conformity to the writs issued by Rutledge
as governor, the assembly met in January at Jacksonbor-
ough on the Edisto. In the legislature were many of those
who had been released from imprisonment, or had returned
from exile. Against the advice of' Gadsden, who insisted
that it was sound policy to forget and forgive, laws were
passed banishing the active fiiends of the British govern-
ment and confiscating their estates.

The Americans could not recover the city of Charleston
by arms. The British, under the command of the just and
humane General Leslie, gave up every hope of subjugating
the state; and Wayne, who was u satiate of this horrid
trade, of blood," and would rather spare one poor savage
than destroy twenty, and Greene, who longed for the repose
of domestic life, strove to reconcile the Carolina patriots to
the loyalists.

The complaints of Greene respecting the wants of his
army were incessant and just. In January, he wrote :

462 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVIL

" Oar men are almost naked for want of overalls and shirts,
and the greater part of the army barefoot." In March, he
repeated the same tale : " We have three hundred men with-
out arms ; twice that number so naked as to be unfit for any
duty but in cases of desperation. Not a rag of clothing has
arrived to us this winter. In this situation, men and offi-
cers without pay cannot be kept in temper long." More-
over, the legislature of South Carolina prohibited the
impressing of provisions from the people, and yet neglected
to furnish the troops with necessary food.

The summer passed with no military events beyond
skirmishes. In repelling with an inferior force a party of
the British sent to Combahee ferry to collect pro-
H82. visions, Laurens, then but twenty-seven years old,
received a mortal wound. "He had not a fault
that I could discover," said Washington, " unless it were
intrepidity bordering upon rashness." A short time before
the evacuation of Charleston, which was delayed till near
the end of the year, Wilmot, a worthy officer of the Mary-
land line, fell in an enterprise against James Island. This
was the last blood shed in the war.

The wretched condition of the American army Greene
atttributed to the want of a union of the states. He would
invest congress with power to enforce its requisitions. The
first vehement impulse towards "the consolidation of the
federal union" was given by Robert Morris, the finance
minister of the confederation. With an exact administra-
tion of his trust, he combined, like Necker, zeal for ad-
vancing his own fortune ; and he connected the reform of
the confederation with boldly speculative financial theories,
that were received with doubt and resistance. His opinions
on the benefit of a public debt were extravagant and unsafe.
A native of England, he never held the keys to the sympathy
and approbation of the American people. In May, 1781,
when congress was not able to make due preparation for the
campaign, he succeeded, by highly colored promises of a
better administration of the national finances and by
appeals to patriotism, in overcoming the scruples of that
body, and obtained from it a charter for a national bank,

1782. SHELBURNE OFFERS PEACE. 463

of which the notes, payable on demand, should be receivable
as specie for duties and taxes, and in payment of dues from
the respective states. The measure was carried by the
votes of New Hampshire, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia
with Madison dissenting, North and South Carolina, and
Georgia, seven states : single delegates from Rhode Island
and Connecticut answered " ay ; " but their votes were not
counted, because their states were insufficiently represented.
Pennsylvania was equally divided ; Massachusetts alone
voted against the measure.

Before the end of the year, the opinion prevailed that
the confederation contained no power to incorporate a
bank; but congress had already pledged its word. As a
compromise, the corporation was forbidden to exercise any
powers in any of the "United States repugnant to the laws or
constitution of such state ; and it was recommended to the
several states to give to the incorporating ordinance its full
operation. These requisitions Madison regarded as a tacit
admission of the defect of power, and an antidote against
the poisonous tendency of precedents of usurpation. The
capital of the bank was four hundred thousand dollars, of
which Morris took one half as an investment of the United
States, paying for it in full with their money. On
the seventh of January, 1782, the bank commenced its ja*27.
very lucrative business. The notes, though payable at
Philadelphia in specie, did not command public confidence
at a distance, and the corporation was able to buy up its
own promises at from ten to fifteen per cent discount. A
national currency having been provided for, Morris was
ready to obey an order of congress to establish a mint.

His first great measure having been carried, he threw the
whole energy of his nature into the design of initiating
a strong central government. He engaged the services of
Thomas Paine to recommend to the people by a new con-
federation to confer competent powers on congress. To
the president of congress he wrote : " No hope of praise or
apprehension of blame shall induce me to neglect a duty
which I owe to America at large. I disclaim a delicacy
which influences some minds to treat the states with tender-

464 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVEL

ness and even adulation, while they are in the habitual
inattention to the calls of national interest and honor. Nor
will I be deterred from waking those who slumber on the
brink of ruin. But my voice is feeble, and I must therefore
pray to be assisted by the voice of the United States in con-
gress. Supported by them, I may perhaps do something ;
but, without that support, I must be a useless incumbrance."
He was convinced that the raising as well as main-
1782. taining of a continental army would be infinitely
cheaper than armies of the states. A national navy,
too, came within the scope of his policy.

To fund the public debt and provide for the regular pay-
ment of the interest on it he proposed a very moderate
land-tax, a poll-tax, and an excise on distilled liquors.
Each of these taxes was estimated to produce half a mill-
ion ; a duty of five per cent on imports would produce a
million more. The back lands were to be reserved as se-
curity for new loans in Europe.

The expenditures of the United States for the war had
been at the rate of twenty millions of dollars in specie
annually. The estimates for the year 1782 were for eight
millions of dollars. Yet, in the first five months of the year,
the sums received amounted to less than twenty thousand
dollars, the estimated expenses for a single day ; and of this
sum not a shilling had been received from the east or the
south. Morris prepared a vehement circular to the states ;
but it was suppressed by the advice of Madison ; and one
congressional committee was sent to importune the states
of the north, another those of the south.

An aged officer of the army, colonel in rank, unheard of
in action, Nicola by name, not an American by birth, clung
obstinately to the opinion that republics are unstable, and
that a mixed government, of which the head might bear the
title of king, would be best able to extricate the United
States from their embarrassments. In a private letter to
Washington, written, so far as the evidence goes, without
concert with any one, he set forth his views in favor of mon-
archy, with an intimation that it would, after discussion, be
readily adopted by the people, and that it would be for him

1782. SHELBURNB OFFERS PEACE. 465

who had so gloriously conducted the war to conduct the
country « in the smoother paths of peace."

To this communication, Washington, on the twenty-second
of May, replied as follows : " With a mixture of great sur-
prise and astonishment, I have read with attention the sen-
timents you have submitted to my perusal. Be assured, sir,
no occurrence in the course of the war has given me more
painful sensations than your information of there being such
ideas existing in the army, as you have expressed, and I
must view with abhorrence and reprehend with severity.
For the present, the communication of them will rest in my
own bosom, unless some further agitation of the matter
shall make a disclosure necessary.

" I am much at a loss to conceive what part of my conduct
could have given encouragement to an address, which to me
seems big with the greatest mischiefs that can befall my
country. If I am not deceived in the knowledge of myself,
you could not have found a person to whom your schemes
are more disagreeable. At the same time, in justice to my
own feelings, I must add that no man possesses a more
sincere wish to see ample justice done to the army than I
do ; and, as far as my powers and influence, in a constitu-
tional way, extend, they shall be employed to the utmost of
my abilities to effect it, should there be any occasion. Let
me conjure you, then, if you have any regard for your^coun-
try, concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for me, to
banish these thoughts from your mind, and never communi-
cate) as from yourself or any one else, a sentiment of the
like nature."

It lay in the ideas of Morris to collect the revenues 1782.
of the United States by their own officers. The con-
federation acted only on the states, and not on persons ; yet
he obtained from congress authority to appoint receivers of
taxes, and for that office in New York he selected its most
gifted statesman. From the siege of Yorktown, Hamilton
had repaired to Albany, where he entered upon the study of
the law, that in summer he might be received as attorney,
in autumn as counsellor, ready meantime, if the war should
be renewed, to take part in its dangers and its honors. The

VOL. VI. 80

466 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.LVIL

place, which he accepted with hesitation, was almost a sine-
cure ; but he was instructed by Morris to exert his talents
with the New York legislature to forward the views of con-
gress. He had often observed the facility with which the
eastern states had met in convention to deliberate jointly
on the best methods of supporting the war. He repaired to
Poughkeepsie on the next meeting of the New Tork legisla-
ture, and explained his views on the only system by which
the United States could obtain a constitution. On
Jniy^'a. tne nineteenth of July, Schuyler, his father-in-law,
invited the senate to take into consideration the state
of the nation. That body at once resolved itself into com-
mittee, which reported that the radical source of most of
the public embarrassments was the want of sufficient power
in congress to effectuate the ready and perfect co-operation
of the states ; that the powers of government ought without
loss of time to be extended ; that the general government
ought to have power to provide revenue for itself ; and it
was declared " that the foregoing important ends can never
be attained by partial deliberations of the states separately ;
but that it is essential to the common welfare that there
should be as soon as possible a conference of the whole on
the subject ; and that it would be advisable for this purpose
to propose to congress to recommend, and to each state to
adopt, the measure of assembling a general convention of
the states, specially authorized to revise and amend the
confederation, reserving a right to the respective legisla-
tures to ratify their determinations."

These resolutions, proposed by Schuyler in the senate,
were carried unanimously in each branch of the legislature ;
and Hamilton, who had drafted them, was elected a dele-
gate of New York to congress. Robert Morris, who saw
the transcendent importance of the act of the New York
legislature, welcomed the young statesman to his new career
in these words : " A firm, wise, manly system of federal gov-
ernment is what I once wished, what I now hope, what I
dare not expect, but what I will not despair of."

Hamilton of New York thus became the colleague of
Madison of Virginia. The state papers which they pre-

1782. SHELBURNE OFFERS PEACE. 467

pared were equal to the best in Europe of that time. Ham-
ilton was excelled by Madison in wisdom, large, sound,
roundabout sense and perception of what the country
would grant ; and surpassed him in versatility and 1782.
creative power.

On the last day of July, Morris sent to congress his budget
for 1783, amounting at the least to nine millions of dollars;
and he could think of no way to obtain this sum but by
borrowing four millions and raising five millions by quotas.
The best hopes of supporting the public credit lay in the
proposal to endow congress with the right to levy a duty of
five per cent on imports.

The request of congress, made in February, 1781, to the
states for this power, encountered hostility in Massachusetts.
In a letter from its general court to congress, complaint was
made that the state was called upon for more than its proper
6hare of contributions ; that the duty on imports would be
an unequal burden ; that the proposition could not be ac-
ceded to, unless the produce of the tax should be passed to
the special credit of the commonwealth. Congress in its
reply brought to mind that the interest on the public debt
already exceeded a million of dollars ; that Massachusetts
enjoyed the peculiar blessing of great commercial advan-
tages denied by the fortune of common war to their less
happy sister states ; that duties levied on imports are paid
by the consumer, and ought not to be retained by the state
which. has the benefit of the importation; and it strongly
urged a compliance with the proposition in question, as just
and expedient, impartial and easy of execution, and alone
offering a prospect of redressing the just complaints of the
public creditors. After delays of more than a year, on
the fourth of May, 1782, the general court gave way by a
majority of two in the house and of one in the senate. The
exemption from duty of " wool-cards, cotton-cards, and wire
for making them," proceeded from congress in its wish to
foster incipient manufactures. The act reserved to the
general court the election of the collectors of the revenue,
which it appropriated exclusively to the payment of the
debts of the United States, contracted or to be contracted

468 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LV11

daring the existing war. With their payment it was to
expire. Even this meagre concession received the veto of
Hancock, the governor, though his veto "was given
1782. one day too late to be regarded.

As the federal articles required the unanimous
assent of the states for the adoption of an amendment, the
negative of Rhode Island seemed still to throw in the way
of a good government hindrances which could not be over-
come. Yet union was rooted in the heart of the American
people. The device for its great seal, adopted by congress
in midsummer, is the American eagle, as the emblem of that
strength which uses victory only for peace. It therefore
holds in its right talon the olive branch ; with the left, it
clasps thirteen arrows, emblems of the thirteen states. On
an azure field over the head of the eagle appears a con-
stellation of thirteen stars breaking gloriously through a
cloud. In the eagle's beak is the scroll, " E pluribus unum,"
many and one, out of diversity unity, the two ideas that
make America great; individual freedom of states, and
unity as the expression of conscious nationality. By
further emblems, congress showed its faith that the un-
finished commonwealth, standing upon the broadest foun-
dation, would be built up in strength, that Heaven nodded
to what had been undertaken, that " a new line of ages "
was begun.

The earlier vehement speeches in parliament of Shelburne
against granting independence to the United States had left
in America a distrust of his sincerity that was not readily
removed ; but the respective commanders in chief vied
with each other in acts of humanity. The condition of
the treasury of the United States was deplorable. Of the
quotas for which requisitions had been made on the states,
only four hundred and twenty-two thousand dollars were
collected. Delaware and the three southern states paid
nothing. Rhode Island, which paid thirty-eight thousand
dollars, or a little more than a sixth of its quota, was pro-
portionately the largest contributor. Morris wished to es-
tablish a solid continental system of finance; but taxes
which were not likely ever to be paid could not be antici-

♦

1782. SHELBURNE OFFERS PEACE. 469

pated, and confidence had been squandered away. In
spring, he had written to Greene: "You must continue
your exertions with or without men, or provisions,
! clothing, or pay." For provisioning the northern 1782.
army, he had made contracts which he was obliged
to dissolve from want of means to meet them, and could
only write to Washington : " I pray that Heaven may direct
your mind to some mode by which we may be yet saved."
By the payment of usurious rates, the army was rescued
from being starved or disbanded. "Their patriotism and
distress," wrote Washington in October, "have scarcely ever
been paralleled, never been surpassed. Their long-sufferance
is almost exhausted ; it is high time for a peace."

470 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVI1X.

CHAPTER LVHI.

PEACE BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND GREAT BRITAIN.

1782.

De Grassb, as he passed through London on parole,
brought from Shelburne to Vergennes suggestions,
1782. which left Spain the only obstacle in the way of
peace. To conciliate that power, Jay was invited to
Versailles, where, on the fourth of September, Rayneval,
the most confidential assistant of Vergennes, sought to
persuade him to resign for his country all pretensions to
the eastern valley of the Mississippi, and with it the right
to the navigation of that stream. Jay was inflexible. On
the sixth, Rayneval sent him a paper containing a long
argument against the pretensions of America to touch the
Mississippi or the great lakes ; and on the next morning,
after an interview with the Spanish ambassador, he set
off for England, to establish a good understanding with
Shelburne.

On the ninth, the departure of Rayneval came to the
knowledge of Jay. On the tenth, a translation of an in-
tercepted despatch from Marbois, the French secretary of
legation at Philadelphia, against conceding a share in the
great fishery to the Americans, was communicated to
Jay and Franklin. Jay was thrown from his equipoise.
Having excited the distrust of Shelburne by peremptorily
breaking off the negotiation, he now, through an English
agent, sent to the British minister, with whom he was
Wholly unacquainted, a personal request that he would for
the present take no measures with Rayneval ; giving as the
reason, that it was the obvious interest of Britain imme-
diately to cut the cords which tied the Americans to France.
Franklin, who had vainly labored with his colleague to finish

1782. UNITED STATES AND BRITAIN AT PEACE. 471

at once the treaty with England, strove as ever before to
defeat all intrigues by hastening its consummation ; and to
this end he urged on the British government a compliance
with the demand of a new commission for Oswald. Lord
Grantham had assured him by letter that "the establish-
ment of an honorable and lasting peace was the system of
the ministers." " I know it to be the sincere desire
of the United States," Franklin replied, on the day sept^ii.
after reading the paper of Marbois ; " and with such
dispositions on both sides there is reason to hope that the
good work in its progress will meet with little difficulty.
A small one has occurred, with which Mr. Oswald will ac-
quaint you. I flatter myself that means will be found on
your part for removing it, and my best endeavors in remov-
ing subsequent ones (if any should arise) may be relied
on;" but Franklin neither criminated France, nor com-
promised himself, nor his country, nor his colleague.

Rayneval passed through London directly to Bow Wood,
the country seat of Shelburne, in the west of England. " I
trust what you say as much as if Mr. de Vergennes himself
were speaking to me," were the words with which he was
welcomed. " Gibraltar," observed Rayneval, " is as dear to
the king of Spain as his life." Shelburne answered : u Its
cession is impossible : I dare not propose it to the British
nation." " Spain wishes to become complete mistress of
the Gulf of Mexico," continued Rayneval. On this point,
Shelburne opened the way for concession, saying: "It is
not by way of Forida that we carry on our contraband
trade, but by way of Jamaica." Shelburne owned reluc-
tantly the necessity of conceding independence to the
United States, but was resolved to concede it without
any reservation. "As to the question of boundaries and
fisheries," observed Rayneval, " I do not doubt of the ear-
nest purpose of the king to do every thing in his power to
restrain the Americans within' the limits of justice and
reason. Be their pretensions to the fisheries what they
may, it seems to me that there is one sure principle to
follow on that subject ; namely, that the fishery on the high
seas is res nuUiu8> the property of no one, and that the

472 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVm

fishery on the coast belongs of right to the proprietaries
of the coasts, unless there have been derogations founded
upon treaties. As to boundaries, the British minister will
find in the negotiations of 1754, relative to the Ohio, the
boundaries which England, then the sovereign of the thir-
teen United States, thought proper to assign them." To
these insinuations, Shelburne, true to his words to Franklin,
made no response.

With regard to the mediation offered by the northern
powers, he said : " We have no need of them : they can know
nothing about our affairs, since it is so hard for us to under-
stand them ourselves ; there is need of but three persons
to make peace, — myself, the Count de Vergennes, and you."
" I shall be as pacific in negotiating as I shall be active for
war, if war must be continued," he added, on the four-
teenth. Rayneval replied : " Count de Vergennes will,
without ceasing, preach justice and moderation. It is his
own code, and it is that of the king." On the fif-
gJJJ^ teenth, they both came up to London, where, on the
sixteenth, Rayneval met Lord Grantham. Nothing
could be more decided than his refusal to treat about Gibral-
tar. On the seventeenth, in bidding farewell to Rayneval,
Shelburne said, in the most serious tone and the most cour-
teous manner : " I have been deeply touched by every thing
you have said to me about the character of the king of
France, his principles of justice and moderation, his love of
peace. J wish, not only to re-establish peace between the
two nations and the two sovereigns, but to bring them to a
cordiality which will constitute their reciprocal happiness.
Not only are they not natural enemies, as men have thought
till now, but they have interests which ought to bring them
nearer together. We have each lost consideration in our
furious desire to do each other harm. Let us change prin-
ciples that are so erroneous. Let us reunite, and we shall
stop all revolutions in Europe." By revolutions he meant
the division of Poland, the encroachments on Turkey, and
the attempt of the court of Vienna to bring Italy under its
control by seizing the fine harbors of Dalmatia.

" There is another object," continued Shelburne, a which

1782. UNITED STATES AND BRITAIN AT PEACE. 473

makes a part of my political views; and that is the de-
struction of monopoly in commerce. I regard that monop-
oly as odious, though the English nation, more than any
other, is tainted with it. I flatter myself I shall be able to
come to an understanding with your court upon this subject,
as well as upon our political amalgamation. I have spoken
to the king on all these points. I have reason to believe
that, when we shall have made peace, the most frank
cordiality will be established between the two princes."
Rayneval reciprocated these views, and added: "Your
principles on trade accord exactly with those of France;
Count de Yergennes thinks that freedom is the soul of
commerce."

The British ministry were so much in earnest in their
desire for peace with the United States that a new com-
mission was drafted for Oswald to conclude a peace or
truce with commissioners of the thirteen United States of
America, which were enumerated one by one. This con-
cession was made after consultation with Lord Ashburton,
who held that it was a matter of indifference whether the
title chosen by the American commissioners should be ac-
cepted by Oswald under the king's authority, or directly
by the king. The acknowledgment of independence was
still reserved to form the first article of the treaty of peace.
The change of form was grateful and honorable to the
United States; but the delay had given time to British
creditors and to the refugees to muster all their strength
and embarrass the negotiation by their importunities. The
king was subdued, and said : " I am so much agitated
with a fear of sacrificing the interests of my country, by
hurrying peace on too fast, that I am unable to add any
thing on that subject but the most frequent prayers to
Heaven to guide me so to act that posterity may not lay
the downfall of this once respectable empire to my door ;
and that, if ruin should attend the measures that may be
adopted, I may not long survive them."

On purely Spanish questions, Jay appears to the 1782,
best advantage. On the twenty-sixth of September, 8ept#
Aranda, in company with Lafayette, encountered him at

474 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVm

Versailles. Aranda asked : " When shall we proceed to do
business ? " Jay replied : u When you communicate your
powers to treat." "An exchange of commissions," said
Aranda, " cannot be expected, for Spain has not acknowl-
edged your independence." "We have declared our inde-
pendence," said Jay; uand France, Holland, and Britain
have acknowledged it." Lafayette came to his aid, and told
the ambassador that it was not consistent with the dignity
of France that an ally of hers like the United States
1782. should treat otherwise than as independent. Ver-
gennes pressed upon Jay a settlement of claims with
Spain. Jay answered : " We shall be content with no bound-
aries short of the Mississippi."

So soon as Oswald received his new commission, the
negotiation, after the loss of a month, moved forward easily
and rapidly. At the request of Franklin, Jay drew up the
articles of peace. They included the clauses relating to
boundaries and fisheries, which Franklin had settled with
Oswald in July ; to these, Jay added a clause for reciprocal
freedom of commerce, which was equally grateful to Frank-
lin and Oswald, and a concession to the British of the
free navigation of the Mississippi. He repeatedly insisted
with Oswald that West Florida should not be left in the
hands of the Spaniards, but should be restored to Eng-
land; and he pleaded "in favor of the future commerce
of England, as if he had been of her council, and wished
to make some reparation for her loss," not duly consider-
ing the dangers threatening the United States, if England
should hold both East and West Florida and the Bahama
Islands.

Shelburne had hoped to make a distinction between the
jurisdiction over the western country and property in its
ungranted domain, so that the sales of wild lands might
yield some compensation to the loyal refugees ; but Jay
insisted that no such right of property remained to the
king. Oswald urged upon him the restoration of the loy-
alists to their civil rights ; but Jay answered that the sub-
ject of pardon was one with which "congress could not
meddle. The states being sovereigns, the parties in fault

1782. UNITED STATES AND BRITAIN AT PEACE. 475

were answerable to them, and to them only." Oswald
yielded on both points.

On sending over the draft of the treaty to the secre-
tary of state, the British plenipotentiary wrote: "I look
npon the treaty as now closed." Both Franklin and Jay
had agreed that, if it should be approved, they would sign
it immediately. Towards the French minister, they con-
tinned their reserve, not even communicating to him the
new commission of Oswald.1

After the capture of Minorca by the Duke de Crillon, the
French and Spanish fleets united under his command to re-
duce Gibraltar ; and Count d'Artois, the brother of the king,
passed through Madrid to be present at its surrender. But
danger inspired the British garrison with an unconquerable
intrepidity. By showers of red-hot shot, and by a most
heroic sortie under General Elliot, the batteries which were
thought to be fire-proof were blown up or consumed, and a
fleet under Lord Howe was close at hand to replenish the
stores of the fortress. The news of the catastrophe made
Paris clamorous for peace. France, it was said, is engaged
in a useless war for thankless allies. She has suffered dis-
grace in the West Indies while undertaking to conquer
Jamaica for Spain, and now shares in the defeat before
Gibraltar. Vergennes saw that she needed and demanded
repose. To obtain a release from his engagement to Spain,
he was ready to make great sacrifices on the part of his
own country, and to require them of America. Congress
was meanwhile instructing Franklin " to use his utmost
endeavors to effect the loan of four millions of dollars
through the kind and generous exertions of the king rra.
of Franoe ;" and on the third of October it renewed ^ 8-

1 On m'a assure* que les negotiations sur le fond e*taient entamees et
que le plenipotentiaire anglais e'tait assez content. Mais je snis dans
l'impossibilite' de rien yous dire de positif et de certain & cet £gard,
Messrs. Jay et Franklin se tenant dans la reserve la plus absolue a mon
e"gard. Hs ne m'ont m£me pas encore remis copie du plein pouvoir de
Mr. Oswald Je pense, Monsieur, qu'il sera utile que yous disiez cette
particularity a Mr. Livingston, afln qull puisse s'il le juge a propos rame-
ner les deux pllnipotentiaires americains a la teneur de leurs instructions.
Vergenres to Luzerne, 14 Oct., 1782. For the instructions, see abore,
876, 377

476 ' THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap LVHL

its resolution to hearken to do propositions for peace
except in confidence and in concert with its ally.
1782. On the fourteenth of the same month, Yergennes
0ct 14" explained to the French envoy at Philadelphia the
policy of France : " If we are so happy as to make peace, the
king mast then cease to subsidize the American army, which
will be as useless as it has been habitually inactive. We are
astonished at the demands which continue to be made upon
us, while the Americans obstinately refuse the payment of
taxes. It seems to us much more natural for them to raise
upon themselves, rather than upon the subjects of the king,
the funds which the defence of their cause exacts." " You
know," continued Vergennes, " our system with regard to
Canada. Every thing which shall prevent the conquest of
that country will agree essentially with our views. But this
way of thinking ought to be an impenetrable secret for the
Americans. Moreover, I do not see by what title the
Americans can form pretensions to lands on Lake Ontario.
Those lands belong to the savages or are a dependency of
Canada. In either case, the United States have no right to
them whatever. It has been pretty nearly demonstrated
that to the south of the Ohio their limits are the mountains
following the shed of the waters, and that every thing to the
north of the mountain range, especially the lakes, formerly
made a part of Canada. These notions are for you alone ;
you will take care not to appear to be informed about them,
because we so much the less wish to intervene in the dis-
cussions between the Count de Aranda and Mr. Jay, as both
parties claim countries to which neither of them has a right,
and as it will be almost impossible to reconcile them."

When the draft of the treaty with the United States, as
agreed to by Oswald, came back to England, the offer of Jay
of the free navigation of the Mississippi was gladly accepted ;
bat that for a reciprocity of navigation and commerce was
reserved. The great features of the treaty were left un-
changed ; but the cabinet complained of Oswald for yielding
every thing, and gave him for an assistant Henry Strachey,
Townshend's under-secretary of state. On the twentieth of
October, both of the secretaries of state being present, Shel

1782. UNITED STATES AND BRITAIN AT PEACE. 477

burne gave Strachey three points specially in charge : no
concession of a right to dry fish on Newfoundland ; a recog-
nition of the validity of debts to British subjects contracted
by citizens of the United States before the war ; but, above
all, adequate indemnity for the confiscated property of the
loyal refugees. This last demand touched alike the sym-
pathy and the sense of honor of England. The previous
answer that the commissioners had no power to treat on the
business of the loyalists was regarded as an allegation that,
though they claimed to have full powers, they were not
plenipotentiaries ; that they were acting under thirteen sep-
arate sovereignties, which had no common head. To meet
the exigence, Shelburne proposed either an extension of
Nova Scotia to the Penobscot or the Kennebec or the Saco,
bo that a province might be formed for the reception of the
loyalists ; or that a part of the money to be received from
sales of the Ohio lands might be applied to their subsistence.
To the ministry, it was clear that peace, if to be made at all,
must be made before the coming together of parliament,
which had been summoned for the twentv-fif th of November.

ar

While the under-secretary of state was sent to re- ng2.
enforce Oswald, the American commission was re- 0ct#
cruited by the arrival of John Adams. He had prevailed on
the United Provinces to acknowledge the independence of
the United States, and to form with them .a treaty of com-
merce. He was greatly elated at his extraordinary success,
and he loved to have it acknowledged ; but flattery never
turned him aside from public duty, for he looked upon the
highest praise as no more than his due, and as investing him
with new rights to stand up fearlessly for his country. He left
Vergennes to find out his arrival through the police. Frank-
lin had hitherto warded off the demand that the treaty of
peace should guarantee to English merchants the right to
collect debts that had been due to them in the United States,
because the British armies had themselves in many cases
robbed the merchants of the very goods for which the debts
were incurred ; and had, wantonly and contrary to the laws
of war, destroyed the property which could have furnished
the means of payment. The day after Strachey's arrival in

478 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVm.

Paris, Adams, encountering him and Oswald at the house of
Jay, to their surprise and delight blurted out his assent to
the proposed stipulation for the payment of debts. In the
evening of the same day, Adams called for the first time on
Franklin, who at once put him on his guard as to the Brit-
ish demands relating to debts and compensation of tories ;
but he could not recall his word.

On the thirtieth, the American commissioners met Oswald
and Strachey, and for four several days they discussed
the unsettled points of the treaty. Jay and Franklin had
left the north-eastern boundary to be settled by commission-
ers after the war. It is due to John Adams, who had taken
the precaution to obtain from the council of Massachusetts
authenticated popies of every document relating to the
question, that it was definitively established in the treaty
itself. On the north-west, it was agreed that the line should
be drawn through the centre of the water communications
of the great lakes to the Lake of the Woods. The
2ft^' British commissioners denied to the Americans the
right of drying fish on Newfoundland. This was,
after a great deal of conversation, agreed to by John Adams
as well as his colleagues, upon condition that the American
fishermen should be allowed to dry their fish on any unsettled
parts of the coast of Nova Scotia. Franklin said further :
" I observe as to catching fish you mention only the banks
of Newfoundland. Why not all other places, and among
others the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? Are you afraid there
is not fish enough, or that we should catch too many, at
the same time that you know that we shall bring the great-
est part of the money we get for that fish to Great Britain
to pay for your manufactures?" And this advice was
imbodied in the new article on the fisheries.

On the fourth of November, Adams and Jay defini-
tively overruled the objections of Franklin to the
recognition by treaty of the validity of debts contracted
before the war. Pluming himself exceedingly on having
gained this concession, Strachey wrote to the secretary of
state that Jay and Adams would likewise assent to the
indemnification of the refugees rather than break off the

1782. UNITED STATES AND BRITAIN AT PEACE. 479

treaty upon such a point. On the other hand, Franklin,
in reply to a letter which he had received from the sec-
retary, Townshend, gave an earnest warning : " I am sensi-
ble you have ever been averse to the measures that brought
on this unhappy war ; I have, therefore, no doubt of the
sincerity of your wishes for a return of peace. Mine are
equally earnest. Nothing, therefore, except the beginning
of the war, has given me more concern than to learn at
the conclusion of our conferences that it is not likely to
be soon ended. Be assured no endeavors' on my part
would be wanting to remove any difficulties that may have
arisen, or, even if a peace were made, to procure after-
wards any changes in the treaty that might tend to render
it more perfect and the peace more durable ; " and then,
having in his mind the case of the refugees, he deprecated
any instructions to the British negotiators that would in-
volve an irreconcilable conflict with those of America.
At the same time, he persuaded Adams and Jay to join
with him in letters to Oswald and to Strachey,
expressing in conciliatory language their unanimous 1782.
sentiments that an amnesty more extensive than
what had already been agreed to could not be granted to
the refugees.

Before Strachey reached London with the second set of
articles for peace, the friends of Fox had forgotten their
zeal for American independence. All parties unanimously
demanded amnesty and indemnity for the loyalists. Within
the cabinet itself, Camden and Grafton were ill at ease;
Keppell and Richmond inclining to cut loose. The king
could not avoid mentioning " how sensibly he felt the dis-
memberment of America from the empire : " "I should
be miserable indeed," said he, "if I did not feel that no
blame on that account can be laid at my door." Moreover,
he thought so ill of its inhabitants that " it may not," he
said, " in the end be an evil that they will become aliens to
this kingdom."

In the general tremulousness among the ministers, Towns-
hend and William Pitt remained true to Shelburne ; and
a third set of articles was prepared, to which these three

480 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap.LVIIL

alone gave their approval. There was no cavilling about
boundaries. All the British posts on the Penobscot, at
New York and in Carolina, at Niagara and at Detroit,
were to be given up to the United States, and the coun-
try east of the Mississippi and north of Florida was
acknowledged to be. theirs. The article on the fishery
contained arbitrary restrictions copied from former treaties
with France ; so that the Americans were not to take fish
within fifteen leagues of Cape Breton, or within three
leagues of any other British isle on the coast in America.
Not only indemnity for the estates of the refugees, but for
the proprietary rights and properties of the Penns and
of the heirs of Lord Baltimore, was to be demanded. " If
they insist in the plea of the want of power to treat of

these subjects," said Townshend, " you will intimate
No^ia. to tnern iQ a proper manner that they are driving

us to a necessity of applying directly to those who
are allowed to have the power."

" If the American commissioners think that they will
gain by the whole coming before parliament, I do not
imagine that the refugees will have any objections " added
Shelburne. Fitzherbert, the British minister in Paris, was
instructed to take part in the American negotiations ;
and, with his approval and that of Strachey, Oswald was
empowered to sign a treaty. Authority was given to
Fitzherbert to invoke the influence of France to bend the
Americans. Vergennes had especially pleaded with them
strongly in favor of the refugees. In the hope of a settle-
ment, parliament was prorogued to the fifth of December.
On the same day on which the final instructions to Oswald

were written, Vergennes declared in a letter to Lu-
Nov. 23. zerne: "There exists in our treaties no condition

which obliges the king to prolong the war in order
to sustain the ambitious pretensions which the United
States may form in reference to the fishery or the extent
of boundaries." l " In spite of all the cajoleries which the

1 Elle a donne* occasion a la plupart des d£l£gue*s de s'expliquer d'une
maniere decente et convenable but leur fidelity a l'alliance et sur leur
attachement a en remplir toutes lea conditions. Le Boi ne sera pas moins

1782. UNITED STATES AND BRITAIN AT PEACE. 481

English ministers lavish on the Americans, I do not prom-
ise myself they will show themselves ready to yield either
in regard to the fisheries, or in regard to the boundaries
as the American commissioners understand them. This
last subject may be arranged by mutual sacrifices and
compensations. But as to the first, in order to form a
settled judgment on its probable issue, it would be neces-
sary to know what the Americans understand by the fishery.
If it is the drift fishery on banks remote from the coast, it
seems to me a natural right ; but, if they pretend to the
fisheries as they exercised them by the title of English sub-
jects, do they, in the name of justice, think to obtain
rights attached to the condition of subjects which they
renounce ? " France would not prolong the war to secure
to the Americans the back lands and the fisheries ; the
Americans were still less bound to continue the war to
obtain Gibraltar for Spain.

Early in the morning of the twenty-fifth, the king was
urging Shelburne to confide to Vergennes his " ideas con-
cerning America," saying, " France must wish to assist us
in keeping the Americans from a concurrent fishery, which
the looseness of the article with that people as now drawn
up gives but too much room to apprehend." Be-
fore Shelburne could have received the admonition, ^ovfls.
Adams, Franklin, and Jay met Oswald and Strachey
at Oswald's lodgings. Strachey opened the parley by an
elaborate speech, in which he explained the changes in the
article on the fisheries, and that "the restitution of the
property of the loyalists was the grand point upon which a
final settlement depended. If the treaty should break off,
the whole business must go loose, and take its chance in
parliament." Jay wished to know if Oswald could now
conclude the treaty ; and Strachey answered that he could,
absolutely. Jay desired to know if the propositions he had

exact a les tenir de son cdte*, mats il n'en existe aucune dans nos traites
qui 1' oblige a prolonger la guerre pour soutenir les pretentions ambiti-
euses que les Etats-Unis peuvent former, soit par rapport a la pgche, soit
par rapport a lMtendue des limites." Vergennes to Luzerne, 28 Nov.,
1782.

VOL. VI. 81

482 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap-LVHI

brought were an ultimatum. Strachey seemed loath to
answer^ but at last said " no." That day, and the three fol-
lowing ones, the discussion was continued.
ng2. On the twenty-ninth, Strachey, Oswald, and Fitz-
Nov. 29. herDert on the one side, and Jay, Franklin, Adams,
and, for the first time, Laurens on the other, came together
for their last word, at the apartments of Jay. The Ameri-
can commissioners agreed that there should be no future
confiscations nor prosecutions of loyalists ; that all pending
prosecutions should be discontinued; and that congress
should recommend to the. several states and their legisla-
tures, on behalf of the refugees, amnesty and the restitution
of their confiscated property. Strachey thought this article
better than any of the modifications proposed in England,
and congratulated himself on his triumph. The question of
the fisheries more nearly concerned Oswald. Against the
British draft, John Adams spoke with the more effect as it
rested not on the principle of the law of nations, but created
an arbitrary restriction ; and, with the support of every one
of his colleagues, he declared he would not set his hand to
the treaty unless the limitations were stricken out. After
long altercations, the article was reduced to the form in
which it appears in the treaty, granting to the United
States equal rights with British fishermen to take fish on
the coast of Newfoundland, and on the coasts, bays, and
creeks of all other British dominions in America.

At this stage, Strachey and Fitzherbert gave the opinion
that it would be necessary to consult the government at
home. " We can wait," answered Adams, " till a courier
goes to London." The reference " would have carried the
whole matter into parliament, and so would have been fatal
to the treaty. Franklin saw the danger, and interposed:
" If any further delay should be made, the clause insuring
to the subjects of Great Britain the right of recovering their
debts in the United States must also be reconsidered." But
on this article Strachey prided himself as his greatest suc-
cess; and, rather than expose it to risk, he joined with
Oswald. Fitzherbert, now left alone, reflected that peace
with the United States would be the best means of forcing

1782 UNITED STATES AND BRITAIN AT PEACE. 483

France and Spain to declare their ultimatum ; and he, too,
gave his consent.

Thus far, no word in the convention had, except indi-
rectly, alluded to the existence of slavery in the
United States. On the thirtieth, at the demand of No??ao
Laurens, in the engrossed copies of the convention
a clause was interlined, prohibiting, on the British evacua-
tion, the "carrying away any negroes or other property of
the inhabitants." So the instrument, which already con-
tained a confession that the United States were not formed
into one nation, made known that in their confederacy man
could be held as a chattel; but, as interpreted alike in
America and England, it included free negroes among their
citizens. By a separate article, the line of north boundary
between West Florida and the United States had been
concerted, in case Great Britain at the conclusion of the
war should recover that province. Out of respect to the
alliance between the United States and France, the treaty
was not to be concluded, until terms of peace should have
been agreed upon between Great Britain and France. "With
this reservation, the articles which were to be inserted in
and to constitute the treaty of peace between the United
States of America and Great Britain were signed and sealed
by the commissioners of both countries. In the hope of
preventing the possibility of future dispute, the boundaries
were marked interchangeably by a strong line on copies of
the map of America by Mitchell.

Friends of Franklin gathered around him; and as the
Duke de la Rochefoucauld kissed him for joy, " My friend,"
said Franklin, " could I have hoped at such an age to have
enjoyed so great happiness ? " The treaty was not a com-
promise, nor a compact imposed by force, but a free and per-
fect solution and perpetual settlement of all that had been
called in question. By doing an act of justice to her former
colonies, England rescued her own liberties at home from im-
minent danger, and opened the way for their slow but certain
development. The narrowly selfish colonial policy which had
led to the cruel and unnatural war was cast aside and for
ever by Great Britain, which was henceforward as the great

484 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Chap. LVH1

colonizing power to sow all the oceans with the seed of re-
publics. For the United States, the war, which began

by an encounter with a few husbandmen embattled
1782. on Lexington green, ended with their independence,

and possession of all the country from the St. Croix
to the south-western Mississippi, from the Lake of the
Woods to the St. Mary's. In time past, republics had been
confined to cities and their dependencies, or to small can-
tons; and the United States avowed themselves able to
fill a continental territory with commonwealths. They pos-
sessed beyond any other portion of the world the great
ideas of their age, and enjoyed the practice of them by
individual man in uncontrolled faith and industry, thought
and action For other communities, institutions had been
built up by capitulations and grants from authoritative
power; the United States of America could shape their
coming relations wisely only through the widest and most
energetic exercise of the right inherent in humanity to de-
liberation, choice, and assent. While the constitutions of
their separate members, resting on the principle of self-
direction, were, in most respects, the best in the world,
they had no general government ; and, as they went forth
upon untried paths, the routine statesmen of Europe looked
to see the confederacy fly into fragments, or lapse into
helpless anarchy. But, notwithstanding the want of a gov-
ernment, their solemn pledge to one another of mutual
citizenship and perpetual union made them one people;
and that people was superior to its institutions, possessing
the vital force which goes before organization, and gives
to it strength and form. Yet for success the liberty of
the individual must know how to set to itself bounds;
and the states, displaying the highest quality of great-
ness, must learn to temper their separate rule by their
own moderation.

INDEX.

INDEX.

A ben axis, an Indian tribe in Maine,
no general rising of, In Philip's war,
i. 465; solicit missionaries, ii. 311; a
village of, collected on the Penobscot.
336; turned by missionaries toward
the French, 337; make treaty with
English, but, urged by Jesuits, break
it, and ravage Maine and New Hamp-
shire, 353; again violate a treaty
with English, 373 ; leave their name
to Penobscots, Androscoggins, and the
tribe which settled at Norridgewock,
395

Abercrombie, General, second in com-
mand to Loudoun in America, ill. 155;
goes to Albany, and billets his troops
on town, 156; commander of expedi-
tion against Ticonderoga and Crown
Point, iii. 193; during battle of Ticon-
deroga, cowers safely in the rear, 200 ;
hurries army to the boats, 201; super-
seded in command by Amherst, is
screened from censure, and maligns
America in parliament, 203.

Abington, Mass., people of, convinced
that the connection with Great Britain
is " not worth a rush." iv. 265.

Acadia, conquered by English fleet, origi-
nally sent against New Netherland,
i. 359 ; restored to the French, 432 ; sur-
renders to expedition under Nichol-
son; vain effort* of the French to
regain it, ii. 378. 379; by ancient boun-
daries, belonged to Great Britain ; but
France claims that it included only
the peninsula, and maintains her claim
to all land east of Kennebec, iii. 22;
oldest French colony in North Amer-
ica, established sixteen years before
the pilgrims reached New England,
127; by treaty of Utrecht, conceded to
Great Britain, 127.

Acadians, had taken, in 1730, an oath of
fidelity to English king, iii. 31; oath
of allegiance offered them, and no al-
ternative given save confiscation of
property, 32; ordered to renounce
English protection, and take refuge
with French, 45 ; people promised sub-
mission to England, but would not
fight against France, 127; for forty
years after peace of Utrecht, pros-

per in seclusion and peace, 127, 128:
their pastoral life, 128 ; priests, alarmed
by English colonization of Nova Sco-
tia, warned people not to swear allo-
g'ance to British government, 128;
nglish treatment of them haughty
and cruel, 128; robbed ofproperty and
rights, 129; Governor Lawrence, of
Nova Scotia, proposes to remove them,
and board or trade guardedly approves
it, 131; France's request that they
might remove their effects refused,
131; Lawrence's severe treatment of
Minas memorialists, 131, 132; Chief-
Justice Belcher pronounces them reb-
els, and advises against administering
the oath to them, 132; banished and
transported, 133-135; seven thousand
scattered among British colonies, des-
titute and helpless, 134; their homes
laid waste, 135.

Acland, in house of commons, in moving
king's address, reduces the question at
issue to brief compass, v. 101.

"Actseon," a frigate of Sir Peter Parker's
fleet, aground in Charleston harbor,
set on fire by her crew; boarded by
men from Fort Moultrie, and stripped
of stores; blown up, v. 283.

Act, an, granting duties in the colonies,
passed by parliament and approved by
the king, iii. 414.

Act for better regulating the province of
the Massachusetts Bay, a copy of, re-
ceived by Gage; its principle the con-
centration of executive power in the
hands of the royal governor; takes
away rights of Massachusetts from the
foundation of the colony, and renewed
in the charter of William and Mary,
iv. 368 ; the important changes effected
by the new act, 369; complicates the
question between America and Great
Britain, 370; precipitates choice be-
tween submission and resistance, 370.

Acton, Mass., April 19, 1775, the sum-
mons to arms runs through; the rising
of patriots, iv. 518.

Adair, in house of commons, asks that
what the Americans demand be con-
ceded to them, v. 101.

Adams, John, a schoolmaster at Worces-

488

INDEX.

tor, his dreams, ill. 142, 143 : his vision
of the future greatness of America,
439; shows, through the press, that es-
tablishment of popular power is inevi-
table, 501, 503; leads Bralutree. Mass.,
to declare against extension of power
of courts of admiralty, 505; joins with
Gridley and Otis to sustain their me-
morial to governor for opening the
courts ; his argument, 533 ; retires from
public service, and devotes himself to
his profession, iv. 224; elected to coun-
cil, but negatived by Hutchinson ; de-
nounces the latter and Oliver as cool,
deliberate villains, 263; suddenly re-
turns to public life as representative
to general congress ; his famous patri-
otic declaration, 344, 345; offers com-
promise submitting to navigation acts,
401, 402; replying to Daniel Leonard,
vindicates the true sentiments of New
England, 473-477 ; explains in congress
composition of the New England army,
and urges appointment of Washington
as generalissimo, 590 ; says bis appoint-
ment will tend to cement union of the
colonies, 600 ; incensed at hesitation of
so many members of congress, which
body, he urges, should form constitu-
tion for a great empire, provide for
its defence, and thus await the king;
his letters intercepted, and published
by royalists to cast obloquy on his
name, v. 25; his intercepted letters
bring upon him hostility of proprie-
tary party, and of some southern dele-
gates, 64; favors creating a navy, 67;
studying the problem of system best
suited to the colonies, looks for essen-
tial elements of government behind
its forms ; a legislative, an executive,
and a judicial government, compre-
hends all he means by government, 86,
87 ; advises Massachusetts not to peti-
tion congress for leave to choose a gov-
ernor, but is zealous for hostilities, if
New York will join New England, 162 ;
a rebel against Calvinism; his toler-
ance, foresight, and courage ; esteemed
the ablest debater in congress, 208,
209 ; writes to his wife that great events
are at hand, and an end to royal styles,
titles, and authority, 220; his medita-
tions on the passage of the pream-
ble in congress, 251, 252 ; sees no need
of a continental constitution, only a
congress of colonies with prescribed
powers, 253 ; urges liberal education of
youth and instruction in arms, 253;
after declaration of independence, re-
views events of fifteen years. 320, 321 ;
his querulous criticism of the army;
does not sympathize with, or under-
stand, Washington, 368 ; says of Lord
Howe's offer, "The panic may seize
whom it will, it shall not seize me ; "
a member or committee to see Lord
Howe, 394 ; though warned that Ameri-
can army would disband, absents him-
self from his post, 439; describes Sam-

uel Adams as exceeded by no man In

congress for depth of purpose, zeal, and
sagacity, 467; arrogant speech about
Washington, 498, 499; scolds about
Washington's inactivity, and boasts of
strength of his force, 593 ; blames Wash-
ington for crossing to eastern side of
the Schuylkill, 601; sneers at Wash-
ington, vi. 21; votes to curtail his
powers, 22 ; though a member of com-
mission to France, approves its dis-
continuance, and the appointment of
Franklin as sole envoy, 165; chosen to
negotiate the treaty of peace, and a
commercial treaty with Great Britain,
205; approves declaration of rights of
neutrals, 249; so far principal agent in
drafting; constitution of Massachusetts
that it Is reputed to be his work, 310:
thinks that a single assembly is equal
to conduct the federal concerns of the
American people, 342, 343; in Paris
objects to keeping secret the object of
his mission; insists that all creditors
of United States must share loss from
depreciation of paper money ; advises
king of France on conduct of the war,
ana in court contends for right of pop-
ular government ; correspondence with
him broken off by Vergennes; gains
ground in congress by his steadiness,
368, 369 ; will attend Vienna peace con-
gress only as plenipotentiary of an
independent state, 374 ; approves choice
of new peace commissioners, and says
his talent is for making war, 378 ; pre-
sents himself to president of states-
Seneral of Unitea Provinces, and to
eputies of several cities of Holland,
demanding a categorical answer to
transmit to his sovereign ; is an object
of attention in Europe, but his success
doubted, 432, 433 : is received as envoy,
and finds himself at home in a strong-
hold of Protestantism and liberty, 433;
doubts Shelburne's sincerity, and is
willing to wait till England Is ripe for
peace, 440 ; wonders whether there can
be real peace with Canada and Nova
Scotia in hands of England, 442; joins
American peace commissioners; in-
duces United Provinces to acknowl-
edge independence of United States,
and to make a treaty of commerce,
477; meeting Strachey and Oswald,
abruptly assents to stipulation in
treaty giving right to English mer-
chants to collect debts in America;
settlement of. north-eastern boundary

Question in the treaty, due to him, 478.
ams, Samuel, his character and opin-
ions, his influence over the popular
mind, — the last of the Puritans; his
assertion of Boston's rights and priv-
ileges, ill. 420 ; representative from
Boston, 506: writes opinion of Mas-
sachusetts legislature on rights of
parliament over the colonies, 517 : in-
structs De Berdt to oppose establish-
ment of military force in America, iv.

INDEX

489

26; hiii ruling desire to preserve dis-
tinctive character of New England:
the house adopts his views, and
■ends them to British ministry, 70;
advises repeal of revenue law and re-
moval of Gov. Bernard, 87 ; convinced
that independence was a necessity;
his arguments with the people, 109,
110; evidence against him by Bernard,
Oliver, and Hutchinson, in order to
effect his transportation to England
for trial, 142 ; on breach of non-impor-
tation agreement by Hutchinson's sons,
calls on all citizens to maintain it,
184 ; heads committee to consult coun-
cil on massacre by British troops, 191,
192 ; cannot conceive of prudence with-
out fortitude, 224 ; writes reply of house
to governor's veto of tax-bill. 226; and
instructions to agent in England, 226 ;
pronounced an incendiary by Hutch-
inson, 226 ; dwells on the idea of cor-
respondence and union among friends
of liberty, 227 ; a futile attempt to
defeat his election as representative,
236 ; his proposition to organize revo-
lution through committees of corre-
spondence disapproved, 240 ; moves to
appoint committee of correspondence
looking to general confederacy against
parliament, 242 ; predicts that contest
will end in rivers of blood, 261 ; ad-
vises Rhode Island to make delay,
without concession, and to ask other
colonies for support, 261; a congress
on Virginia's plan his fixed purpose,
266 ; conciliates the judgment of Haw-
ley in favor of union, 267, 268 ; pre-
pares last instructions of Massachu-
setts for Franklin, saying that colonies
wish for nothing more man a perma-
nent union with mother country on
condition of equal liberty, 294 ; marked
by British ministry for sacrifice as
chief of revolution : esteemed in Eng-
land the first politician in the world,
302; his prayer for the American peo-
ple, 302 ; illustrates true greatness,
340; his coup d'itat to fix meeting
of general congress, 343; delegate to
congress, 344 ; concerts measures by
which wrongs of the province might
best be brought before that body, 379 ;
his theological tolerance, 395, 396; rec-
ognizes the favor of the Supreme Being
in sympathy shown to Boston, 487; on
hearing news of fight at Lexington,
cries, '7Oh, what a glorious morning is
this!" 622; his comments on king's
speech, v. 161 ; opposes appointment of
committee of congress to explain its
position as to independence, and fail-
lug, seeks Franklin, the two agreeing
that a confederation must be brought
on, even if some colonies hold back:
promises to try to unite New England
colonies in confederating, 161, 162 ; ridi-
cules the desire of some members to
wait for British commissioners, say-
ing, "Is not America already inde-

pendent? why not, then, declaie it? "
220; says that Lord Howe comes with
terms disgraceful to human nature,
342 ; first, after president, to sign
declaration, 356 ; earnest for assuring
foreign courts that independence will
be maintained, 486, 486 ; insists on
having in United States Canada,
Nova Scotia, Florida, and the fishery
"by our arms or treaty," vi. 173; fa-
vors acquisition of Nova Scotia to offset
relative growth of the south, and is
always in Gerard's way, 300.

Administration of American colonies,
always a dividing question in English
politics, i. 378 ; a change in, ensues on
Restoration, 378.

Admiralty court, in Massachusetts, vio-
lates statutes ft was appointed to en-
force; always deemed grievous, be-
cause unconstitutional; its authority
established by judges devoted to pre-
rogative, iii. 277.

Adventurers, settle beyond the Alata-
maha, and hold country as far as St.
Mary's, in defiance of South Carolina
and Spaniards at St. Augustine, iii.
160; foreign, in American army, some
engaged By Deane in Paris; having
been deceived in these, congress re-

Suires, in candidates, knowledge of
Inglish and good credentials, v. 566.

Africa, regular and innocent trade with,
by England, in 1653, i. 67.

Agamenticus, a small settlement in
Maine, made a chartered borough,
i. 347.

Agents of colonies wait on Grenville to
remonstrate against taxation by par-
liament, and to ask that they might be
permitted to tax themselves; conver-
sation between Grenville and Frank-
lin, 440, 441; their efforts to defeat the
stamp act fruitless, 461 ; solicit relief
from stamp act of Cumberland's min-
istry, but in vain, 490.

Agents of Virginia in England. — Fran-
cis Moryson, Thomas Ludwell, Robert
Smith, — to protest against royal grant
to Lord Culpepper,!. 539; secure to
Virginia the rights of independent
legislation, 540; aided by Lord Cov-
entry and Jones and Winnington, 640,
641.

Aggrandizement, territorial, its influ-
ence on commerce, ii. 291.

Agriculture, in Maine, delay in prose-
cuting, i. 262, 263.

AhasistarL a Huron convert, escort of
Jogues, is captured by Mohawks, and
killed, ii. 309.

Aid asked by Sharp, British com-
mander in chief, from colonies; New
Hampshire opposes king's prerogative;
Rhode Island gives little reason for
hope; New York would contribute to

feneral fund only when others did; in
'ennsylvania, Maryland, and South
Carolina, grants vetoed, iii. 114; for
Boston, South Carolina makes first

490

INDEX.

?itt of rice; Wilmington, N.C., gives
wo thousand pounds currency; Par-
ker Quince, of that town, oners his
vessel to carry freight to Boston free:
Windham, Conn., sends two hundred
and fifty-eight sheep; Norwich, two
hundred and ninety-one; Hartford,
first place in Connecticut to pledge its
assistance : all New England and Que-
bec make liberal gifts; southern colo-
nies contribute, 350, 351.

Alabama, first settlement of Europeans
in; the chief French fort transferred
from Biloxi to western bank of Mobile
Elver, ii. 367.

Alarcon, Pedro de. an officer under Co-
ronado, i. 33; discovers the Colorado
of the west, 34; ascertains that Lower
California is not an island j killed by
accident, 35.

Albania, once the name of East New
Jersey, ii. 71.

Albany, Scottish title of Duke of York,
name given to Fort Orange, ii. 69.

" Albany," British ship-of-war, captures
French brizantine, and takes her to
Halifax, where she is condemned ;
indignation of the French in conse-
quence, ill. 48.

Albemarle, named for General Monk, i.
488 ; colony there not included in first
patent of Carolina ; but Berkeley, gov-
ernor of Virginia, and joint proprie-
tary of Carolina, severs it from former,
and establishes a government over it,
488 ; receives immigrants from New
England and Bermudas, 498; content
of colonists, 498 ; laws of, 499 ; new
constitution of Locke received and re-
jected, 499; welcomes the messengers
of religion, 499. 500 ; George Fox's visit
and ministrations, 500; its little trade
envied by English merchants, and tax

' levied on all exports to New England,
503, 504; enforcement of navigation
acts provokes insurrection ; people
overthrow government, and form a
new one, 504, 505.

Albemarle county, Va., freeholders of
anticipate Jefferson in opinion that

1>arliament cannot rightfully make
aws for America, iv. 378.

Albemarle, Earl of, governor of Virginia,
ordered by George II. to grant lands
west of mountains between Roanoke
and Mississippi Rivers, iii. 109 ; com-
mands expedition against Havana,
292.

Albemarle Sound, first settlements on
from overflowings from Virginia, i. 487.

Alexander, James, of New York, thinks
parliament should fix duties for a colo-
nial revenue, which the future Ameri-
can grand council should have no
power to diminish, iii. 75.

Alexander, Sir William, seconds Gorges's

Slan to put frontier of Maine under
cottish guardianship, i. 259, 260; ob-
tains patent for all territory east of
the St. Croix and south of the St.

Lawrence, called Nova Scotia, 200;
sells titles, and abandons idea of col-
onization, 261.

Alexander, William, Earl of Stirling,
though a member of royal coundL be-
came colonel of the battalion of East
New Jersey, v. 36, 37.

Algonkin, primitive and most general
language of American Indians, in use
from Cape Fear to land of Esquimaux,
ii. 394 ; tribes of Algonkin family, about
one half of original population of ter-
ritory east of the Mississippi and south
of the St. Lawrence, 399.

Algonkins, an Indian tribe in Canada,
visited by Raymbault and Piiart, iL
306; their "festival of the dead," 307.

AUeghanies, the, an intrepid population
pours through gates of, to settle in the
west, iv. 292.

Allen, Ethan, engages to Oliver Wolcott,
of Connecticut, that the regiment of
Green Mountain Boys would assist
their American brethren, iv. 503 ; com-
mander of expedition against Ticon-
deroga, his address to his troops, iv.
554, 555 ; his summons to commander
of Ticonderoga, 555 ; attempts to cap-
ture St. John's, but is compelled to
retire; his boast to congress, 574; sent
by Montgomery to Chambly to raise
a corps of Canadians ; resolves to sur-
prise Montreal, and crosses from Lon-
gueil to Long Point ; fails to meet
Brown, cannot retreat, and is cap-
tured after a brave defence; is threat-
ened by a British officer and heavily
ironed, is put on board ship and sent
to Pendennis Castle, in England, v.
118, 119.

Alliances against Frederic of Prussia
completed, ill. 184; motives of hostile
states, 184.

Allied armies, joy in ; the love of free-
dom possessing all. vi. 422; march to
invest Torktown, driving every thing
British before them. 426.

Allouez, Father Claude, starts on a mis-
sion to the far west; his route to the
Chippewa village in the Bay of Che-
goimegon, ii. 323 ; instructs Chippe-
was, Hurons, Ottawas, «&c, and learns
from Illinois of their great river, 324;
returns to Quebec for aid, and again
repairs to Chegoimegon, 325; estab-
lishes new mission at Green Bay, 326;
with Dablon bears the cross through
Eastern Wisconsin, 328 ; dies among
the Miamis, 360.

Alphabet, no, in America, prior to ar-
rival of Europeans, ii. 409.

Alternative offered to king and minis-
try; on the one hand. Massachusetts
asks relief from taxation without rep-
resentation, and urges other colonies
to join in petition to that end: on the
other, crown officers call for a fleet and
troops, 75.

Amboy, N.J., a British brigade and
other troops brought from Rhode

INDEX

491

Island to; Howe visits Cornwall!*,
and Washington expects an imme-
diate march on Philadelphia, v. 563.

America, first treaty relating to, between
Spain and England, its provisions, i.
523; fortunes of, affected by every
great European event, ii. 18; strife in,
between England and France, for colo-
nial monopolies, 345; office of, to sub-
stitute for hereditary privilege the
natural equality of man, ill. ; for sove-
reign's authority a dependent govern-
ment emanating from concord of
opinion, 10; its people rapidly becom-
ing sovereign, 105: the great object of
European attention, 164; course of
negotiations between France and Eng-
land momentous for, 260; exclusive
right of, to raise and apply its own
revenues, discussed in Boston, 295;
avowed intention of British ministry
to keep standing army in, at expense
of colonies. 300 ; Teutonic race, master
hi, from Gulf of Mexico to the poles,
301, 302; French and English com-
pared, 304; becomes at peace, great
subject of consideration to English
government. 362; murmurs heard in,
mingled with rejoicings over repeal of
stamp act, iv. 4; friends of, in Eng-
land, 86; refusal of, to draw supplies
from England, induces other powers to
seek her commerce, 132; confines its
issue with Great Britain to repeal of
duty on tea, 177 ; an essential part of
the English world, in which the doc-
trine of equal representation is main-
tained unimpaired, 203; elaborate
paper on disorders in, laid before
British council, 204; men begin to pre-

• pare for extreme measures in, 262;
contrasts idle regiments of regulars at
Boston with Virginians gallantly fight-
ing the Indians in the cause of west-
ern civilization, 426; substantially a
nation before alliance with France;
British occupy, on sea-coast, no posts
except Bhode Island, and New York
city and its environs; no hostile fort in
New England; the British at Ogdens-
burg, Niagara, and Detroit, but Ameri-
cans hold country from below the High-
lands to water-shed of Ontario, vi. 145 ;
Its people never lose self-reliance or
readiness to make sacrifices for the
public 'good, 174; bent on having a
government, but United States meet
continual obstructions on their way to
onion, 356; obtains an avowed friend
in the Dutch republic, 432.

American army, disposition of, around
Boston; rolls of, promise 17,000 men;
but real force fit for duty not over
14,500 ; camp-scenes, visitors, and reli-
gious exercise; hindrances to military
discipline, v. 16. 17 ; its existence a mir-
acle of benevolence of Massachusetts
people; each householder esteems him-
self a commissary ; not a barrel of flour
from continental congress, 21; formed

in three grand divisions at Roxbury,
Cambridge, and Winter Hill, under
Ward, Lee, and Putnam, 28; fourteen
hundred riflemen arrive in camp, 29;
twelve companies from the Ohio and
country beyond the Blue Ridge: their
powers of endurance, arms, and skil-
ful markmanship; the first troops
levied by authority of congress, and
the best corps in the camp; enlisted
for a year only, many remain in the
service, and distinguish themselves;
their example modifies tactics of Euro-

Sean armies, 31; paymaster has not a
ollar ; commissary-general strains his
credit for subsistence of army, as does
quartermaster-general: many troops
almost mutinous at reduction of their
pay, 35; impatient when the chaplains
pray for the king, 63; enlistments for
new annv slow, on account of want of
funds, 142 ; places of retiring Connecti-
cut troops filled by men from Massa-
chusetts and New Hampshire, 143;
council of Massachusetts lends Wash-
ington fifty thousand pounds for army ;
congress refuses to authorize payment
of bounty; Massachusetts, aided by
other New England colonies, has to
keep up numbers of the army, while
on her soil, 153 ; disintegrated by neglect
of congress, the men unskilled, ana the
stores deficient, 153, 154; March 20,
1776, main body enters Boston, 202; six
new brigadier-generals appointed, 212 ;
pride of equality among officers, every
one urging his own opinion, 354;
Washington's force at New York, 367 ;
reinforced, 370 ; on the eve of dissolu-
tion ; its condition in autumn of 1776,
411, 412 ; congress votes to enlist eighty-
eight battalions to serve through the
war, but its action occasions delay,
412; eagerly awaits the coming or
Lee, the evil genius of Clinton; his
advent hastened, 435; to council of
war, Washington describes conspiracy
of disaffected in Westchester and
Dutchess counties, and shows ample
evidence of enemy's intention to sur-
round his army ; council, except George
Clinton, agrees on change of position,
441; Lee joins in decision of the coun-
cil, 441 and note; a council of war,
November 6, agrees to throw troops
into Jersey, but adheres to decision to
hold Fort Washington; Washington's
appeal for its abandonment in view of
dissolution of his army, unheeded by
congress, 447 ; states authorized to en-
list men for the war. or three years,
454; loses troops of New Jersey and
Maryland, nearly half its force, 457;
congress asked to permit Washington
to recruit twenty-two battalions under
authority of the nation, 474; Yates and
Sullivan arrive at head-quarters, the
former with five hundred men, includ-
ing Stark, their chief officer, and Sulli-
van with Lee's division, 474, 475 ; Wash-

492

INDEX.

bigton, m general, authorised to raise
a large force; to displace and appoint
all officers under the rank of brigadier,
486; the eastern regiments re-enlist;
condition of Washington's force, in
March, 1777, 663 ; want of arms supplied
by a shipment by Beaumarchais from
Prance, 653; condition of. at Valley
Forge, vi. 46; saved by militia of scat-
tered villages from dissolution, 47, 48 ;
if requisitions of congress had been
met by states, army would have had
control of New Jersey; Lee plotting
its ruin, 137; its head-quarters at
Middlebrook, and encamped for win-
ter of 1778, so as to form a line of ob-
servation and defence from Connecti-
cut shore of Long Island to the Dela-
ware: condition of troops, and poverty
of officers, 173; a defensive campaign
augurs serious reduction of, 103; boun-.
ties; some emigrants join; congress
fixes infantry at eighty battalions;
levies by draft, 194; condition of, more
deplorable than ever, suffering from
cold and hunger, 214, 216 ; number of
men for .service in 1780, fixed by con-
gress at thirty-five thousand two hun-
dred and eleven, and states required
to fill deficiencies in their quotas before
April 1; states called on to furnish
supplies for army, 338; in early part of
1780, every department of, moneyless
and crediUess ; rations of troops ; des-
titute Connecticut troops threaten to
go home, but are restrained by a sense
of duty, 338; money enough expended
for clothing, but large importations go
to waste, and the troops half naked,
341; collective gathering of supplies,
842 ; its destitution of, as shown in a
letter of Glover, 348 ; revolt of Pennsyl-
vania line, 348; mutinous spirit of
New Jersey troops, quelled by Wash-
ington ; patience and fortitude of New
England troops, 349; in May, 1781,
Washington makes note of want of
magazines and arsenals, of insuffi-
ciency of field equipage, and of failure
of states to fill their quotas of troops;
no prospect of an offensive campaign,
unless help in money comes from
France, 358; "its long sufferance,"
says Washington, " is almost exhaust-
ed; it is high time for a peace," 469.
American bill, the, pressed to a second
reading in the house of commons, by
Lord North ; it consolidates the several
penal acts, and enlarges them into a
prohibition of the trade of all the
colonies ; makes American vessels and
goods the property of captors, and pro-
vides that prisoners may be forced to
serve the king, even against their
countrymen; removes no grievances,
but provides for commissioners to grant
pardons, and accept submission of
colonies; its atrocity vainly exposed in
the house, v. 107, 108 ; adopted without
a division in the lords, 108.

American campaign of 1781 , arranged by
Washington andBochambeau; French
force to join American at Hudson River,
and march to the south; De Grasse to
enter the Chesapeake; certainty of
harmony, as Washington has highest
military powers and French troops are
under his command, vi. 414.

American colonies, relations of, to Great
Britain, vague and undefined, ill. 13;
ineffectual method of superintending
them by boards of trade and planta-
tions, 13, 14; powers of these boards,
14 ; the best trophy of modern civiliza-
tion, 37: unequalled freedom of, not
intended by England, 38 ; whole wealth
of, centred in metropolis of Great Bri-
tain, 113; cheerfully bear burdens
under Pitt, 192; hearty co-operation
of northern colonies with him, 212;
news of Pitt's resignation heightens
the rising jealousy, 284; their duty to
provide their own military establish-
ment long considered, 394; king's re-
quisitions to that end evaded; differ-
ent plans to enforce the theory, 396 ;
agreed by cabinet that parliament
must vote the necessary revenue. 396;
rule for colonizing, founded on uniform
principle of grants of lands from the
crown, subject to quit-rent, 400; Brit-
ish government favors many independ-
ent governments, as tending to prevent
union, 401; boundaries defined, and
emigrants shut out from territory west
of Alleghanies, 401; their appeal
against stamp act made in spirit of
loyalty, 428; tide of opinion against,
irresistible, 600 ; begin to think of per-
manent union; county and colony
meetings recommended, 524; acting in
concert to deny pretension of parlia-
ment, even at risk of civil war. 677;
Canada, Nova Scotia, having military
governments, submit; the others hold
out, 577 ; joy of, at repeal of stamp act,
unmixed with fear, 586.

American commissioners to France pre-
sented to Louis XVI., at Versailles;
dress of Franklin and his colleagues;
applauded by the crowd; the king ex-
presses friendship for congress ; visit
the wife of Lafayette, and introduced
to Marie Antoinette, whose sympathy
makes American cause popular, vi.
64 ; transmit to Frederic of Prussia a
copy of declaration of independence
and articles of confederation, and ask
his consent to establish a free trade
between the two countries, 122; the
commission abolished by congress, 164.
165 ; in April, 1778, iu letter to grand
pensionary, propose a good understand-
ing and commerce; the proposition
ignored, 234 ; invited by Van Berckel
to renew offer of treaty of commerce,
but refuse on account of grand pen-
sioner's neglect of their letter, 236.

American confederacy, Franklin's plan
of, not wholly acceptable to England

INDEX

493

or America, Hi. 81 ; tome reject, some
censure it, 81 ; regarded in England as
keystone of independence, 81.

American frontier threatened by French,
iii.eo.

American naval enterprise, assembly of
Rhode Island orders its committee of
safety to fit out two armed vessels to
protect the trade of the colony ; Con-
necticut takes like action ; committees
of safety of South Carolina and Georgia
send out cruisers to watch for a ship
laden with gunpowder ; most of the
colonies have vessels out on similar
errands ; Rhode Island instructs its
delegates in congress to propose a con-
tinental navy, v. 34.

American officers indorse answer of con-
gress to British commissioners, except
Lee, and Gates, who wishes a confer-
ence with commissioners, vi. 136.

American parliament, projected by pa-
triots of New York, preserving the
colonies, whose legislatures should
choose members of general parlia-
ment, iv. 173.

American question, the, creates new

Eolitical activities in Europe, rouses
opes of free trade, and arraigns
British ministry before the tribunal
of civilization, vi. 77.
American revolution, avowed object of
its authors, ill. 5; sprung from lntelli-

Sence that had been slowly ripening
i the mind of cultivated humanity,
9; most radical in character, yet tran-
quilly achieved, 10 ; what it accom-
plished, 10, 11: its characteristics in
America, 11; interest of Europe in,
11, 12 ; the condition of revolting
states, 12.
American states might not have won,
if issue had depended on arms alone;
but potent new ideas are introduced,—
the recognition of justice as higher
than the state, and of rights of citizens
as founded on those of man ; its people,
industrious and self-possessed, and in-
heriting English liberty, feel no bitter
hatred of England ; take what suits
them from an aristocratic model ; their
transition into self-existent states not
violent, v. 500, 601 ; held in all states
that sovereignty resides in the people ;
people of proceed to extend self-gov-
ernment over regions before deemed
too vast for such rule, 501: love Eng-
land because she nurtured her colonies
in freedom ; of statesmen who framed
the new government, not one origi-
nally a republican ; states and nation,
002; the theory of suffrage, 504; quali-
fications in several states, 505 ; the
house of representatives, 505; condi-
tions of representation. 506; people of
reject the theories of Franklin for
one legislative body ; of John Ad-
ams, for two, 506; the two branches of
the legislature in different states, 507;
chief magistrate of state, how chosen,

507; property qualifications, 507: the
veto power, 507; nominating and ap-
pointing state officers, 609 ; Judicial
powers, 509, 510 ; constitutions of
states bear close analogy to that of
England, 010 ; have no element of per-
manence except the people, Oil ; the
universal desire for freedom to wor-
ship God, 511 ; after independence
worship known to the law only as
an individual act, 012; establishment
of freedom of conscience the fruit of
Protestant sects and the natural love
of freedom, 512 ; without faith Ameri-
cans could have founded nothing; re-
ligious tests as qualifications for office
eliminated as Boon as their inconven-
ience appears, 513 ; nowhere so relig-
ious a people, 513 ; some desire the care
of the state for public worship ; church
property respected, 514 ; effects of es-
tablishment of religious equality, 015,
516 ; the doctrine or entail, and law of
descent, 516, 017 : provisions for re-
forming constitutions ; the career of
independence opened by declaration
of the self-evident rights of man, 017;
prevailing idea of political life in, 617,
018; see impossibility of introducing
by a decree the reign of right, 518;
they neither separate abruptly from
the past, nor adhere to its decaying
forms, 518.
Amherst, Jeffrey, assigned to fleet under
Boscawen for siege of Louisburg, ill.
193; arrives at Halifax, 193: his force,
194; suddenly called to Lake George,
190 ; reaches English camp there, and
is appointed commander in chief, 202 ;
his character, 214 : his forces, 210 ;
takes possession of Fort Carillon, 210;
delays at Crown Point, and neglects
opportunities, 210; achieves nothing,
and goes into winter quarters, 216;
sends force under Colonel Montgom-
ery and Major Grant to strike a blow
at Cherokees, 230 ; takes no steps to
prevent siege of Quebec, 240; has no
difficulties before mm, but of his own
creation, 240 ; marches on Montreal,
and receives its surrender, 240, 241 ;
sends Grant against Cherokees. 279;

Erepares re-enforcements against Ind-
kns in west, 376 ; orders that no Ind-
ians be taken prisoners, 386 ; strenu-
ously opposes repeal of stamp act.537.

Amherst, Lord, military adviser to Brit-
ish ministry, gives opinion that forty
thousand more troops will be needed
to carry on an offensive war in Amer-
ica, vi. 57; early in 1778 advises the
king to move troops from Philadel-
phia, and, in case of junction of France,
to evacuate New York and Rhode
Island, 166.

Amidas, Philip, commander of a vessel
in Raleigh's expedition, in 1584, i. 76.

Amnesty, general, proclaimed in Mary-
land, i. 193.

Amory, Jonathan, of Boston, urges Is

494

INDEX.

town-meeting, that the East India
company be paid for tea by subscrip-
tion, iv. 324.

Amsterdam, the first commercial city of
the world, ii. 21, 22; sends two ships
to seek the open sea north of all
known land, 22, 23; becomes proprie-
tary of Delaware, 66; institutes com-
mercial monopoly, and requires strict
obedience, 58 : gives free passage to
America to Waldenses, 69 ; whole
country on Delaware transferred to,
64; merchants of see in independence
of America <a virtual repeal of British
navigation acts. vi. 234.

Anabaptism, a dangerous rival to the
establishment, i. 362.

Anabaptists, the law for exiling in Mas-
sachusetts, not intended to be enforced,
1. 360 ; Jeremy Taylor's opinion, 360;
two presidents of Harvard Anabap-
tists, 360; many members of general
court not disposed to enforce laws
against, 363, 364; but laws remain un-
repealed, 365 ; attack spiritual do-
minion and kingcraft, ii. 181 ; trodden
under foot, but their principles escape
with Roger Williams, 181, 182.

"An Address of the People of Great
Britain to the Inhabitants of Amer-
ica," a pamphlet by Sir John Dal-
rymple, at Lord North's request, for
circulation in America ; the " Sene-
gal " takes out many copies of it: its
mild character, in contrast with Sam-
ael Johnson's pamphlet, written for
England, iv. 514.

Andre. Major John, adjutant-general of
British army in North America; me-
dium of correspondence between Clin-
ton and Arnold ; writes to Sheldon, an
American officer, that a flag will be
sent to Dobb's Ferry on Monday next,
vi. 320; his letter, in which he tries to
excuse himself, and suggesting his ex-
change for Gadsden, of South Caro-
lina, 328; tried and found worthy of
death as a spy; sentence approved by
Washington, 329; proposition to free
him by exchange ; threats of wholesale
retaliation; begs that he may not die
on the gibbet, 330; self-controlled at
place of execution : his last words, 331.

Andros, Sir Edmund, governor of Duke
of York's province east of Kennebec,
establishes peace between English and
Indians, i. 466 ; governor of New York,
claims j urisdiction over West Jersey,
ii. 83; his instructions, 137; attempts
to assert authority over Connecticut,
137, 138 ; fails at Say brook Fort ; unwel-
come in New York; advises king to
grant legislative franchises, 138; goes
to England, 140: claims that New
Jersey ships should pay duty at Man-
hattan ; tries to intimidate New Jersey
by royal patent, but is thwarted, 141 :
authorized to demand Rhode Island
charter, and to receive that of Con-
necticut, 158; dissolves government of

Rhode Island, and creates a commis-
sion in its place, 168; demands char-
ter of Connecticut, which disappears;
assumes government, 169; makes vain
pursuit of Indians. 159, 160 ; rules oyer
whole coast from Maryland to the St.
Croix, 160 ; assumes government of
New York and New Jersey, 160; his
report of receipt in Boston of news of
William's accession. 171 ; overcome by
patriots, and imprisoned, 172: pres-
ervation of early papers of Virginia
due to him, 206.

Anglican church hi Ireland, established
by Queen Elizabeth, ill. 860 ; its opera-
tion. 351.

Anhalt-Zerbst, prince of the, half-erased,
offers a regiment to George HL; his
letter so strange it is pronounced not fit
to be read, v. 179; his exclamation on
receipt of overture for troops from
British embassador at the Hague, 543;
contracts to furnish George III. twelve
hundred and twenty-eight men ; three
hundred and thirty*-three lost in ten
days, and only half of agreed number
delivered; not allowed to disembark
at Quebec by Carleton till receipt of
orders from England, vi. 63.

Anniversary of repeal of stamp act cele-
brated in Boston; conflicting reports
of character of celebration, iv. 78, 79.

Anspach, two battalions of troops cap-
tured at Yorktown, vi. 429.

Anti-charter party, the, in Massachu
setts ; its aim ; grounds of its demands;
its petition for redress, i. 354: Gorton's
case, decision on, asserts right of par-
liament to control government of Mas-
sachusetts. 354, 355; result of its ef-
forts, the delay of reform, 355.

Antinomians, assert absolute freedom of
mind, and substitute consciousness
for predestination; records of Rhode
Island a commentary on true imi
of their creed, ii. 184; differ from C
kers only on doctrine of predest
tion, 185.

Anti-popery party, in England,
sions a reaction, i. 477.

" Appeal to the World," made by
of Boston, refuting slanders of Ber-
nard, Gage, Hood, and others, and
declaring that their rights are invaded
by revenue acts, and until these are
repealed the causes of their complaint
remain, iv. 175.

Aranda, Count de, his descent, charac-
ter, and career ; serves in suppressing
Madrid riots and driving the Jesuits
from Spain ; a too vehement reformer;
embassador to France, and an enemy
to England : a daring schemer and
bad calculator ; his interview with
American commissioners, v. 522, 023.

"Arbella," a ship in Wmthrop's fleet,
named for Isaac Johnson's wife, sister
of the Earl of Lincoln, i 276.

Arbuthnot, Admiral, brings re-enforce-
ments to Sir Henry Clinton, vi. 263;

INDEX

495

takes his ships Into Charleston harbor,
without tiring, 266; his incapacity bit-
terly complained of by Clinton, 319;
pursues French fleet co-operating with
Lafayette, and, defeating it in action,
enters Chesapeake, 410.

Archdale, John, elected dictator of South
Carolina, ii. 198 ; his conciliatory policy
toward Spaniards and Indians, 199;
opposes in court of proprietaries bill
giving monopoly of political power to
church of England in South Carolina,
200.

Areskoui, the war-god of the Iroquois,
ii. 437.

Argall, Samuel, comes to Virginia with
expedition of 1610, and explores the
coast to the north, i. 108 ; sails to
Isle of Shoals, 112; captures mission
on Mt. Desert, 113; sent to remove
©very French landmark south of 46°,
113 ; elected deputy governor of Vir-
ginia, his arrogance, self-will, and
greed, 116; his tyranny, 117; is re-
moved, and disappears, 117.

Aristocracy, feudal, could not live in
American colonies, ii. 175, 176 ; of Eng-
land, controls house of commons and
the government, iii. 105; how it para-
lyzed the energies of British govern-
ment, 177; summons to its aid the
favor of the people, 177 ; the old whig,
of England, on eve of dissolution; its
distribution, vi. 44, 451, 452.

Aristotle, his geographical theory, i. 5.

Arlington, Henry, earl of, co-grantee
with Lord Culpepper of all "Virginia,
i. 539.

Armada, the invincible, preparations for
preventing the sending of help to
Virginia, i. 85.

Armand, commander of American cav-
alry at Camden, is insubordinate, vi.
278.

Armstrong, John, of Pennsylvania, leads
three hundred men against Dela wares,
surprises and disperses them, and is
voted honors by Philadelphia, iii. 159,
160 ; commands Pennsylvania troops
in Forbes's expedition, 204 ; raises
British flag over ruins of Fort Du-
quesne, 206; arriving at Charleston to
take command of the army, finds lit-
tle to do beyond receiving hospitalities,
y. 239; stationed at Haddrell's Point,
274.

Army, American, New Hampshire
agrees to raise two thousand men,
about twelve hundred reaching camp ;
Connecticut offers six thousand, about
twenty-three hundred remaining at
Cambridge, under Spenser, chief in
command, and Putnam, second brig-
adier; Rhode Island votes a force of
fifteen hundred men, of whom about
a thousand come to Boston under
Greene, iv. 543, 544.

Army, a standing, the dread of, in Con-
gress, v. 412; evils to be feared from
remote, and not to be dreaded, accord-

ing to Washington, who earnestly
asks for it, 413 ; cannot be fullyrealized
in the United States, 414; washing-
ton's answer to committee of Massa-
chusetts, asking leave to enlist troops
for one year, 435.

Army, continental, called such for the
first time, iv. 591 ; measures taken by
general congress to organize and pay
men enlisted only till end of year;
Washington, Schuyler, and others, to
prepare rules and regulations; re-
solved to enlist ten companies of rifle-
men ; on nomination of Thomas John-
son, of Maryland, Washington unani-
mously elected general, 592, 593;
condition of around Boston, its real
weakness, unmerited commissions, no
discipline, want of money, clothing,
and ammunition, confusion and dis-
order, 601, 602 ; a code for government
of adopted, iv. 10.

Army, the British, its weakness admit-
ted by Barrington; few enlistments
can be made at home ; rank bestowed
for favor or money ; aristocratic self-
ishness had unfitted the nation for
war, iv. 437; in Boston, to be raised to
ten thousand men, 481.

Army, the French, its achievements in
1788 consist of menacing England with
invasion, cabals, and luxury, vi. 162.

Arnold, Benedict, of New Haven, cap-
tain of a volunteer company, extorts
supplies from committee of the town,
and reaches Cambridge April 29, iv.
537 ; commissioned to command expe-
dition against Ticonderoga, but Allen
is elected by the troops, 554; crosses
the lake from Vermont, and captures
a party of British troops, guns, and a
British sloop, 574; put in command of
eleven hundred men sent to the St.
Lawrence; his character and appear-
ance ; field and line officers of his
command, v. 123 ; enjoined to respect
rights of property and to conciliate the
Canadians, 123 ; his army ascends the
Kennebec, thence to the Chaudiere.
124, 125 ; sufferings of the troops, and
their fortitude, 125, 126; reaches Serti-
gan, twenty-five miles from Quebec;
pushes on to Point Levi, 127; Nov.
13, all his force, save one hundred
and fifty, left at Point Levi ; lands at
Wolfe's Cove, and ascends the path
to the Plains of Abraham ; his pros-
pects and Wolfe's contrasted, 127 ; de-
mands surrender, which is refused;
cuts off supply of fuel and refresh-
ments for the city ; withdraws to
Point aux Trembles to await Mont-

Somery's orders, 128 ; is joined by
lontgomery, 130 ; leads his troops
against Quebec, is severely wounded
and carried off disabled, 135 ; ap-
pointed brigadier-general by congress,
163; withdraws to Montreal, 290 ; tries
to recover captives of Bedel's and
Sherburne's commands by force, but

496

INDEX.

releases them by exchange, 296 ; takes
command of flotilla on Lake Cham-

i>laln ; encounters Carleton's fleet, and
s worsted ; the last to go on shore, 424-
427 ; left out in promotion of brigadier
generals, and complains of the wound
to his feelings, and to Oates breathes
vengeance, 554 ; commands force
which opposes British leaving Dan-
bury; saves his life by a pistol-shot,
his horse twice shot under him; a
horse voted to him by congress, which
refuses to restore him to his former
rank, 562 ; cbarged with guarding the
line of the Delaware, 565; ordered to
northern department, 582 ; is insub-
ordinate to Gates, vl. 4 ; urges an at-
tack on Burgoyne's army after the
battle of Behmus's Heights ; quarrels
with Gates, and receives a passport
for Philadelphia; lingers in the camp,
but has no command, 8; highest officer
on American side in second battle of
Behmus's Heights; named by Gates
in his report, and raised by congress
to the rank he claims, 12 (see Oomplot
Of Arnold and Clinton, 320-328); bank-
rupt, he receives six to seven thousand
pounds indemnity : can get no employ-
ment, is neglected and despised; his
children placed on the pension list by
the king, 331, 332; writes insolent let-
ters to Washington, invites all Ameri-
cans to desert their colors, and cen-
sures Clinton to Germain, 332 ; with
sixteen hundred men appears in
James River; burns Richmond, 410;
in command for seven days, after
death of Phillips, addresses a letter to
Lafayette, who returns it with scorn ;
threatens to send all American pris-
oners to the Antilles ; ordered to New
York by Cornwallis, who despises him,
411 ; sent against his native state,
411; burns New London and captures
Fort Griswold: disappears from his-
tory, 412; forbidden by Shelburae to
return to America, 439.
Arundel, Lord, of Wardour, promotes
Waymouth's expedition to New Eng-
land, 1. 90.

Ashe. Samuel, a man of rare integrity
and whose name is preserved by t

county and a town of North Carolina ;
a member of provincial council, v. 56 ;
commander of Ave months' militia, vi.
253; detached, with fifteen hundred
men, by Lincoln; crosses Savannah
River and encamps at Briar Creek;
his position turned by Prevost, and his
force routed, 254, 255.

Ashley, his plan of establishing a fund
by an abatement of duty on molasses
imported into colonies, ill. 57.

Asia, most attractive to Dutch com-
merce, 11. 23.

Aspinwall, exiled from Massachusetts
with Anne Hutchinson and Wheel-
wright, i. 308.

Assanpink, Washington conducts retreat |

over, and puts his army behind bat-
teries; Cornwallis advised to bring on
a general action, but sends for more
troops ; his force pushes along the As-
sanpink to watch the enemy, v. 491;
Washington resolves to turn Cornwal-
lis's left, and push on to Princeton,
492; moves his troops by detachments
toward Princeton, 493; skirmish at
Princeton between Mercer and Maw-
hood; the latter charges, and Ameri-
cans give way, losing many officers,
493, 494; Washington rides within
thirty yards of British, between two
fires; Hitchcock brings up his brigade,
and, with Hand, begins to turn the
British left; the latter retreat, and
many are taken prisoners, 494, 495;
during the fight, the regiments of
Stark, Poor, Patterson, and others,
drive away the fifty-fifth and fortieth
regiments; the losses, 495.

Assemblies, colonial, instituted in Vir-
ginia by Southampton and Sandys,
and maintained there, in Maryland,
Carolinas, Pennsylvania, and Dela-
ware, 11. 271.

Assistants, authority of, in Massachu-
setts, subject of fear, i. 352.

Association of members of continental
congress, binding themselves not to
import from Great Britain and Ire-
land, after Dec- 1, 1774, and prospec-
tively not to export to those countries;
contains a covenant, which inaugu-
rates abolition of slave-trade, iv. 407,
408.

Asaiento, agreement respecting the slave-
trade made in treaty or Utrecht;
Queen Anne's contract to furnish
slaves to Spanish America; division
of the stock, ii. 390.

Attakulla-kulla, a Cherokee chief, ad-
dressed by Governor Lyttelton, iiL
233; rescues James Stuart from his
Indian captors, 238; meets Grant's
expedition, entreating for delay for
conference, 279; goes to Charleston,
seeking peace and offering friendship,
281.

Attucks, Crispus, killed by British sol-
diers in Boston, iv. 190.

August William, prince of Prussia, op-
posed to cause of mankind, and in
time of Frederic's trouble advises him
to make peace by concessions to Rus-
sia, ill. 185.

Augusta, Ga., captured by Pickens, Colo-
nel Clarke, and Lieutenant-colonel
Lee, vi. 404.

Augusta county, Va., people of, give
flour to Boston, iv. 352.

Augustine, the African bishop, rescues
from Old World truths that would
renew humanity, iii. 99.

Austin, Ann, and Mary Fisher, first Qua-
kers in Boston, i. 364; sent beyond
jurisdiction, 364; Fisher delivers a
message to the Grand Sultan, 364.

Austria, her efforts at trade with East

INDEX.

497

Indies suffocated by treaty of Utrecht,
ii. 389 ; had been closely connected with
England, bat was forming a confed-
eracy with Catholic powers, iii. 181,
182; allies herself with France to sup-
port Europe of the middle ages, 182;
in time of Kaunitz, desires to gain ter-
ritory in Germany, and plans the ac-
quisition of Bavaria, vi. 39; deems
herself alone privileged to produce
chiefs of the holy Roman empire, and
claims precedence over every royal
house; decadence of the arch-house,
90; embarrasses independence of the
United States, 223; desires to be me-
diator between the Bourbons and Eng-
land, and excludes question of inde-
pendence, 223; joins powers who hold
that England owes concessions to
America, 374.

Autonomy of colonies, evidenced by di-
rect negotiation of treaty with gov-
ernor of Acadia, i. 344.

Aviles, Pedro Melendez de, made gov-
ernor of Florida, i. 57 ; lands at harbor
which he names St. Augustine, 68;
massacres French garrison, 69, 60;
sends expedition to settle St- Mary's,
which fails, 60: returns to Spain, 61.

Ayllon, Lucas vasquez de, on a slave-
seeking voyage, touches on the coast
of Chicora (now South Carolina), and
carries off many natives, i. 26; com-
missioned to conquer Chicora, 27 ; his
failure, 27.

Bacon, Lord, his sneers at the Brown-
ists, i. 225; his opinions as to the Vir-
ginia colony, i. 124; opposes grant of
patent to Pilgrims, 238, 239.

Bacon, Nathaniel, leader of Charles City
county, Va., forces against Indians,
i. 546; his antecedents and character,
546, 547 ; chosen commander of colonial
force ; proclaimed a rebel by the gov-
ernor, 547 ; returning victorious, elect-
ed burgess from Henrico county ; has
sympathy of members of assembly;
confesses his error in acting without
a commission; restored to favor, and
promised a general's commission, 548 ;
Berkeley refuses to sign this docu-
ment; Bacon retires, and returns with
five hundred men to the state house ;
the commission issued, and warm
praise of Bacon sent to England by
burgesses and council, 549, 550; pro-
nounced a rebel by Berkeley, 550;
leads his force against the governor,
who flees; he issues a proclamation,
inviting the gentlemen of Virginia to
come in and take counsel, 551; leads
the convention, and procures the tak-
ing of an oath of mutual support
against the Indians, and the royal
troops, if they came, till the king could
be heard from, 552; leads his troops
against Indians; with a small force
moves against Berkeley's rabble, which
disperses, the governor retreating, 553 ;

enters capital, and burns the town;

goes to meet the royalists, who join
im, 48 ; his sudden death, 554.

Bacon's rebellion in Virginia, England
could not render justice to Its princi-
ples; every accurate account of in MS.
till the nineteenth century ; its results
disastrous to Virginia, 1. 557.

Balance of power; application for ad-
mission to confederacy of Vermont,
whose laws reject slavery, opposed by
southern states, because it would de-
stroy the balance of power between the
two sections; a compromise proposed,
but not brought before congress, vi.
302.

Balfour, Andrew, of North Carolina,
murdered by David Fanning and his
band of loyalists, vi. 458.

Balfour, British commandant at Charles-
ton, writes home that "in vain we
expected loyalty and attachment from
the inhabitants," vi. 287.

Ballot, origin of use of, i. 271, 272.

Baltimore, Lord, via'ts Virginia; per-
secuted as a Romanist, 1. 153 ; cession
to, of province of Virginia, 154; the
last days of, ii. 5; his achievements
and judgment, 5, 6; intellectual free-
dom, his policy in Maryland, 6.

Baltimore, Lord Frederick, sole landlord
of Maryland; his dissoluteness, and
zeal for prerogative, ill. 89; his method
of government, and private income,
89 ; his power of appointment, church-
patronage, &C..90.

Baltimore, people of, receiving com-
mittee's letter from Boston, New York,
and Philadelphia, see no reason to ex-
pect relief from petitions, which for
ten years had been treated with con-
tempt; advocate suspending trade
with Great Britain and West Indies,
a continental congress, and send cheer-
ing words to Boston ; applauded as a
model, iv. 334.

Bancroft, Bishop, flatters King James,
i. 231 ; as Whitgift's successor, exacts
strict conformity, 232.

Bancroft, Edward, a native of Connecti-
cut, lives in England; in 1769 writes
a pamphlet vindicating the colonies;
becomes an American spy, to fit him-
self for more lucrative post of British
spy, v. 357 ; called to Paris by Deane,
gets particulars of purchases of arms
and clothing for colonies, and reports
all to British ministry, which is able
to embarrass the shipment of supplies :
his report to ministry, " a full record
of the first official intercourse between
France and the United States," 358.

Bank of issue, steps taker to found one
in Philadelphia; subscr'bers to under-
take to make purchaser ji advance for
suffering soldiers; the offered aid ac-
cepted by congress, vi 341.

Bankruptcy in Englanr general, in eon-
sequence of losses of East India com-
pany, iv. 261.

VOL. VI.

32

498

INDEX.

Banner, the American, raised Jan. 1,
1770, over the continental army at Bos-
ton, at time of its greatest weakness;
its fashion, v. 152: congress nxes on.
666.

Baptists, the, early win converts in
America, i. 633 ; punished in Virginia,
634.

Barbados, resists forces of Common-
wealth, i. 169; letter from a resident,
demanding representation in parlia-
ment, " the question of the coming cen-
tury, i. 169, 170; planters of, send a
Sarty to examine Carolina, 488; and
uy of Indians land on Cape Fear
River, 488. 489; Sir John Yeamans,
governor, leads emigrants from Bar-
bados, 489; prosperity of the colony,
489.

Barentsen, William, coasts Nova Zem-
bla to 77% 11. 22.

Barlow, Arthur, commander of a vessel
in Raleigh's expedition in 1684, 1. 76.

Barre, de la, governor-general of New
France, convokes assembly of notables
for protection against Indians, ii. 149:
invades Indian territory, but is forced
to sue for peace, 161 ; disgraceful treaty
concluded; superseded by Denonville,
152.

Barre*, Isaac, major of brigade under Am-
herst, 111. 194; Wolfe's adjutant-gene-
ral, 216 ; wounded and made blind at
Quebec, 224; dismissed from army for
his votes in parliament. 404 ; seems to
admit the power of parliament to tax
America, but derides the idea of vir-
tual representation ; taunts the house
with ignorance of American affairs, 440;
his rejoinder to Townshend, 446, 447 ;
thinks the colonies are not proper ob-
jects of taxation, and will not submit
to any law of revenue, iv. 144 ; thinks
there may be a second congress of
colonies, and that Americans will not
abandon their principles, 307 ; reminds
the house that France and Spain may
interfere in American affairs, v. 417.

Barrene, William, chief speaker at meet-
ing to complain of Governor Harvey's
policy, i. 164.

Barrett, commander of Americans at
Concord ; gives orders to troops to ad-
vance, but not to fixe unless attacked,
iv. 526.

Barrington, appointed chancellor of ex-
chequer, his self-conndence, iii. 259,
260; " an echo of the king," approves
Pitt's resignation, 273; says, he wishes
the stamp act had never been passed,
but that Americans are traitors against
the legislature, iv. 130; confesses the
weakness of the army, and advises
withdrawal of troops from America,
the abandonment of all ideas of internal
taxation, and such concessions as can
be made " with dignity," 437, 438 ; en-
treats secretary of state to give no hint
in despatches to the colonies of large
re-enforcements going out; and writes

to the king that the proposed force can-
not be raised, v. 57 ; warns Dartmouth
as to impolicy of sending a small force
into interior of America, 99; announces
that idea of taxing America has been
abandoned, that her subjection is now
the end, 106; his conscience troubles
him, but he continues to serve the
kins, 366: as secretary of war, tells
the King that general dismay is due to
belief that the administration is not
equal to the times, that It prevails
among the ministers themselves, vi.
148.

Barnwell, leads a small detachment of
militia and Indians against Tusca-
roras, on Neuse River; negotiates a
treaty of peace with latter, if. 386.

Barrow, Henry, hanged for dissent. L
226.

Bastwick, a Puritan, maimed for his re-
ligious opinions, i. 326.

Bath, Earl of, his eulogy on Frederic of
Prussia; his sentiments shared by
people of England, iii. 243.

Baum, a Brunswick lieutenant-colonel
of dragoons, sent with large force to
capture cattle, &c, at Bennington,
Vt. ; seeing a reconnoitring party of
Americans, writes for more troops and
intrenches; ordered to maintain his

S>st by Burgoyne, who sends him two
runswick battalions and cannon, y.
687; defeated and mortally wounded.
688.

Bavaria, elector of, proposes to furnish
troops to England; his proposition
not heeded, his troops being among
the worst in Germany, v. 179; its
absorption planned by Austria, vi. 89;
to prevent it, Frederic of Prussia draws
near to France, 121; he gains aid of
France and Russia, 124; Kaunitz looks
on its acquisition as the harbinger of
success; Joseph II. goes to Paris to
win France to his slue ; on his return
to Austria, Frederic renews his efforts,
aud the two kingdoms adjust their
foreign policy as to United States and
Bavaria, 126.

Bayard, John, of Philadelphia, % pore
and brave patriot, v. 264.

Bay Verte, a French port at monih of
Gaspereux, in Nova Scotia, surren-
ders to English fleet, iii. 130.

Beaubassin, in Nova Scctia, inhabitants
of compelled to take oaths of alle-
giance to French king, iii. 46; burned
and abandoned on approach of Corn-
wallis, 45.

Beaujeu, naval commander of La Salle's
expedition to Louisiana; his quarrels
with La Salle, ii. 339.

Beaumarchais, Caron de, dramatist and
adventurer, hastens to offer his ser-
vices in intrigue to Louis XVI., It.
320; in England, as an emissary of
Louis XVI., encourages the Idea that
England might regain her colonies by
making war on France, and presents

INDEX.

499

to the king a secret memorial in favor
of taking part with the insurgents,
▼ 90; receives a new commission, 90,
91 ; trusted in American business, fret-
ful because his scheme had been re-
jected, 231, 232 ; tells Arthur Lee. that
he can promise Americans 200,000 louis
d'ors, 232; instigated by Vergennes,
tries to waken a passion for glory in
Maurepas, 362; his plea for aid to
America, through Maurepas, to the
king, 526.

J lean Sejour, a fort built by French, on
Bay of Fundy, after cession of Nova
Scotia to British, iii. 129; captured by
English and New Englanders, and
named Cumberland, 130.

Beckford, member of parliament for Lon-
don, declares that taxing America to
raise a revenue will never do, iii. 445.

Bedel, of New Hampshire, commands
American force at the Cedars, near
Montreal, deserts, v. 295.

Bedford, Duke of, appointed to charge
of southern department, and colonies,
iii. 16; his character and self-confi-
dence, 16; intrigues against him, and
he resigns, 57; summoned by George
III. to attend parliament, to oppose
Pitt, 260; becomes lord privy seal,
273 ; offers resolution against continu-
ing the war in Germany, 288; am-
bassador to France, 290; bent on re-
ducing colonies to obedience, 292 ; sent
to France with full powers to negoti-
ate a peace, 292; his powers limited
by Egremont; his anger and success-
ful remonstrance through Bute, 292;
unwilling to restore Havana to Spain,
except for cession of Porto Rico and
Florida. 294; refuses to join ministry,
with Grenville and Egremont, 372;
willing to enter a coalition ministry,
on condition of Bute's absence from
the king's council, 390; advises the
kins to send for Pitt, 390; opposes bill
for benefit of silk-weavers : assailed by
them; has interview with the king,
457-460 ; asks the king if he has kept
his promises to his ministry, 483; re-
nounces his connection with Grenville,
iv. 64 ; insists on necessity of subduing
Boston by force, and thus terrifying
the colonies, 99; carries address to
kins, urging punishment of authors
of disorders in the colonies, and their
trial for treason ; the address adopted
by house of lords, 139.

lieekman, Dutch lieutenant-governor on
the Delaware, resists claim of Lord
Baltimore, 11. 64.

Behmus's Heights, battles of; General
Morgan sallies from Gates's camp with
his' riflemen, falls on left of British
central division ; re-enforced, captures
a cannon, again re-enforced, as are the
British: battle becomes general ; Bur-
goyne, in danger of a rout, is saved by
prompt action of Riedesel; losses of
combatants; British force irretrievably

crippled; Morgan, Scamuiel, and Cil-
ley, of New Hampshire, and Cook, of
Connecticut, receive praise ; desperate
condition of British army, v. 7; their
dead buried promiscuously, 7, 8; sec-
ond battle of; Gates orders attack on
both flanks of British, the right mov-
ing against Acland's grenadiers, while
Morgan tries to reach the rear ; fearing
to be surrounded, Burgoyne orders
Fraser to form a second line ; the latter
killed by a sharpshooter; grenadiers
and one regiment of Brunswickers
flee; Burgoyne orders retreat to
Eraser's camp, 11 ; Americans pursue,
and, led by Arnold, assail the British
line; Breymann's regiment attacked,
decimated, and surrenders ; Burgoyne,
outnumbered, orders retreat, 12.

Belcher, governor of New Jersey, has to
"steer between Scylla and Chary b-
dis," iii. 92.

Belgium, compelled by treaty of Utrecht
to forego her natural advantages, ii.
389.

Bellingham. Richard, chosen governor
of Massachusetts, in 1665, i 443.

Bellomont, Earl of, governor of New
York, New Jersey, and all New Eng-
land, except Connecticut and Rhode
Island ; his chief aims to support acts
of trade and suppress piracy, ii. 233 ;
in partnership with Kidd, the pirate;
his probity, 234; dependent on benev-
olence of Massachusetts general court.
269.

Bennett, Richard, chosen governor of
Virginia, i. 170, 171 ; enters Maryland,
with Clayborne, 197; deposes Stone
and his council; raises soldiers in
Maryland, 198; appoints nine com-
missioners to govern Maryland, 199;
agrees with Lord Baltimore to restore
the latter's province, 201.

Bennington, its foundation and prosper-
ity; its site sold by king's agents,
twice over, iii. 480.

Bennington, battle of; Stark sends five
hundred men in Baum's rear, and
attacks him on all sides; his Indian
allies flee; New England sharpshoot-
ers pick off cannoneers; Americans
scale Baum's breastworks; in attempt
to rally his men, he is mortally wound-
ed, ana his command surrenders ; ar-
rival of Breymann's battalions and
Warner's regiment; the battle re-
sumed, and Breymann orders a re-
treat; great losses of the British in
prisoners; the victory one of the most
brilliant and eventful of the war, and
won by husbandmen of New Hamp-
shire, Vermont, and Western Massa-
chusetts, v. 589.

Bentham, Jeremy, rejects the case of
American rebels as founded on the
assumption of natural rights, claimed
with no evidence of their existence,
and supported by vague generalities,
v. 364.

600

INDEX.

Bergen, N. J., trading station established
at, in 1618, ii. 70.

Berkeley, Sir William, appointed gov-
ernor of Virginia, i 166; his instruc-
tions as to religion, trade, &c. 156,
107; reforms under his administra-
tion, 168 ; " malignant toward the way
of the churches" in New England,
169; receives new commission from
Charles II., 161 ; writes to that sover-
eign, "almost inviting him to Amer-
ica,'' 162; elected eovernor by bur-
gesses, 173; engages with Clarendon in
a vast land speculation, 432 ; his opin-
ion of popular education, 628 ; sent as
envoy to Charles 11. by assembly of
Virginia, 531: his appointment to be
governor for life solicited by legislat-
ure of Virginia, 639; refuses to act
against Seneca Indians, 646; his con-
test with Bacon, 649 ; violates his agree-
ment, and pronounces Bacon and his
followers traitors, 660; flees at Ba-
con's approach; his flight taken for
abdication, 661; gathers a force, but
runs away from Bacon, 663: his su-
premacy restored on Bacon's death,
666; orders execution of twenty-two
patriots; his conduct censured by the
king, 656; superseded, but refuses to
yield ; removed, and sails for England,
where he soon dies, 667.

Berks county. Pa., each township in re-
solves to raise and discipline its com-
pany, iv. 649.

Bermudas, the, granted by third patent
for Virginia, i. Ill; public magazine
in, seized by George Ord, in a sloop
sent by Robert Morris, and Ord carries
off more than one hundred barrels of
powder, v. 34.

Bernard, Francis, governor of New Jer-
sey, forms plana for enlarging royal
power, iii. 248 ; removes to Massachu-
setts, 262; tells legislature that they
derive blessings from subjection to
Great Britain, 252 ; ever urging board
of trade to destroy charter, and efface
boundaries of province, 278; secretly
sends to England a scheme of Ameri-
can polity. 422; informs legislature
that " regulation " of colonies would be
thoroughly carried out, and that Great
Britain was the sanctuary of liberty
and justice, 471; writes that nothing
would come of congress of delegates,
481; hurries for safety to the castle,
493, 494; declares he had no warrant
to unpack a bale of stamped paper,
496 ; charges legislature not to dispute
right of parliament to make laws for
colonies, and puts execution of stamp
act into their hands, 605; prorogues
legislature, 506; refuses all concessions
to Massachusetts legislature, and
scouts the idea of colonial resistance,
636, 636; elated by Camden's praise of
his opinions, and their quotation in
the Bedford protest, iv. 5; boasts that
he should play out his part as governor,

6; negatives election of James Otis
as speaker of the house, 6; resents the
non-re-election of his friends to coun-
cil, 6: undertakes to force election of
Hutchinson and Oliver, as the condi-
tion of an amnesty, 7; threatens a
change in the charter of Massachu-
setts, if Hutchinson be not elected to
the council, 8; urges interposition ot
central government to give Hutchin-
' son a seat in council, 31; insists that
no agent in England shall be appointed
without his approval, but is overruled
by Shelburne, 41 ; advises change of
council from an elective body to one
of royal nomination, 42 ; advises a re-
giment of troops as surest means of
inspiring notions of submission, 59; is
attacked in "Boston Gazette," and
scolds the legislature, 77 ; addresses his
importunities to Hillsborough, and pro-
poses to become an informer on con-
dition of secrecy, 87; dissolves the
legislature, 94; according to agree-
ment with council, writes a letter to
Hillsborough, urging that part of Mas-
sachusetts' petition which prayed for
relief from acts to draw a revenue
from colonies ; but sends a secret
despatch, arguing against repeal or
mitigation of revenue act, 96, 97; re-
ceives offer of troops from Gage, but
council declines to require them. ; asks
Hillsborough for positive orders not
to call a new assembly till the people
become more reasonable, 101 ; much
alarmed by town-meeting, and thank-
fully accepts baronetcy and vice-gover-
norship of Virginia, but learns of
Botetourt's appointment, and is un-
happy, 113; announces to council the
approach of troops, and asks quarters
for one regiment, but council adroitly
refuses, 113. 114; refuses • request of
Faneuil Hail convention to call as-
sembly, 115; steals into the country
when troops are landed, 117 ; is at the
end of- his tether, 119; fears that he
will be recalled, 120; secretly furnishes
list of councillors to be appointed, 141;
to be superseded by Hutchinson, 163;
his duplicity unmasked by publication
of private letters, 164, 155 ; receives
letters of recall; tries to remain, in
order to get his year's salary, and make
confusion for his successor; in order to
worry the house into voting him a full
salary, adjourns the legislature to
Cambridge; the house unanimously
petition the king to remove him for
ever from the government ; threatens
to withhold approval from all acts till
his salary is granted ; demands appro-
priations for the troops, which house
emphatically refuses; prorogues the
court, 161-163; leaves Boston amid
rejoicings, 163; his training, his false-
hood, and avarice, 163, 164; finds that
ministry has promised never to employ
him in America again, 164.

INDEX.

501

Bernstorf, Danish minister of foreign
affairs, thinks a people can never be
justified in renouncing obedience to
Its sovereign, and sees that Denmark
shall not seem to favor the Americans,
vi. 92, 93; publishes ordinance forbid-
ding sale of prizes taken by Ameri-
cans, till condemned in admiralty
court of privateer's nation, 242, 243 ;
though reluctant to offend the English,
announces the adhesion of Denmark
to Russian declaration, and confirms it
by treaty with Russia, 369; discovered
to have compromised the rule as to
contraband, in a separate treaty with
England, and dismissed from office,
369.
llestuschef, the Russian minister, bribed
to favor treaty with England, lit. 145.
Beverley, Robert, agent of the royalists
of Virginia, restores Governor Berke-
ley to power, after Bacon's death, i. 655.
Biart, Father, a Jesuit priest, ascends
the Kennebec River, i. 19; venerated
by Indians as a messenger from
heaven, 20.
Bible, the slavish interpretation of, had

led to blind idolatry of, 11. 246.
Biddle, Nicholas, one of the first officers
of American navy, formally appointed,
v. 410: in the United States frigate
" Randolph," of thirty-six guns, meet-
ing the " Yarmouth," a British sixty-
four, fights her till his ship goes down,
vi. 52.
Bienville, brother of D'Iberville, below
site of New Orleans, turns back Eng-
lish ships, claiming the country for
the French, ii. 365, 366 ; receives memo-
rial of French Protestants, asking per-
mission to settle in Mississippi, 366;
crosses Red River, and approaches
New Mexico in search of gold, 367.
Binnetau, a missionary on the Missis-
sippi, his death, ii. 360, 361.
Bishop of London, proposed by com-
mittee on plantations, that he should
appoint a minister to reside in Boston,
i. 476; complains of change in disposi-
tion of Virginians, and diminution of
prerogative of the crown, iii. 405.
Bishops, five, signing Temple's protest,
record: their hostility to measures of
peace, iii. 584, 585.
Blacks, enlistment of, in the army ; em-
ployed by the states, and enfranchised
by service; congress advises Georgia
and South Carolina to raise three
thousand active negro troops, promis-
ing a full compensation; the resolu-
tion passes without opposition, but
South Carolina refuses to give it effect,
vi. 300, 301.
Blackstone, William, an Episcopal cler-
gyman and a recluse, in Boston, i. 266.
Blake, Joseph, leads company of dis-
senters from Somersetshire to South
Carolina, i. 513; devotes his great
wealth to the advancement of emigra-
tion, 514.

Bland, Richard, of Virginia, claims for
America, through the press, freedom
from all parliamentary legislation; his
argument, iii. 578, 579; in Virginia as-
sembly, reports resolutions reaffirming
the exclusive right of American assem-
blies to tax American colonies, iv. 84;
chosen delegate from Virginia to gen-
eral congress; his lineage and train-
ing: his able discussions of the rights
of the colonies; his speech of declina-
tion, v. 43.

Blenheim, battle of, reveals the exhaus-
tion of France, ii. 370, 371.

Block, Adriaen, first steers through Hell-
gate, and ascends Connecticut River,
ii. 33, 34 ; traces New England coast as
far as Nahant, 34.

Blouin, Daniel, agent of Illinois, iv. 270.

Board of trade and plantations, its
powers; its military recommendations
for colonies, ii. 276; rejects Locke's
scheme of military consolidation and
Perm's plan of union, 277, 278; in-
vites " legislative power" of England
to resume all colonial charters and
bring all colonies into equal depen-
dence on the crown, 280 ; renews tins
advice, 280, 281; sets forth the mis-
feasance of the proprietaries, 282;
led by Halifax, strengthens authority
of the prerogative, ill. 33; instigates
Walpole to otter bill to overrule char-
ters, 33: reluctantly drops it, 34; com-
manded to take such measures as fully
to establish the prerogative in the col-
onies, 41; presents a bill to restrain
bills of credit in New England, 55:
maturing a scheme for American civil
list, of which the royal prerogative
was the mainspring, 56; resolves to
obtain an American revenue by acts
of parliament, 56; attempts to regu-
late colonial trade so as to stop illicit
traffic, 57 ; invested with entire patron-
age and correspondence in American
affairs, 60; bound to maintain ex-
tended limits of America, 64 ; urges a
revenue for settled salaries on govern-
ors of northern colonies and to pay
cost of Indian alliances, 64 ; proposes
to abolish export duty in British West
Indies, and to put imposts on all West
India produce brought to northern
colonies, 64, 65 ; tries to conduct Amer-
ican affairs by prerogative, 65; aston-
ished by Franklin's plan of confed-
eracy, 81; its military provisions, in
1697, for colonies, 150; plan revived in
1721, 150, 151; ite reply to Pownall,
without Pitt's knowledge, 196; waits
for peace in order to enforce principle
of central government in colonies, 246;
shares forebodings of independence in
colonies, 247 ; determines on alteration
of charters, a standing army, and
American revenue for colonies, 254;
keeps every American port open as
markets for slaves, 278; when New
York refuses salary to her governor,

502

INDEX.

advises that he should have it from
royal quit-rente, which would keep
secure the colony to the crown, and
its commerce to Great Britain, 291:
represents to the king the obstinate and
disrespectful conduct of Massachusetts
and New York, 438.

Board of war, congress resolves to insti-
tute one of live persons, vi. 37. 38;
Gates made president, 39 ; eager to be
thought active, and to detach Lafay-
ette from Washington by the prospect
of a high command; in concert with
Conway, but without Washington's
knowledge, induce congress to consent
to expedition to Canada, under La-
fayette, with Conway second, 43, 44.

Bolingbroke, Lord (Saint-John), secre-
tary for the colonies, ii. 239.

Bollan, William, agent of Masachusetts
in England, opposes Walpole's bill to
overrule charters, ill. 43; argues in
favor of right of province to use its
credit for its own defence, 65; dis-
missed from agency on account of his
Episcopalianism, 284-

Book, the first printed, north of the city
of Mexico, i. 330.

Books on America, the earliest contain
fanciful tales as to aboriginal popula-
tion, ii. 394.

Boone, Daniel, of North Carolina, hears
of a rich tract west of Virginia, and
goes to Kentucky, where he hunts and
explores, iv. 168; taken prisoner by
Indians, but escapes, and, with his
brother, builds first cottage in Ken-
tucky; his lonely, but beautiful life;
returns to his family, resolved to make
his home in Kentucky, 169, 170; leads
a party to Kentucky, which is attacked
by Indians, and many killed, 420 : pro-
ceeds to territory bought of the Cher-
okees by Henderson; waylaid by In-
dians, who kill four of his party ; writes
that "Now is the time to keep the
country, while we are in it ; " pushes
to Kentucky, and begins a stockade
named Boonesborough ; colony called
by its fathers Transylvania: his mem-
ory honored in Kentucky ; bis kindli-
ness, skill in woodcraft, love of soli-
tude, 576; the remains of himself and
his wife reclaimed and buried on the
Kentucky Biver, 577.

Boone, governor of South Carolina, as-
sumes right to be sole judge of elec-
tions, iii. 393.

Boscawen, admiral of English fleet, at-
tacks French fleet carrying Dieskau's
force, and captures several vessels, iii
120 ; receives unanimous tribute from
house of commons for conduct at
Louisburg, 195.

Bossuet says that to condemn slavery is
to condemn the Holy Ghost, vi. 298.

Boston, news of accession of William of
Orange reaches, April 4, 1689; the
scenes that ensue, ii. 221; the old
magistrates reinstated as council of

safety; forts and British shipping
taken, and Andros imprisoned, 222 ; the
centre of the New England revolution,
224; insurrection against Andros, a
spontaneous movement of the people,
294; charter magistrates and " princi-
pal inhabitants" a self-constituted
" council for the safety of the people ;
people in convention exclude the
" principal inhabitants," and declare
charter magistrates to be the govern-
ment; council arranges a compromise,
295; popular party associated with
Increase Mather, as agent for New
England, Sir Henry Aahurst, Elisha
Cooke, and Thomas Oakes ; a revolu-
tion in opinion impending, 296; ar-
rival of new charter and royal gov-
ernor, 308; theology of, 319, 320; first
town-meeting of; speech of Adams, iii.
365, 366 ; denies right of British parlia-
ment to tax America, and seeks redress
through a union of the colonies, 420:
angry that legislature had not claimed
exemption from taxation as a right,
467, 468; rejoicings in, over news that
the king had sent for Pitt, 492; de-
monstrations against the stamp act,
493-495; news of change of ministry
arrives, creating great joy, 496; asks
for portraits of Conway and Barrt for
Faneuil Hall, 500; sets example to
other towns of arraigning stamp act,
as contrary to British constitution,
505; electa Samuel Adams representa-
tive, 506; rejoicings over repeal of
stamp act, 587, 588 ; proposes union of
colonies as a means of security, i v. 5;
patriotic toasts at celebration of anni-
versary of outbreak against stamp act,
reported to England, 20; "the die is
thrown," the cry in, on news tttat the
revenue act had passed, 56; com-
memorates anniversary of first resist-
ance to stamp act, 56; the press on
liberty, 57 ; would nullify Townshend's
revenue act by dispensing with goods
dutiable under it, and import no more
British goods, 57 ; the governor having
refused to convene legislature, people
in town-meeting vote to forbear the
use of many British articles, and
order their resolves sent to other
towns and colonies, 60; people of,
dread the corrupt employment of the
new revenue; attempt at non- im-
portation thus far failed, 69; mer-
chants subscribe to renounce trade
with England, and ask all merchants
in America to show the world universal
passive resistance, 77; real state of -
feeling in, and demands of, 79; people
respond to Dickinson's appeal ; thank,
and send committee to greet him as
" the friend of America, and the bene-
factor of mankind," 81; at a legal
town-meeting instructs its represen-
tatives, through John Adams, as to
its opinions and intentions, 92, 93;
people of, gone out of favor with nearly

INDEX.

603

©very one hi England, 98; memorial
of, to lords of treasury, showing that
the Boston riot was caused by officers
of the '* Romney," receives little no-
tice,'99; most or merchants agree not
to order goods from Britain, with a
few exceptions, or import any tea,
paper, glass, until duties on them are
removed, 101 ; the fourteenth of August
celebrated with spirit, 101, 102; peti-
tion signed for town-meeting to con-
sider measures as to expected arrival
of troops, 111, 112 ; assembling of town-
meeting; the governor asked for
grounds of her expectation of troops,
and to call a general assembly, 111;
vote to defend, at peril of lives and for-
tunes, their rights, &c. ; a convention
in Faneuil Mall proposes a day of
fasting and prayer, 112 ; startling news
from England, 112, 113; arrival of
fleet and troops; council refuses to
furnish quarters, 117; troops landed
with great pomp on the common, 117,
118; selectmen refuse quarters for
them, but lot them sleep in Faneuil
Hall, 118; officers hire houses for
troops, who have nothing to do, 119 ;
its population, education, and culture,
its civil, political, and ecclesiastical
conditions, the characteristics of its
people, 135-137; patriots of, sure of
regaining their rights, with England's
consent or by independence, 152 ; meet-
ing of merchants, votes not to buy of
Hutchinson's sons, and others, who
would not join in non-importation,
173, 174; the attack, massacre, town-
meeting, and removal of twenty-ninth
regiment, 187-194; instructs its rep-
resentatives to cultivate martial vir-
tues, and cherish union of the colo-
nies, 204 ; town-meeting, Oct. 28, 1772,
raises committee to ask the governor
if the judges of province had become
stipendiaries of the crown ; the gover-
nor refuses to answer, 240, 241 ; second
meeting receives governor's reply, and
passes a vote asserting their right to
petition the king, and to communi-
cate their sentiments to other towns ;
Samuel Adams's motion to appoint
committee of correspondence, looking
to a general confederacy against par-
liament, 241, 242; votes by means of
committees of correspondence to ap-
peal to all towns in colony, 245 ; town-
meeting adopts the Philadelphia re-
solves, and invites the Hutchinsons to
resign their consigneeship, but they
refuse, and talk of taking arms is ap-
plauded, 272; news arrives that tea-
ships had sailed, and another legal
town-meeting urges consignees to re-
sign, breaking up on their refusal;
committees of Boston and neighboring
towns vote to use their joint influence
to prevent landing and sale of teas, and
write to other towns asking advice,
173 ; meeting of people compels Botch

to apply for a clearance for the " Dart-
mouth, 278 ; a vast assemblage in the
Old South, sends Botch to get a pass
from the governor, and in his absence
votes, seven thousand strong, that tea
must not be landed, 279, 280 ; Rotch
reports the governor's refusal, 280 ; act
received closing the port, and trans-
ferring the board of customs to Marble-
head, and seat of government to Salem,
321; great town-meeting pronounces
port-bill repugnant to law, religion,
and common sense, provides for those
likely first to suffer, and appeals to
other colonies, inviting a universal
suspension of exports and imports,
323; masses tempted at once to rout
the few troops sent to overawe them,
325; agents of British government try
to alarm people by painting pictures
of idleness and want, 331 ; co-operation
of Providence and New York animates
majority of merchants to engage to
cease importations from England, 331 ;
the Philadelphia letter requiring them
to recede received with impatience,
332 ; general confidence in divine pro-
tection, 332; the blockade begins; a
sad spectacle, 338, 339 ; at great town-
meeting in Faneuil Hall, those in favor
of indemnifying East India company
invited to speak, but not a voice
raised, 344; borne up by sympathy
and aid, 346; at a town-meeting in
Old South Church, opposition tries to
censure committee or correspondence ;
attempt to substitute a more moderate
committee, resisted by Samuel Adams,
and vote of censure defeated; one
hundred and twenty-nine of opposi-
tion sign a protest, favoring unquali-
fied submission, 347 ; inhabitants desire
to burn it, rather than to remain in it
slaves, 390 ; its citizens do not despair,
but instruct their representatives never
to acknowledge the regulating act,
400; asks advice of general congress in
view of Gage's tyranny and exactions,
offering, if It were necessary, to aban-
don their homes, 403 ; its magnanimity
most animates the country ; its people
elect delegates to next provincial con-
gress, 435, 436; relief received from all
towns of Massachusetts, and all colo-
nies, and even from England, 487;
king's governor and army beleaguered
in April 20, 1775, 532 ; accept Gage's
offer, and leave town, but without
provisions, 540; so strictly beleaguered
that British can obtain food and fresh
meat only from islands, 572; arrival,
May 25, of Howe, Clinton, and Bur-
goyne, with re-enforcements ; received
as enemies, and have no outlet save
by sea, 573 ; number of inhabitants re-
maining in, during British occupation;
their sufferings, v. 15; loyalists in,
struck with horror by General Howe's
decision to evacuate Boston ; they had
no resort save exile to Nova Scotia, in

504

INDEX

poverty and discontent, 199 ; evacuated
by British troops, 201; at once occu-
pied by American troops ; large amount
of stores left by British ; store-ships,
with valuable cargoes, enter harbor
and are seized, 202 ; houses of, In good
condition ; crowds of friends stream in j
Washington thanked by selectmen)
202,203.

Boston port-bill, closing that port against
all commerce, until East India com-
pany were indemnified, and the king
satisfied that Boston would obey all
laws; presented to house of commons
by Lord North, iv. 296; the debate
on it, 29? . opposed on third reading by
Dowdeswell, Burke, Rose Fuller, and
others, 297 ; passes without a division,
298; fully and fairly discussed in house
of lords, and passed unanimously, 300,
301; approved by the king. 301; cir-
culated through colonies, and burned,
327: act received at Boston May 10,
and in three weeks the continent made
Boston's cause its own, 337.

Botetourt, Lord, appointed governor of
Virginia; his honesty and ability; his
instructions, iv. 100; makes favor-
able reports to England; promises to
carry Jurisdiction of Virginia to the
Tennessee River, 128; in harmony
with his council, and well received by
burgesses, and as chief justice decides
that writs of assistance are illegal, 158,
159 ; makes known to Virginia assem-
bly promises of ministry, of partial
repeal of revenue laws, and that the
king would lose his crown rather than
keep it by deceit; praises loyalty of
assembly, which responds gratefully,
176 ; wishes tax on tea to be given up,
176.

Botetourt county, Va., people of, declare
that they cannot part with their
liberty but with their lives, iv. 486.

Bouille, Marquis de, governor of French
Windward Islands, captures in one day
the British island of Dominica, vi.
258.

Boundaries of English, French, and
Spanish possessions in North America;
the colonies of different nations sepa-
rated by tracts of wilderness, inhab-
ited by savages, ii. 393, 394

Boundbrook, General Lincoln surprised
by Cornwallis at; Lincoln retreats,
but reoccupies his post, v. 560.

Bounties granted on importation of deals,
planks, <&c, from the colonies, iii.
452.

Bouquet, marches to relieve Fort Pitt,
ana re-enforce Detroit. 384; attacked
by savages and nearly routed, 385;
feigns a retreat, and puts Indians to
flight; arrives at Pittsburg, 385; leads
expedition to Ohio, makes treaties with
Shawnees, Delawares, and Senecas,
who surrender white captives, 435, 436.

Bowdoin, James, member of Governor
Bernard's council, iv. 114; drafts

answer of council to governor's chal-
lenge, 254; and for the same body
affirms parliamentary taxation to bo
unconstitutional, 258; delegate from
Massachusetts to general congress, but
cannot serve, 344.

Bowler, speaker of Rhode Island assem-
bly, writes to Massachusetts congress
that " the colony of Rhode Island is
firm and determined," iv. 537.

Boyle, Robert, a friend of Massachusetts,
expresses surprise that she demands
revocation of commission, but makes
no complaint against commissioners,

1. 44o.

Brackett, Anne, of Portland, her escape
from the Indians, i. 465.

Braddock, Edward, commander of Brit-
ish forces in America; his character,
iii. Ill; ordered to exact a common
revenue from colonies, 112 ; holds con-

Sress of colonial governors, to whom
e insists on colonial revenue, which
they declared was impossible without
aid of parliament, 115. 116 ; his prom-
ises, and confidence in his regulars,
120 ; his opinion of American troops,
121; his slow advance, and hardships
of the march, 121, 122 ; his movement
on Fort Duquesne, 122, 123; an am-
buscade and a battle, 123, 124 ; " scan-
dalously beaten," 125 ; evacuates Fort
Cumberland, 125; his death, 125.

Braddock's defeat, news of, in central
colonies, astounding, iii. 126.

Braddock's field, visited by a detach-
ment of Forbes'8 army, a scene of des-
olation, now so changed, iii. 207.

Bradford, William, chosen governor of
Plymouth colony, in place of Carver,
i. 248 ; returns defiance to Canonicus,
249; his consolation to the pilgrims,
252,253.

Bradstreet, of New York, proposes an at-
tack on Fort Frontenac, iii. 196 ; razes
the fort, and captures some of the gar-
rison, 202; makes treaty with Indians
between Lake Erie and Ohio, and at
Detroit with Chippewas, Ottawas, and
other tribes, 429.

Brandenburg, Anspach, margrave of,
nephew of Frederic of Prussia, to clear
himself from debt, furnishes two regi-
ments of twelve hundred good men,
promising and giving them full British
pay, v. 541; quells a mutiny among
them at place of embarkation, 542.

Brandt burns settlement of Minisink,
and gains advantage over his pursuers,
vi. 212, 213.

Brandy wine, battle of, position of hostile
forces; Sullivan charged with securing
the right flank; more than half of
Howe's army marches to cross the
Brandy wine at its forks ; Knyphausen
commands the ford; Washington re-
solves to strike at division in his front;
orders Sullivan to cross at a higher
ford, and begins the advance, v. 596 ;
Sullivan disobeys orders, and defeats

INDEX

505

Washington's design ; Sullivan ordered
to confront Coruwallis. approaching to
turn the American right ; leaves a gap
of half a mile between his command
and Stirling's and Stephen's troops ;
undertakes to take his proper place,
is attacked, and his division routed ;
Stirling and Stephen's men resist
bravely, but are overborne, 597 ; Howe
likely to get in American rear, when
Washington, with two brigades, checks
the pursuit ; Howe pushes on, driving
Greene, till a strong position is reached,
which is held against him till night-
fall ; Knyphausen crosses the river at
Chad's ford ; the American left, under
Wayne, defends intrenchments till its
rear is threatened, and retreats in
good order ; two battalions of British
ordered to occupy a cluster of houses
beyond Dilworth; they receive a
deadly fire from Maxwell's corps, in
ambush, and are nearly routed before
relief arrives, 598 ; losses of combatants,
599.

Brant, Joseph, chief of Six Nations, has
audience of Lord Qermain ; hopes the
rebels will be punished, and says the
Indians are ready to help ; the king and
ministry count on important aid from
the Iroquois, v. 201; returns from Eng-
land to excite his countrymen to de-
mand war under their own leaders,
545 ; urges Mohawks to leave their
old homes for lands more distant from
American settlements, 570.

Brebeuf, Jean de, a Jesuit priest, his
discipline and visions, ii. 301, 302; his
teaching of the Indians, 302, 303 ; his
mission perfects knowledge of the
great watercourse of the valley of the
St. Lawrence, 306 ; tortured and killed
at St. Louis, 314, 315.

Breda, treaty of; under the, France
claims the country from the St. Croix
to the Penobscot, i. 469.

Breed's Hill, an eminence in Charles-
town, near Bunker Hill, iv. 603.

Brent, acting governor of Maryland,
seizes a London ship, i. 191.

Bressani, a Catholic missionary, cap-
tured and tortured by Indians, and
rescued by the Dutch, ii. 310.

Brevard, Ephraim, delegate to assembly
in Mecklenburg county, N.C.; well-
educated and patriotic, he frames the
system adopted by assembly ; the lan-
guage of that system, iv. 578.

Brewer, Jonathan, of Waltham, proposes
to provincial congress to march with
five hundred men to Quebec, by way
of Kennebec and Chaudiere, in order
to draw governor of Canada in that
direction, and thus secure northern
and western frontiers from inroads;
the design not favored, but not for-
gotten, iv. 542.

Brewster, William, a friend of the re-
formed religion, i. 227 ; leads pilgrims
from Leyden, 241.

Breymann, his regiment attacked by
Learned, in second battle of Behmus's
Heights, and routed ; mortally wound-
ed; his position the key to Burgoyne's
camp, vi. 12.

Brigadier-generals, continental, eight
elected by congress; seven from New
England; Setn Pomeroy, Bichard'
Montgomery, David Wooster, William
Heath, Joseph Spencer. John Thomas,
John Sullivan, and Nathaniel Greene,
v. 7.

" Bristol," the, a vessel of Parker's fleet,
enterB Charleston harbor with thirty
or forty other vessels, v. 273; shattered
by Are of Fort Moultrie, 281; her loss
of men, 283.

Bristol, England, almost only place that
changes its representation to advan-
tage of America, iv. 429.

British army, in Boston, estimated by
American council of war at 11,500, but
reduced by losses, desertion, &c, to
6,500, rank and file; choice troops
amply supplied, v. 15, 16; disheartened
and sick, 33; regiments cannot be
kept full by enlistments in Britain,
90; largely recruited from American
loyalists, destitute emigrants. Ireland,
and the highlands of Scotland, 167 ; its
numbers in February, 1776, 194;
amusements of young officers, 195;
evacuates Boston, and proceeds to
New York, 201 ; arrival of re-enforce-
ments at that port, 371; number of
troops from Great Britain and Ireland
sent to New York before the end of
1777, 3,252; to Canada, 726, 544; Brit-
ish recruiting stations established, 544;
commissions issued for imbodying six
thousand five hundred men in thirteen
battalions; loyalists boast that the
king gets as many recruits as the con-
gress, not unfounded; of the king's
men, few are Americans born, 544;
strength of, under Howe, at Phila-
delphia, and its efficiency, 593, 594.

British command in America divided;
the command of Canada assigned to
Carleton, that of old colonies to Howe,
v. 58.

British commissioners, three, arrive in
Philadelphia; delighted with scenery
of the Delaware, vi. 133; and predict
greatness of town ; their appointment
a device of Lord North to reconcile the
English to continuance of the war;
Carlisle, first commissioner, had spoken
in house of lords of insolence of the
rebels ; the second, an under-secretary,
whose chief scoffed at congress as
a body of vagrants; the third, John-
stone, who had justified the Ameri-
cans ; their success not expected by the
ministry, 134; find with dismay that
the city is being evacuated, 135; recog-
nize, in letter to congress, with an
emblematic seah its constituency as
" states," and offer freedom of legisla-
tion, representation in parliament, and

506

INDEX.

exemption from presence of troops;
the gratification of " every wish that
America had expressed ; " insinuate
that France is the common enemy;
these offers made without authority,
and before receiving an answer com-
missioners sail away, 135; address a
farewell to congress, and people of
America, 1S3.

British constitution, reform of, effected
by Junction of liberal aristocracy with
tfie people; Chatham's advice to that
end opposed by passions of Burke, iv.
178.

British cruisers capture two hundred
ships of Dutch republic, with cargoes
worth fifteen million guilders, vi. 365.

British historian of the war writes from
South Carolina that "almost the
whole country seemed upon the eve
of a revolt," vi 287.

British losses at Bunker Hill; the suf-
fering regiments; the loss of officers
disproportionately great; those dying
of their wounds have no hope that
their memories would be cherished, v.
3,4.

British military measures serve to pro-
mote independence of the United
States; their armies take successively
Boston, New York, and Philadelphia,
and are compelled to evacuate the
first and last, vi. 153.

British officers in New York write home
that Corn wal lis is carrying all before
him in Jersey, and that peace must
soon follow his success, v. 456.

British outrages on prisoners; of over
three thousand military prisoners con-
fined in prison-ships at Charleston, all
but about seven hundred die, or are
forced into distant service, vi. 285.

British shipping, measures for protec-
tion of, i. 164, 165; a scheme projected
centuries before, 166.

British troops in Philadelphia woll pro-
vided for; gayeties and licentiousness
of the officers, vi. 46.

Broglie, Count de, receives Duke of Glou-
cester, at Metz, where he also enter-
tains Lafayette, iv." 564; an early
partisan of American colonies, v. 362 ;
tries to dissuade Lafayette from join-
ing Americans, 362, 363; is willing to
be the William of Orange of America,
on condition of receiving a large rev-
enue, the highest military rank, and
a princely annuity; his offer to be
made through Kalb; the poverty of
the republic prevents the realization
of his scheme, 519.

Brooke, Lord, an associate of Lord Say
and Seal, i 304.

Brooks, John, commander of minute
men of Reading, at Concord fight, iv.
628.

Brooks, afterwards governor of Massa-
chusetts, one of Prescott's messengers
from Breed's Hill, iv. 609.

Urooklyn, L.I., American lin<» in, v.

371; re-enforced by six regiments; de-
lay caused by defence of, prevents
junction of Howe with Carleton, the
idea of which is abandoned for the
season, 372.

Bronghton, of Marblehead, ordered by
Washington to take command of a
detachment, in a schooner equipped at
continental expense, and to intercept
all vessels with supplies for British
army, v. 34.

Brown, Colonel, commanding British

rst at Augusta; is defeated by Clark ;
relieved by Cruger, and pursuing
Clark's force Kills some, and murders
thirty prisoners, vi. 288, 289.

Brown, Colonel John, of Pittsfield, sent
out by Lincoln to harass Burgoyne's
rear; surprises out-posts of Ticon-
deroga, and, losing only nine men, frees
one hundred prisoners, captures four
companies of British regulars and five
cannon, and destroys two hundred
boats ; rejoins Lincoln, vi. 5.

Brown, Lieutenant-colonel, commander
at Augusta, and captured ; his dread-
ful cruelties; is protected from in-
habitants he had wronged, vi. 404.
405.

Brown, John, a lawyer at Pittsfield,
Mass., joins expedition against Ticon-
deroga, iv. 554; charged to convey
to continental congress news of great
capture, 556.

Brown, Major John, an emissary of
General Schuyler; reports that time
has come to carry Canada, where is
only a small force of troops, that the
people are friendly, and will not serve
under French officers, v. 114; aids at
siege of Chambly, 121.

Browne, John and Samuel, dissent from
religious practices of Salem church,
ana uphold "common prayer wor-
ship," i. 272; sent back to England,
where they report dangerous innova-
tions in the civil and ecclesiastical
affairs of the colony, 273.

Browne, Robert, a clergyman of the
church of England with Independent
leanings, i. 220; is imprisoned, 221; is
released, and founds a church in the
Netherlands, 221; his writings, 221;
submits to church of England, but the
principles he had advocated did not
suffer by his apostasy, 221.

Brunswick, duchy of, negotiations with,
for troops to serve in America; number
furnished, and terms; total number
furniBhed by, during the war, v. 172 ;
troops sent equal to one twenty-
seventh of its population, 180; the
duke of, his shabby behavior in send-
ing worthless recruits, 540, 541 ; princes
of, beg that captives of Saratoga may
not return, as tl ey will spoil the traffic
in sol< Hers, vi. 53.

Brunswick, N.J., British army of seven-
teen thousand men at, v 565.

Bryan, George, vice-president of Peun-

INDEX

007

sylvania, urges on assembly the bill
for manumitting infant children of
slaves, vi. 306; in assembly, introduces
new preamble, and draft of a law
for gradual emancipation, which was
passed, 307.

Buckingham, Duke of, obtains from
Spain grant of territory on river
Amazon, i. 260; hurries England into
war with France, 261.

Bull, Henry, an octogenarian Quaker,
assumes governorship of Rhode Island,
and restores its charter, ii. 173.

Bullitt, Thomas, saves Grant's command
from utter ruin, ill. 206.

Bunker Hill, an eminence in Charles-
town, commanding both peninsulas of
Boston, iv. 603; its fortification, and
the occupation of several hills in
Gharlestown recommended ; establish-
ment of a post on; Colonel William
Prescott assigned to the duty ; marches
for CharleBtown, defying Gage's pro-
clamation against bearing arms against
the king, 604 ; the intrenching pushed
forward through the night, 605; frigate
" Lively " begins to tire on American
works, and soon a battery on Copp's
Hill ; a vast crowd beholds the redoubt
with amazement, 605; Prescott tries
to extend his line, 605, 606; sufferings
of the Americans who wait for the
fight to begin, 607 ; British troops, two
thousand in all, commanded by Major-
general Howe, assisted by Brigadier-
general Pigot, cross to Gharlestown,
and, landing under cover of shipping,
halt for re-enforcements, 607, 608;
Prescott sends Connecticut troops
under Knowlton to oppose the Brit-
ish; he makes a slight defence by
piling hay between two fences, 608,
609 ; the raw and undisciplined troops
have only sixty-three half-barrels of
powder, 609; constituents of Little's
regiment, 611, 612; number of Ameri-
can troops arrived before beginning
of attack, 612 ; Howe receives large re-
enforcements, 613; number of Ameri-
cans in the battle not over fifteen
hundred, 613, 614 ; negroes have place
in ranks, 614; Charlestown burned by
order of Howe, 614; his assault on the
whole front ; his men approach within
two rods of redoubt, when, shattered
by a devastating fire, they fall back,
614-616; Howe's column moves on
rail-fence, and within eighty yards
deploys into line; Americans, under
Stark and Knowlton, and cheered on
by Putnam, hold their fire till the last,
when they pour forth a volley, which
throws the British into confusion and
retreat, 616; rejoicings of the Ameri-
cans at sight of fleeing British, whose
officers push them forward witn their
swords ; after a delay, Pigot's column
rallies and advances, firing, and is re-
ceived with another volley more fatal
than the first; still pushes forward,

but cannot reach the redoubt, and
presently gives way in great disorder,
616, 617 ; British light infantry attempts
to penetrate the grass fence, but fails ;
its losses, the dead lying "thick as
sheep in a fold;" the ball-studded
fence-rails; the hottest fight experi-
enced officers had ever known, 617;
artillery firing from ships and bat-
teries, Charlestown in flames, ships in
the yards crashing on the stocks; Bur-
goyne's judgment of the battle, 617,
618 ; ammunition of Americans almost
exhausted, 618; royal army, exas-
perated at its repulse, prepares to
renew the engagement; the light in-
fantry and part of grenadiers left to
repeat attack at rail-fence, while rest
of forces are concentrated on the re-
doubt, and cannon placed to rake in-
side oi breastwork ; the British advance
with fixed bayonets ; Clinton joins, at
the head of 47th regiment, and ma-
rines; the Americans in the redoubt,
only six hundred in number, have to
encounter six battalions attacking
from three sides, 619; receiving a re-
served heavy fire, the British waver,
and then spring forward, the American
fire slackening: first who scale the
parapet shot down; officers killed;
kept at bay by Americans with clubbed
guns; at last Prescott orders re-
treat, which begins; the fugitives
would have been cut off*, but for pro-
vincials at the rail-fence and the bank
of the Mystic, who hold the enemy in
check till the main body of American
army had left the hill; not till then
did the troops of Stark and Knowlton
auit the station they had " nobly de-
fended ; " the retreat quite orderly, 620,
621; the British unable to continue
pursuit beyond the isthmus ; one third
of their force disabled, and the rest
overawed; their heavy losses, 621, 622;
American losses, 622, 623.

Buford, Colonel, commanding rear of old
Virginia militia, too late to re-enforce
Charleston; retreats, and is overtaken
by Tarleton, with seven hundred
mounted men; with a hundred men,
escapes by flight ; the rest of his com-
mand sue for quarter, but most are
killed or fatally wounded, vl. 267, 268.

Burden, Ann, a Quaker, sent to England,
i. 361.

Burgesses, house of, of Virginia, act a? a
convention of the people, I. 171 ; in Vir-
ginia, wages of, 536 ; oppose Berkeley's
proposed " levy on lands, and not upon
heads ; " right of voting for, restricted,
537.

Burgesses, house of, in Maryland, sepa-
rates, and a negative thus secured to
representatives of the people, i. 195.

Burgoyne, John, a major-general with
Howe in America ; his obscure origin,
military services, and literary and ora-
torical capacity; eager to efface shamo

508

INDEX.

of his birth with military glory, Iv.
*82 ; parades his principles in house of
commons, declaring that there is no
officer or soldier in the king's service
who does not think the parliamentary
right of Great Britain a cause to fight,
to bleed, to die for, 482, 483 : his opin-
ion of battle of Bunker Hill, 618 ; lan-
guidly pursues Sullivan in Canada, v.
209; arrives at Quebec, and assumes
command of army ; hastens prepara-
tions for campaign; his officers, 572;
plans a diversion by way of Lake On-
tario, while he advances from St.
John's; his confidence; meets in con-
gress four hundred Iroquois, Algonkins,
and Ottawas, 572 ; his address to them,
673, 574; acquiescence of the Indians;
later, tries to excuse himself by say-
ing that he " spoke daggers, but used
none," 574; his bombastic proclama-
tion, 574, 575 ; declares, in general or-
ders, " this army must not retreat ; "
sends Fraser in pursuit of St. Clair
fleeing from Ticonderoga, and his fleet
chases the fugitives who had escaped
by water; reports to his government
that the army of Ticonderoga is "dis-
banded and totally destroyed," 576;
asks Carleton to hold Ticonderoga with
part of three thousand troops left in
Canada, but is refused ; takes a short
cut to Fort Edward, through a wil-
derness, where a vast amount of work
is necessary ; confesses that, if Indians
were uncontrolled, horrible atrocities
would result, but resolves to send them
toward Connecticut and Boston, 579;
in England, had censured Carleton to
Germain for not using Oswego and Mo-
hawk Rivers for an auxiliary expedi-
tion; tells Carleton that all possible
means are now to be used against the
rebels, and that Indians will be held
with looser reins, 583 ; pledges them to
stay through the campaign, 587 ; to aid
Saint-Leger by a diversion, sends ex-
pedition to Bennington, 587 ; fords the
Battenkill at head of a regiment, to
meet Breymann, 589; Canadians and
Indians desert ; embarrassed as to sup-
plies, 590; in a quandary; refused aid
by Howe, remembers Carleton's case,
and attempts, with six thousand men,
to force his way to Albany ; crosses the
Hudson River, and invests Gates's
camp, vi. 6 ; September 20, encamps in
sight of American lines, 8; condition
or his army grows worse ; the Indians
melt away from him ; in council pro-
poses, to turn American left; agrees to
make a grand reconnoissance; starts
with fifteen hundred men; forms a
line near Americans, and offers battle;
sends Canadians to get in rear of Amer-
icans, 10, 11 ; exposes himself in battle
that follows ; orders retreat to Eraser's
camp, 11 ; makes his last encampment
at Saratoga, 13; his army completely
invested; his council unanimous for

treating for surrender, IB; stipulates
for passage from Boston, 14; his troops
remain near Boston; insists that the
United States have broken public faith,
and refuses to give lists of soldiers who
were not to serve in America daring the
war ; sails for England on parole, 51.

Burgoyne's defeat, glory of, reserved for
soldiers of Virginia, New York, and
New England, v. 583.

Burke, Edmund, deplores the outrage
on the Acadians, ill. 131 ; secretary to
Rockingham; his great powers and
deficiencies, 487; advocates unlimited
legislative power over the colonies, 549 ;
favors reception of the petition of
colonies, 551; eager to extend com-
merce of the empire, 585; ridicules the
idea of American representation in par-
liament, iv. 121 ; inveighs against Cam-
den for his inconsistency, 129, 130;
acting with Grenville, moves resolu-
tions condemnatory of policy recently
pursued toward America. 202, 203;
elected agent of province of New York,
215 ; opposes Boston port bill, and says
England will draw a foreign force upon
her, 297 ; his great speech on repeal of
tax on tea, 303, 304 ; Wilkes for support
at Westminster, invited to be candi-
date for Bristol; accepts, avowing for
his principle British superiority, yet to
be reconciled with American liberty,
and gains his seat, 429; pursues Chat-
ham implacably, and refuses to come
to an understanding with him on gen-
eral politics; believes the Americans
will fall apart, 441 ; compares England
to the archer who sees his own child in
the arms of adversary against whom
he is going to draw his do w, 462; in
parting interview with Franklin, la-
ments separation of colonies, but deems
it inevitable; brings forward resolu-
tions for conciliation, censuring par-
liament for its inconsistent legislation,
and warmly eulogizing the colonies,
497-501 ; his wisdom scoffed away by a
vote of more than three to one. 501 ; ex-
presses surprise at timidity which per-
mitted king's forces to possess them-
selves of New York city, the most im-
portant post in America, 571 ; foresees
an engagement at Boston, and believes
that Gage will beat the " raw American
troops,'' v. 67 ; in house of commons,
offers a bill to quiet American troubles
by renouncing pretensions to an Amer-
ican revenue, 106 ; thinks the colonies,
unaided, can offer no effective resist-
ance to the power of England and its
allies, 244, 245 ; says the war is '* fruit-
less, hopeless, and unnatural ; " desires
to go to France and see Franklin, but
the friends of Rockingham object, 647 ;
denounces employment of Indians
against colonists, 574; urges agreement
with Americans at any rate, vi. 55;
theories of absolute parliamentary
power, and rights of communities and

INDEX.

509

Individuals, to embalmed in his elo-
quence as to have induced opposite
estimates of his character. 79; tries, in
1780, to iearn what laws can check
slavery, and inclines to gradual eman-
cipation; thinks slavery "an incura-
ble evil," 298; congratulates Franklin
on resolutions of commons for an ad-
dress to the king, 434; not taken into
Rockingham' 8 ministry, because not
born in the purple, 438.

Burke, William, kinsman of Edmund,
favors retention of Quadaloupe, and
fears the growth of American colonies,
iii. 243; advises that Lord Halifax be
appointed to negotiate peace with
France, 243, 244; in parliament, says
colonists will not lose their constitu-
tions without a struggle, iv. 295.

Burleigh, Lord, remonstrates against the
ecclesiastical court, i. 223; what he
thought of Puritans, 224; protests
against execution of Greenwood and
Barrow, for dissent, 226.

Burr, Aaron, a volunteer in Arnold's
expedition to the St. Lawrence, v.
123; aide to Montgomery, escapes un-
hurt when the latter is killed, 135;
aide to General Putnam at New York,
400.

Burroughs, George, a minister at Salem
village, accusedof witchcraft, and com-
mitted, ii. 258; scene at his execution,
259.

Burton, a Puritan, maimed for his relig-
ious opinions, i. 326.

Bushe, a friend of Grattan, publishes
" The Case of Great Britain and Amer-
ica," with vehement invective against
Grenville, "whose speeches and doc-
trines rouse Grattan to enter on his
great career in Ireland," iv. 177.

Bute, Earl of, his character and attain-
ments, iii. 161 ; Prince George's fond-
ness for him ; favored by Pitt and op-
posed by Newcastle and Hardwicke,
162; countenances Pitt, 164; congratu-
lates Pitt on his elevation, 180 ; defends
Abercromble, 201; called to privy
council and cabinet, 256; the king's
obsequious friend ; his character, 258 ;
takes seals of northern department,
260; has misgivings about Pitt's resig-
nation, 273; intimates to Russian
minister that England would help
Russia to hold East Prussia, if Russia
would hold Frederic in check, 288; be-
comes first lord of the treasury, 289;
his administration, 290; submits his
project for peace to Bedford, 290 : ap-
prises French ambassador of Bedford's
instructions, with warning to keep the
fact secret from Bedford, 292 ; indiffer-
ent to further acquisitions in America,
293; a strong party forming against
him, 367 ; arranges for a new ministry,
and resigns, 367, 368 ; retires from pub-
lic life 391; sought by Bedford and
Grenvihe, but refuses to negotiate as
to a new administration, 570.

Butler, Colonel John. Induces Senecas to
cross the border of Pennsylvania, under
British flag ; boasts that his force had
burnt a thousand houses and every
mill, vi. 144.

Butler, British officer at Irondequot.
Canada; lavishes gifts on Indians till
they "accept the hatchet," v. 584.

Bute, Thomas, an Englishman, offers to
states of Netherlands to take four
ships-of-war to America, but his offer
declined, ii. 22.

Butterfleld, Major, left in command of
American force at the Cedars, near
Montreal, surrenders pusillanimously,
v. 295.

Buttrick, Major John, of Concord,
marches at head of column to meet
British at Concord Bridge; orders
return-fire on the troops, iv. 527.

Bylandt, Count de, commands five
Dutch ships-of-war, convoying seven-
teen mercnant-men ; surrounded by
British fleet, refuses to let his convoy
be visited; in the night, twelve of his
ships slip away ; fires on English vessel
about to visit the others; the fire re-
turned ; surrenders ; this outrage talked
about throughout Europe, vi. 244. 245.

Byllinge, Edward,purchaser,with others,
of half of New Jersey: quarrels with
Fen wick, trustee; embarrassed, and
assigns his property to trustees, Wil-
liam Penn, Gawen Laurie, and Nicho-
las Lucas, ii. 101 ; his claim of right, as
proprietor, to nominate deputy gover-
nor of West New Jersey, resisted, 106.

Bynge, George, tho only one in house of
commons who said no, on presentation
of Boston port bill, iv. 296.

Byron, Admiral, succeeds Lord Howe in
command of British naval squadron in
America, vi. 152; receives re-enforce-
ments which make his fleet superior to
the French, 259.

Cabal, American, the, some members of,
wish to provoke Washington to resign,
vi. 40; subtlest members of. intend ad*
vancement, not of Gates, but of Lee,
42 ; French envoy reports that it is sup-
ported exclusively at the north, 299.

Cabal, the king's, administration of,
indifferent to religion, and careless of
every thing but pleasure; but coun-
try better satisfied with it than with
Clarendon's, ii. 162.

Cabinet of France, a member of, advises
leading English colonies to confide
in France and Spain, and opening of
New Orleans to all nations and reli-
gions, and opposes the taking back by
France of Louisiana, iv. 150, 151 ; de-
sires to loosen bonds of trade to protect
Europe against Russian inroads, and
the independence of all colonies, 154;
only part of Louis XVI.'s ministry
disposed to take advantage of Eng-
land's troubles. 362 ; precedent of Eng-
lish support of Corsicans cited in, w

510

INDEX.

▼lew of possibility that France might
be called on to aid colonies, 440.

Cabot, John, receives his commission, i.
8; discovers western continent, 9; his
disappearance, 10.

Cabot, Sebastian, seeks a north-west
passage to Cathay and Japan, i. 10 ;
discovers coast-line of the present
United States, 11 ; his long and honor-
able service under Ferdinand of Cas-
tile, 12 ; his expedition to the Pacific.
12; returns to England, rewarded, and
advises to try a north-east passage to
Cathay, 66; Charles V. sends for him,
67 ; he gave England a continent, 67.

Cabrillo, Juan ltodriquez, commands ex-
pedition of Spaniards from Acapulco
to southern part of Oregon territory,
in 1592, i. 72

Cadets, Boston, resent revocation of
Hancock's commission by returning
the king's standard, and disbanding,
iv. 373.

Cadwalader, Lambert, of Philadelphia,
commands lines on south of Fort
Washington, at Howe's attack; has
no heart for the work. v. 451; orders
his men to retreat, 452; favors assent
to demand for surrender, 452, 453.

Cadwalader, John, in command at Bris-
tol, fails to cross the Delaware, vi. 478 ;
renews the attempt, 487.

Caldwell, Bev. James. Presbyterian
minister at Connecticut Farms, a
zealous patriot; his wife shot at the
window by a British soldier, and the
house instantly burned, vi. 316.

Calendar regulated by parliament for
British dominions, ill. 56.

Calloway, Richard, one of the founders
and early martyrs of Kentucky, iv.
576.

Calvert, C, secretary of Maryland,
thinks that a tax will have to be laid
in colonies to sustain standing force
for their benefit, iii. 254; rejoices in
establishment of American revenue,
410.

Calvert, Sir George (Lord Baltimore)
sketch of his career, I. 179, 180 ; visits
Virginia, 181 ; obtains charter for Mary-
land, 181; its provisions, 182; a, wise
and benevolent law-giver, a papist,

Set charitable to Protestants, 183; his
eath, 183.

Calvert, Cecil, second Lord Baltimore,
charter for Maryland issued to, i. 183;
sails with colony for Maryland, 184;
appeases parliament, removes Greene,
and appoints William Stone, a Protes-
tant, governor, 193; the oath taken by
Stone, 193 ; strives to prevent reannexa-
tion of Maryland to Virginia, 197, 198;
reproves Stone for want of firmness,
199.

Calvert, Charles, son of the proprietary
of Maryland, strives to extend his
jurisdiction, ii. 5; inherits Maryland,
6; limits right of suffrage, 7 ; opposes
attempt to establish Anglican church,

8; his differences with colonists, and
with English church and commercial
policy, 8; spirit of popular liberty and
Protestant bigotry too strong for his
colonial system, 9

Calvert, John, in debate on Boston port-
bill in house of commons, wants charter
of Massachusetts taken away, iv. 296.

Calvert, Leonard, Maryland, proprie-
tary's deputy, repairs to England to
take council with Lord Baltimore, 1.
191 ; returns to Maryland, 192 ; a fugi-
tive, asks aid of Virginia, 192 ; raises a
force, and recovers St. Mary's; his
death, 192.

Calvin, John, to France the apostle of
the Reformation, i. 515; at Geneva,
continues work of enfranchisement,
ii. 182; the boldest reformer of his
day, iii. 99; his doctrine exclusive and
revolutionary; a religion without a

{>relate, a government without a king;
ts spread and effects, 100, 101; his
converts seek the wilderness, apart
from all dominion but that of the
Bible, of natural reason and princi-
ples of equity, 101: arrays authority
of Bible against that of church of
middle ages, 101.

Calvinism, attempt to plant it in Florida,
i. 53; its political character, predesti-
nation, if. 182; denies sacrament of
ordination, 182, 183; 'its policy in dif-
ferent countries, 183; institutions of
Massachusetts its great counterpart,
183, 184; in Connecticut undergoes a
change, 184.

Calvin ists obtain a patent from the
king, i. 20; plant colonies in different
countries, 236; union of Calvinist
colonies proposed, but views of Massa-
chusetts and Connecticut prove irre-
concilable, 339; persecution of, after
restoration, 411, 413; expulsion of
works great injury to Anglican church,
413.

Cambridge, Mass., people of, in public
meeting, declare desire to secure their
own invaluable rights, bought with
the blood of their ancestors, who died
hoping their children would be free,
iv. 247, 248 ; men of, adopt the Phila-
delphia resolves about tea, and avow
their readiness to Join with Boston
and other towns to deliver themselves
and posterity from slavery, 274.

Camden, Lord, holds seals of highest
Judicial office under Pitt, iv. 15; re-
tracts his opinion that taxation and
representation are inseparable, 35;
thinks it will not be very difficult to
deal with Massachusetts alone, but
Boston must be made to repent of its
insolence, 101 ; dreads the event because
colonies are more determined than
they were on the stamp act; parlia-
ment must execute the law. 103, 104;
abandons Chatham, and takes Graf-
ton for his pole-star, 120; thinks he
ought to retire, but decides not to do

INDEX.

511

■o, 120, 121; dismissed by the king.
181 ; trusts the people of England will
renew their claims to true and free and
equal representation, 202; in debate
on port-bill returns very nearly to his
old principles, 301; says, in house of
lords, " were I an American, I would
resist to the last drop of my blood,"
432; desires acceptance of terms of
congress, and augurs from the proceed-
ings of assemblies, the establishment
of the rights of colonies, 441 ; says, in
house of lords, "you have no right to
tax America, and it is as lawful to re-
sist the tyranny of many as of one,"
449; says the original cause of the dis-
pute with America was the tea tax, in
which he denies having had a hand,
468; in house of lords, replies to minis-
ters in a speech admired in England,
and applauded by Vergennes; justifies
union of Americans, and proves that
England must fail in her attempt to
subdue them. 494, 495 ; denounces Rus-
sian declaration as to rights of neutrals
as a dangerous edict, vi. 359.

Camden, most important post in chain
for holding South Carolina, the key
between the north and the south, vi.
272; abandoned by British after de-
stroying many buildings, 404.

Camden, battle of; advance guards of
Gates and Cornwallis's encounter ; the
American cavalry flee, throwing the
army into confusion, which Porterfield
checks, vi. 278, 279 ; Gates orders line
of battle to be formed; the British
position most favorable: American
troops badly arranged; Gates orders
Stevens's brigade forward, and it is
attacked by Webster's division ; the
raw Virginians flee to the woods, 279.
280; Caswell's command follows, and
nearly two-thirds of the American
army flee without firing a shot; Mary-
land brigade finally forced to retreat;
Kalb's division long in action, ana
very brave; the British loss heavy;
that of Americans, who save no -artil-
lery, not known ; every corps dispersed
except one hundred continentals led
by Gist, 280, 281.

Cameron, deputy British Indian agent
for southern department, shrinks from
execution of Stuart's plans, predicting
barbarities of Indians, if persuaded to
take up the hatchet against the rebel-
lious whites, v. 49 ; excites Cherokees
to rise against Americans, 429 ; makes
attempt to a like end in upper South
Carolina, 430.

Camp, the, at Cambridge, contains people
in arms, rather than an army ; soldiers
not enumerated, enlisted for different
periods; each colony has its own rules
of military government, and the troops
bound by a specific covenant whose
conditions they interpret, v. 15.

Campaign of 1755, British plan of. ill.
119 ; for 1776, made in hope of finishing

the war, so at to disband extraordi-
nary forces within two years ; Germans
to be substituted for Russians in pro-
tecting Quebec; resolved to concen-
trate forces at New York; one hun-
dred men, with negroes and loyalists,
deemed sufficient to recover Virginia;
the ministry believe assurances of
Martin, that, on appearance of a small
British force, the Highlanders and
loyalists in North Carolina will rally
to the royal standard ; a force of five
regiments ordered for this service, v.
98, 99; a naval force for the recovery
of South Carolina prepared, 99: of
1776, inauspicious to the British ; their
rapacity, lust, and cruelty, change
people of New Jersey from neutrals to
active partisans, 497, 498; all but a few
points in the colonies free from in-
vaders, who, leaving their strongholds,
are surprised and pursued, 498 ; of 1778,
closed by the United States for want
of money, vi. 166.

Campbell, Donald, assumes command of
New York troops after death of Mont-
gomery ; reproached for ordering a re-
treat, v. 135.

Campbell, Farqnhard, discloses Mar-
tin's intrigue with Highlanders to
North Carolina convention, v. 54.

Campbell, Lord Neill, governor of East
New Jersey, ii. 144.

Campbell, lieutenant-colonel, lands at
Savannah with three thousand British
troops, routs Howe, and captures
Savannah and navy stores almost
without loss: Germain complains be-
cause no Indians shared in the victory,
vi. 251, 252 ; urges inhabitants to sup-
port royal governor ; takes possession
of Augusta, 252.

Campbell, Colonel William, brother-in-
law of Patrick Henry, appointed to
command a regiment of backwoods-
men, vi. 287; joins expedition to
restore Macdowell's men to their
homes, 290 ; shares in battle of King's
Mountain, 292; in battle of Guilford,
394.

Campbell, Lord William, governor of
South. Carolina; is addressed by pro-
vincial congress of that colony, iv.
553 ; knows nothing of his people, and
entrusts himself to guidance of violent
subordinates; would have no advice
from considerate and well-informed:
writes home that best people, as well
as the rabble, have been led into vio-
lent measures by desperate men, and
plans the reduction of the province by
arms; delays calling an assembly; on
receipt of news of Bunker Hill, calls
the legislature, denies the existence of
grievances, ana warns it of the danger
of violent measures, v. 45, 46; urging
ministry to employ force against three
most southern provinces; his arrest
proposed for intrigues with country
people, 49; aware of design against

512

INDEX.

Fort Johnson, fiends a party to throw |
down its guns and carriages ; having
dissolved the last assembly ever held
in South Carolina, flees for refuge on
board the " Tamer," man-of-war, 60;
enumerates in a letter the perils which
environ the patriots of South Carolina ;
thinks a small naval squadron would
do the whole business in that province ;
Charleston, he says, is the fountain-
head of all violence, 61 ; at battle of
Fort Moultrie receives a contusion, and
dies from its effects in two years, 283.

Campbell, Major, commanding British
redoubt at Yorktown; captured by
Lieutenant-colonel Laurens, vi. 427.

Canada, conquest of, first proposed to
New England, i. 448; desire of New
York ana other colonies to conquer,
ii. 232; New England's belief that its
conquest would link together England
and her colonies, 250: conquest of. re-
solved on in England, but fleet detained
bv yellow fever, 353; conquest of, de-
signed by Bolingbroke, 380; plan of
campaign, 381; preparations for de-
fence in Canada, 381, 382; disasters to
English fleet, and its return, 382, 383;
deemed an incumbrance by Borne
French statesmen, ill. 48; English

fovernment proposes not to invade.
19: exhausted after Ticonderoga, and
desires peace, 203; receives scanty
supplies from France, 212; population
and resources, 213 ; whole male popula-
tion called to arms, 215 ; came into pos-
session of England by conquest, 241 ;
opinions as to its retention by England,
243-246 ; conquest of. would hasten in-
dependence of English colonies, 304;
cession of, to France, 305 ; opinions of
Vergennes and Mansfield, 305; Gen-
eral Murray proposes to make a mili-
tary colony of, 387; legal authorities
of England decide that duties col-
lected in, might be paid to British offi-
cers ; old laws overturned, and English
substituted, 429, 430; unfitness of offi-
cials; judicial abuses; all Catholics
disfranchised, 430, 431 ; English minis-
try orders collection of same revenue
paid to Louis XIV., 490; united with
territory north-west of Ohio to head
of Lake Superior and the Mississippi,
and all authority over this vast region
consolidated in the hands of executive
power, iv. 414; appeals of American
congress to, 417 ; invasion of, by way of
the Chaudiere and Isle aux Noix, fa-
vored by congress, v. 65 ; intention of in-
vading, later disavowed by same body ;
In June, 1775, governor of, proclaims
American borderers traitors, estab-
lishes martial law, summons French
peasantry to military service, and in-
stigates converted Indians to take up
the hatchet against New York and
New England ; these movements make
occupation of Canada an act of self-
defence to congress, v. 113; French

nobility acquiesces in new form of
government, but British residents pro-
test against it as a form of arbitrary
power ; the peasantry inclined to sym-

{>athize with colonies, denying autnor-
ty of French nobility as magistrates,
113; to maintain a foothold in, neces-
sary to win confidence of its people;
Wooster's unfitness in this respect,
288; an army of ten thousand men,
with siege train and money, also need-
ed ; Canadians who had trusted Mont-
gomery, now ready to rise against
Americans; all classes hostile. 291;
American commissioners to, ana their
instructions; they find a general feel-
ing that Americans will be driven out,
292, 293; a winter expedition to, under
Lafayette sanctioned by congress;
Conway to be second in command,
and-Stark to co-operate ; Gates's prom-
ises as to force and advantages, and
their non-realization; the expedition
abandoned, vi. 44; plan for emancipa-
tion of, proposed by congress, but, un-
der Washington's advice, abandoned,
172 ; voluntary cession of, suggested by
Franklin as snrety of peacef442.

Canadians cut oft' from France by supe-
riority of English naval force, ill. 192;
general destitution, 193.

" Canceaux," the, a king's ship at an-
chor in Portland ; her captain, Mowatt,
and two other officers seized by party
from Georgetown; the officer left in
command bombards the town, iv. 656.

Cancello, Louis, a Dominican priest, per-
mitted to attempt conversion of the
natives in Florida, i. 62; is killed by
Indians, 52.

Canibas, the, a tribe of the Abenaki
Indians, converted by Jesuit priests,
and become hostile to the English, i. 19.

Cannon, James, " honest but inexperi-
enced," chief guide of convention which
forms constitution of Pennsylvania, v.
436.

Canonchet, son of Miantonomoh, joins
Philip, to avenge his father's wrongs,
i. 459; confident under defeat. 462;
captured and condemned to death., 462.

Canonicus, sachem of Narragansetts,
sends message of hostility to Plymouth
Colony, i. 249.

Canterbury, Archbishop of, in proclama-
tion for a fast, charges the " rebel con-
gress " with falsehoods, v. 363, 364.

Cape Ann, colony established there by
Arthur Lake, Bishop of Bath ana
Wells, and John White, of Dorchester,
i. 264 ; colony abandoned, 264.

Cape Breton, occupied by French, on
surrender of Acadia to England, ii.
393; to be taken by the United States,
in first draft of their treaty with
France, vi. 56.

Cape Cod, first spot in New England
ever trod by an Englishman, i. 88.

Cape Fear, the southern limit of Algon*
kin speech, ii. 396.

INDEX.

513

Cape Horn, named by a Dutch naviga-
tor for his native town, Hoorn, ii. 35.

Capellen, Van der, Baron, the Gracchus
of the Dutch republic, argues against
loan of troops to George III., to make
war on Americans, "an example and
encouragement to all nations," v.
168.

Capital offences, in Massachusetts, bill
to transfer trials for, to Nova Scotia or
Great Britain, iv. 306; passes com-
mons by a vote of more than four to
one, 307.

Cardross, Lord, leads a colony to South
Carolina, returns to England and takes
part in the revolution, i. 514.

Carle ton, Sir Guy, commander of grena-
diers in Wolfe's army, iii. 216 ; wounded
at Quebec, 224; commands battalion
under Albemarle, 292; Governor of
Canada, advises to grant no legislative
immunities to the people, to maintain
citadels at New York and Quebec, and
to maintain a military force that could
be moved from one point to the other,
iv. 32; thinks it unsafe to march from
the St. Lawrence to New York with
less than ten thousand men, 349; com-
missioned by Gage to enlist Canadians
and Indians and march them against
44 rebels " in any American colony, 386 ;
abhors this duty, and reminds Gage of
what the Indians are, 386: bringing
news of Quebec act, is welcomed by
Catholic officials, 415 ; strives hard to
form a body able to protect the prov-
ince; his measures to that end, 575;
assigned to exclusive command in
Canada, v. 58; hearing of surrender of
Ticonderoga, resolves to recapture it;
the peasantry resisting the call to arms,
he appeals to the Catholic bishop, who
sends a mandate to be read in church,
but without effect, 113, 114; gathers
nine hundred Canadians at Montreal,
who disappear; finds the Indians of
little service; though often solicited,
will not let the savages cross the fron-
tier, 120, 121; to raise siege of St.
John's, plans a junction with Maclean ;
embarks eight hundred regulars, Cana-
dians, and Indians at Montreal to cross
the St. Lawrence; they are fired into
by Warner, and forced to retire in
disorder, 121 ; embarks with a hundred
troops for Quebec; finds the river
guarded by American troops who cap-
ture the flotilla and troops, he escapes,
and arrives at Quebec; an inefficient
military officer, but his humane dis-
position, caution, and firmness guar-
antee the strong defence of the city;
had been Wolfe's Quartermaster, and
seen the rashness or Montcalm in risk-
ing a battle outside the walls, 129; or-
ders all who will not join in defence to
leave, 129, 130; his force, 130; his hu-
mane treatment of American captives,
137 ; maligned to Germain by subordi-
nates in Canada, and charged with

killing the Indians, 423 ; looks on recov-
ery of line of communication between
New York and the St. Lawrence as
his own work, but for the present aims
only to gain control of Lake Champlain,
424; defeats Arnold and is master of
the lakes, 424-427; lands at Crown
Point and could take Ticonderoga with
ease, but reserves that triumph for a
new campaign ; returns to Canada, to
the amazement of British officers, 427 ;
warmly received at a ball in Quebec,
ignorant that his disgrace had- been
ordered, 488, 489 ; had checked excesses
of savages; his scruples give offence,
and are overruled by the king's orders
to " extend operations ; " policy of arm-
ing them deplored by humane British
and German officers in Canada, 545;
originates the project of making re-en-
forcemenl s for Howe traverse a vast,
almost desert, region ; nurses hope of
leading ten thousand men, victorious,
into the United States ; the plan seri-
ously defective to those who know the
country, 552 ; accepts service of Six Na-
tions and other Indians. 570; amazed
by his supersedure by Burgoyne, 572;
ordered by Shelburne to return to New
York, vi. 439; supersedes Clinton: his
clemency; sends back exiled Caro-
linians at cost of the king; orders
raiding Iroquois, Ottawas, and Chip-
pewas to bury their hatchets, 460.

Carlisle, Lord, one of the three British
commissioners sent to make peace with
America; spoke in House of Lords
of insolence of the rebels, and called
the people " base and unnatural chil-
uren of England," vi. 134; with his
associates disapproves the policy of en-
feebling New York by detachments to
distant points, 157.

Carolina, the principles of her govern-
ment and or that of Massachusetts
compared, i. 483; nobles and courtiers
her proprietors, 484; rival claimants of,
484; expeditions to colonize author-
ized by Virginia, 485; colony planted
in, by New Englanders, 485; it does
not prosper, 486; explored by "Vir-
ginians born," 487; proprietors of,
obtain new charter covering land be-
tween 29° and 36° 30' north latitude,
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 489;
provisions of charter, 490; constitu-
tions of, represent only attempt in
United States to connect political
power with hereditary wealth, 495;
statutes of, contrasted with those of
Europe, 495 ; popular enfranchisement
made impossible, 497; William Sayle
commissioned governor, 497; vital
alteration in constitution with respect
to religion, 498: proprietaries' govern-
ment organized with Monk, Duke of
Albemarle, as palatine, 498; founded
by proprietaries in commercial fashion,
510, 511; emigration to, under West
and Sayle, 511; settlement on Ashley

VOL. VI.

33

514

INDEX.

River; immediate establishment of
representative government, 510: divi-
sion of political opinion in ; conditions
of its foundation not unfavorable, 511 ;
Its institutions shaped by character
of emigrants ; land-grants to negroes,
only state essentially planting with
slave-labor, 512; colonists demand a
new parliament; believed to be fit
for growth of olive, mulberries, and
oranges ; emigration to, from England ;
chiei resort of exiled Huguenots, 515-
621; struggles of people with pro-
prietaries, 522, 523 ; who are se-
cured by respect for vested rights at
revolution, ii. 196; political and reli-
gions differences in, 196, 197; SothePs
administration a triumph of popular

Sarty ; proprietaries disavow acts of
emocratic legislature, 197; Philip
Ludwell made governor, but fails to
restore quiet, 197, 198; proprietaries
vote to let people be governed by
powers of the charter, 198; Thomas
Smith appointed governor, John Arch-
dale dictator ; origin of disputes in, 198 ;
Archdale's conciliatory policy, 199:
liberty of conscience conferrea on all
Christians, except papists, 199, 200;
proprietary legislation renewed; re-
fuses hereditary nobility and the do-
minion of wealth, 200 ; dissenters ex-
cluded from colonial legislature, appeal
to house of lords, and intolerant acts
of proprietaries declared void by royal
authority ; power of proprietaries wan-
ing ; the colony prosperous, 201 ; staple
products, 201, 202; begins hostilities
against Spain ; to it the first-fruits of
the war, debt and paper money, 371.

Carpenters, of Boston, refuse to construct
barracks for the army, iv. 390 ; of Phila-
delphia, furnish a hall for second con-
tinental congress, 567.

Carr, Dabney, an eloquent Virginian,
proposes a system of intercolonial com-
mittees of correspondence; Ids early
death, iv. 259.

Carrington, Edward, of Virginia,
Greene's quartermaster, gives wise
advice, vi. 392; receives praise, 393.

Carroll, Charles, of Maryland, on com-
mittee of correspondence; commis-
sioner to Canada, v. 292 ; his election to
congress excites hope in disfranchised
Catholics; member of congressional
committee to visit the army; very
friendly to Washington, vi. 46.

Carteret, James, created a landgrave of
South Carolina, i. 510.

Carteret, James, natural son of Sir
George, made governor of New Jer-
sey, in place of Philip, ii. 72.

Carteret, Philip, assumes governorship
of New Jersey, ii. 171; displaced by
constituent assembly, and goes to
England, 172, 173.

Cartier, James, raises cross and shield
with French lilies at the Bay of Gaspg,
i. 14; his second voyage and naming

of Montreal, 15 ; his third voyage under
Robervai, and failure of the expedi-
tion, 16.

Cartwright, John, an enthusiast who
labors to purify the British constitu-
tion ; advocates freedom of American**,
iv. 299 ; is unwilling to serve in Amer-
ica, 560.

Carver, John, seeks consent of London
company to the emigration of pilgrims
in Holland to Northern Virginia, i.
237 ; his death, 248.

Carver, Jonathan, of Connecticut, ex-
plores borders of Lake Superior and
Sioux country beyond it, obtains ac-
counts of Great River, Oregon, which
flowed into the Pacific, and returns to
celebrate richness of the region, and
advise English settlements therein,
and opening of communication with
China and East Indies, iv. 167.

Cary, Thomas, appointed deputy gover-
nor of North Carolina by governor of
South Carolina, and displaced, ii.
203 ; takes up arms against Governor
Hyde, 204.

Casco Bay, visited by Captain Gilbert in
1607, i. 205; islands in, appropriated
by Massachusetts, 349.

Casimir, Fort, built by Dutch, at New-
castle, Del., captured by Swedish
governor. Rising, a fatal victory to
Swedes, u. 55.

Castine, Me., a post established there by
Maclean, British general; great force
sent by Massachusetts to destroy it,
but badly handled ; interrupted by an
English fleet, and American vessels
burned; the British masters east of
Penobscot, vi. 214.

Castries, Marquis de, succeeds Sartine
as French minister of marine, vi. 370.

Caswell, Richard, of North Carolina,
delegate to general congress, hastens
home to promote a convention: reluc-
tant to admit the necessity of resist-
ance, but, having made up his mind to
it, advocates resolute policy, and cen-
sures Newborn committee for permit-
ting the governor to escape, v. 54 ; his
high rank as a patriot; is detained for
service at home, and succeeded as dele-
gate in general congress by John Perm,
55 ; at head of minute men of Newborn,
N.C., pursued by Macdonald, v. 190;
misleads his enemy, 191: takes a new
position and defeats him with loss,
192; his prisoners and booty, 193;
commanding militia in North Caro-
lina, disregards Kalb's orders, vi. 275;
joins Gates, 277 ; holds centre at battle
of Camden, 279; flees with his com-
mand, 280.

Catharine of Arragon, her repudiation
by Henry VIII. breaks friendship with
Spain, and opens New World to Eng-
lish rivalry, i. 65.

Catharine, Empress of Russia, her genius
and moderation, ill. 300, 301 ; her policy,
313; determined to govern alone;

INDEX

515

excels in knowledge and Industry;
her distinguishing characteristics ; pro-
poses emancipation of serfs, v. 60, 61 ;
answers Gunning's inquiry about hir-
ing of Russian troops t>y Britain, not
specifically, but assures him of her
readiness to aid the king as he thought
proper, 63 ; her advice to Gunning as
to dispute with colonies; her answer
to George III.'s letter, refusing his re-
quest, 96; no foreign influence sways
her In the case, 97 ; esteems Fox and
English liberals, and inclines to prop-
ositions favorable to America, vi.
223; finds herself called to lead in de-
fence of neutral rights, and is hardly
restrained from violent remonstrances
to England, 238 ; hints to Harris that
England can instantly restore peace
by renouncing her colonies, 240 ; angry
at seizure of Russian ships by Spain,
adopts general measure for protection
of her commerce, and orders ships
made ready for chastisement of Span-
iards, 246; rigns declaration of fixed
principles of neutrality, 248; invites
Sweden, Denmark, Portugal, and
Netherlands to join in supporting her
declaration, 249; this declaration ac-
cepted by neutral powers from Arch-
angel to Constantinople, 359; after
accession of liberal ministry, includes
the government in her admiration of
England, 450.

Catawbas, inhabit midlands of Carolina,
speak a language of their own, now
extinct ; hereditary foes of 1 he Iroquois,
before whose prowess they dwindle
away, ii. 401, 402; remain faithful
after Braddock's defeat, ill. 126.

Cathmaid, George, claims from Sir Wil-
liam Berkeley a large grant of land on
Albemarle Sound, i. 487.

Catholics, Roman, administration of
Maryland in the hands of, i. 191 ; dis-
franchised, 199; the first step toward
their emancipation in Great Britain;
in Canada content without a represen-
tative assembly to which only Protes-
tants would be eligible : accept partial
enfranchisement as a boon to a con-
quered people, iv. 414; clergy aware
that the great privileges granted in
Quebec act were but an act of worldly
policy ; Catholic Canada could not up-
lift the banner of the King of Heaven,
or seek perils of martyrdom, 416; in
such a frame of mind, appeal of Ameri-
can congress received ; the relation of
Protestantism and Catholicism to be
modified, 416.

Catholic powers unite to resist changes ;
their failure and its consequences, ill.
309.

Cavalier, nephew of La Salle, joins the
latter's colony for Louisiana, ii. 338.

Cavaliers, recover power in adminis-
tration of Lord Treasurer Danby, ii.
163.

Cav?ndish, member of Raleigh's expedi-

tion in 1585; afterwards circumnavi-
gates the globe, i. 78;

Cavendish, Lord John, refuses to serve
under Grafton, iv. 15: deprecates
civil war, which necessarily involves a
foreign one, 467; pronounces the hir-
ing or troops from Hesse and Brunswick
disgraceful to Britain, v. 179; in debate
on king's address, in November, 1770,

. objects to policy of the ministry, 416;
moves that house in committee of the
whole consider the revisal of anti-
American acts of parliament, to which
the Howes had pledged the ministers,
418; moves in house of commons for
orders to withdraw British forces in
America, vi. 224.

Caucasians, various races, join in coloniz-
ing central states of the union, ii. 60.

Challus, an officer of Ribault's expedi-
tion in Florida, escapes massacre, i.
59.

Chambly, people of, under James Living-
stone, ofNew York, and aided by Major
Brown, with a small detachment from
Montgomery's army, sit down before
the fort in the town, and compel its sur-
render; the colors of the seventh regi-
ment taken, sent as a trophy to con-
gress ; the prisoners sent to Connecticut,
and seventeen cannon and six tons of
powder taken, v. 121.

Champlain, Lake, the command of, best
security against Indians and Cana-
dians, iv. 375.

Champlain, Samuel, leads an expedition
to Canada, i. 17, 18 ; his character and
narrative, 18; founds Quebec, and
makes a campaign against the Iro-
quois, 20; builds Fort St. Louis; estab-
lishes the authority of France on the
St. Lawrence, 21 ; his death, 21.

Chancellor, Richard, officer under Wil-
loughby, reaches harbor of Archangel,
i. 66.

Charleston, S.C., the chief city of
South Carolina, its foundation, i. 511 ;
its prosperity, 512 ; port of, opened by
lieutenant-governor, iii. 532; tea-ship
arrives at; the consignees persuaded
to resign; collector seizes tea, which
spoils in the cellars, iv. 281 ; its trade
in the hands of British factors, 334;
the association punctually enforced ; a
ship-load of slaves sent out of colony
by consignee, and furniture and horses
from England not permitted to land,
486, 487; all powder in public maga-
zines and eight hundred stand of arms
in royal arsenal seized, 552 ; protected
by hasty works on approach of Pro-
vost; arrival of Rutledge with militia,
and Moultrie with remains of his force,
and three hundred men from Lincoln ;
besiegers and besieged nearly equal in
number, vi. 255; sudden departure of
the enemy, apprised of Lincoln's ap-
proach, 258: description of, in 1780,
264; surrender of Lincoln, 266; terms
of capitulation, 266, 267; vapine of

516

INDEX.

captors unrestrained ; amount of their
spoil ; British protection granted only
on condition of promise of loyalty, 267 ;
Americans cannot recover it by force,
461.

Charles I., his disposition toward Ameri-
can colonies, and his first measures
touching them, i. 151, 152; offers to
contract for whole crop of tobacco, 152 ;
execution of stimulates emigration
to Virginia, 161; attempts to gain a
revenue from it, 167, 168; resolved to
govern without a parliament, 378, 379;
his councils divided, 380 ; his guarantee
of Strafford's safety, 381 ; his variable
policy, 383; his overthrow at Marston
Moor, the crisis of struggle between
Presbyterians and Independents, 387 ;
seized by the Independents, 388; sen-
tenced to death, 389; injustice of his
condemnation, 390; its effects, 390,
391; enters into close alliance with
Dutch, ii. 39.

Charles II., appoints Sir William Dave-
nant governor of Maryland, i. 196;
his only pledge on accession to the
throne, a vague proclamation, 401 ; his
character, 401; a steadfast Catholic,
402 ; his benevolence a weakness, 402 ;
proclaimed by colonies of Plymouth,
Hartford. New Haven, Connecticut,
and Rhode Island, 419 ; caricatured in
Holland, 433; gives away, during first
four years of his reign, a large part of
a continent, 433 ; proclaimed at Boston,
436; receives Massachusetts envoys
courteously, 437 ; fears that Massachu-
setts will break her allegiance, 449;
his chief objects, during his reign, to
protect Catholic religion, and make
the power of the crown absolute, 467 ;
proposes to give Blaine and New Hamp-
shire to Duke of Monmouth, 469; em-
barrassed by his favor to Roman Catho-
lics, and the apprehension of Catholic
succession to the throne ; delays meas-
ures against Massachusetts, 476; his
commands unheeded, 476;' dissolves
parliament, and becomes undisputed
master, 477; provides two vessels for
bringing foreign Protestants to South
Carolina, to cultivate productions of
Southern Europe, 513; his restoration
a political revolution to Virginia, 537,
538; restoration threatens New Neth-
erland, ii. 64; dissolves last parliament
of his reign, 168; his monarchy abso-
lute, 169.

Charles III. , of Spain, his amiable nature
and leaning toward liberality, iii.
316, 317; congratulating Louis XVI.,
hopes for continued harmony between
the two countries; occupied in prepar-
ing to chastise Algiers pirates, and to
settle a difference with Portugal, iv.
320; his self-love touched by his
nephew's making a treaty with Amer-
ica without his consent; dreads re-
publicanism on the borders of his
colonies more than alL Mie power of

Britain, vi. 75 ; refuses the prise of
Florida, 75; declares that he will not
then or ever enter into quarrel of
France and England, 76 ; might enjoy
revenge on England, but has learned
to shrink from war ; moved by sound
policy to live at peace, and to avoid a
war destined to destroy the old colonial
system, 85, 86; makes war on the
Jesuits; extorts assent of the pope to
abolition of the order. 87; threatened
by American independence in his vice-
royalties, 88; conflicting influences
sway him, 160; imagines armies of
France breaking in on English fire-
sides, 182; evades answering letter of
Maria Theresa, 224; complains that
France has brought Spain into war
for its own interests alone ; desires to
retain United States in vassalage to
Great Britain, or drive them to an-
archy; will not receive Jay, and de-
clines a visit from Gerard, 367 ; secretly
sends draft for a million livres to Paris,
as his contribution to America, v. 231 ;
averse from hostile measures, 363; the
best of Spanish Bourbons ; merciful
and well-meaning, but more of a
monarchist than of a Spaniard, 532 ;
obstinate defender of regality against
papacy ; had exiled the Jesuits, but re-
stores vitality to the inquisition, 533.

Charles Augustus of Saxe-Weimar, re-
fuses to allow recruiting-offices for the
English service to be opened, but con-
sents to delivery of vagabonds and
convicts; personally seconds refusal,
vi. 114, 115.

Charles City county, Va., people of, rise
to protect themselves against Indians,
i. 546.

Charles, Duke of Brunswick, his extrav-
agant expenditures on follies and on
his army; assents to George III.'s
proposition to hire troops, v. 171.

Charlestown, Mass., a church organized
at, i. 282 ; public meeting see their own
welfare. " and the fate of unborn mil-
lions," In suspense, iv. 248; shows such
spirit as to suggest addition of its com-
mittee to executive direction, 274; men
of, ready to risk their lives and for-
tunes, 276.

"Charming Sally," cargo of, thrown
into the water near Charleston, S.C.,
iv. 487.

Charter of Massachusetts, its breach by
transfer of castle to king's officer, a
beginning of civil war, iv. 208 ; crown
law officers report that it had not
been dissolved by quo warranto or
judgment, but that misdemeanors
charged against the corporation were
sufficient to avoid the patent, i. 475;
committee on plantations order quo
warranto brought against it, and new
laws to be framed, 475; adjudged for-
feited, 480.

Charter, second, of Virginia, passes the
seals, i. 104; its provisions, 105.

INDEX.

517

Chat «rs, American, bill in parliament,
in 1701, to abrogate all; bill warmly
advocated, bat not passed on account
of war with France, ii. 244.

Chartres, Duke de, favors war with Eng-
land, v. 362.

Chase, Samuel, the foremost man in
Maryland, his character and manners;
has the confidence of the province, v.
40 ; his motion in congress to send en-
voys to France fails, 87 ; commissioner
from congress to Canada, 292; guides
the people of Maryland in patriotic
unanimity, 310.

Chastellux, a French writer; thinks
there can be neither durable liberty
nor happiness, but for nations under
representative government, v. 245.

Chatelet, Count du, sent as ambassador
to England by Choiseul, iv. 76 ; con-
vinced that England cannot reduce
her colonies if they should rebel, and
thinks rebellion is not so far off, 81, 82 ;
reports that they no longer need sup-
port of British crown, and view its
measures as tyrannous, 94 ; asks what
is the use of an army in so vast a
country as America, 132; regrets in-
ability of France and Spain to take
advantage of com plication between
England and her colonies; studies,
intercolonial commerce, and gets opin-
ions of Franklin, 133 ; again calls atten-
tion of Choiseul to America, and urges
action of Fiance, 138; colonies will
never recognize the right claimed by
parliament; discusses policy of France
and Spain toward colonies, 145 ; his
letter the philosophy of the eighteenth
century, and excites attention of Louis
XV. and his court, 145, 146 ; urges
Choiseul to employ free trade as the
liberator of colonies, 147 ; pleased with
idea of a republic on the Mississippi,
and thinks Spain will never derive
benefit from Louisiana, and that she
should let its people form a republic,
151.

Chatham, Earl of, his speech in house
of lords advocating conciliation to the
colonies, and the punishment of
France, vi. 54, 55; arrays himself
against American independence; re-
jects Richmond's proposal that he
shall move an address in the lords
favoring reunion, and threatens to op-
pose the motion ; enters house wrapped
in flannel; attempts to reply to
Richmond, but falls back, and is borne
to the bed he is never to leave, 68, 69 ;
a sketch of his political career, 69;
says, in house of lords, " We ought,
instead of exacting unconditional sub-
mission from colonies, to give them
unconditional redress;" insists on
haste to forestall alliance of France
and Spain; his advice rejected by
nearly four-fifths of the house, 547:
in answer to Lord Suffolk's approval
of employment of Indians against the

Americans, invokes decisive indigna-
tion on such principles, 574.

Chatham, elder son of, goes to -Quebec,
as Carleton's aide-de-camp ; but Chat-
ham's son cannot draw his sword
against the Americans, and he resigns,
iv. 559, 560. ,

Chatham , while earl of, is i eading several
New England writings ( : with admira-
tion and love," town of, in Massachu-
setts, is declaring attachment to its
civil and religious principles, iv. 249.

Chaumonot, a Jesuit, tries to convert
Onondagas, ii 317 ; penetrates to land
of Senecas, 318.

Chauvin, a merchant of St. Malo, obtains
a patent for a monopoly of the fur-
trade in North America, 1. 17.

Cheesman. officer of a New York com-
pany leu by Montgomery at Quebec *,
enters with him the first barrier, v.
134; and falls with him in death, 135.

Cherokees, divided in sentiment as to
English and French, iii. 161 ; after ren-
dering good service, neglected by Vir-
ginia, 228; some of them killed by
Virginia backwoodsmen, and hostili-
ties result, 228, 229 ; a conference brines
about a treaty, and harmony restored,
229 ; irritated by stoppage of supplies,
but send friendly letter to Charles-
ton, 220, 230; far from being united
against English, 230 ; send deputation
to Charleston, to report their desire
for peace, 231; their hostages mur-
dered; attack Fort Ninety-six, 234;
their villages burned by Grant, 280;
conclude peace with Carolinians, 281 ;
the mountaineers of aboriginal Amer-
ica; their home in the upper valley
of the Tennessee, and the highlands of
Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, ii.
402 ; attack Boone's party, and, when
accused, shift the accusation from
tribe to tribe, iv. 420; their ravages in
the west in 1774, 420, 421 ; backwoods-
men begin to organize war-parties
against them: destruction of, with
Delawares and Shawnees, by Cresap
and others, 421 ; and Creeks, induced
by British agents to promise to lay
waste settlements on the Watauga,
Holston, Kentucky, and Nolichucky.
and even as far as Cumberland and
Green Rivers to keep the moun-
taineers occupied, vi. 296.

Chesapeake, name of Spanish discoverer
of, unknown, i. 52.

Chessman, Edmund, a leader of Vir-
ginian troops under Bacon, captured
by royalists, i. 555; his wife's noble
plea, 555, 556.

Chesterfield, Earl of, predicts French
revolution, iii. 67 ; his lamentations
over oondition of England, 179.

Chicheley, Sir Henry, leads troops
against Seneca Indians in Virginia, L

Chickasaws, faithful allies of the Eng-
lish;, their home* i* the uoland, where

518

INDEX.

rise the Yazoo and the Tombigbee, ii.
404, 405.

Childe, Robert, appeals to commissioners
in England, i. 356.

Ohippewas (or Ojibways), hold country
from mouth of Green Bay to head-
waters of Lake Superior, ii. 398.

Choctaws, inhabit country between the
Mississippi and the Tombigbee ; excel
every other tribe in agriculture; allies
of the French, ii. 405.

Choi ae ul, French minister of foreign af-
fairs, war and marine, favors peace,
ill. 260, 261; offers to negotiate sepa-
rately with England, 261; an able
statesman, but with a genius for in-
trigue, 261 ; Pitt's opinion of him, 262 ;
his proposition for peace. 262; trans-
fers New Orleans and all Louisiana
to Spain, 417 ; sends an officer to travel
through America in disguise, 417; ex-
presses regrets for cession of Missis-
sippi to English, and says that Amer-
ica must soon become independent,
512; resumes charge of foreign affairs;
report of his agent as to resources and
disposition of American colonies, iv.
17, 18; concludes that England fore-
sees a revolution, and is surprised to
find that colonies speak boldly of rights
and a constitution, 18; dismisses all
former theories about America, and
studies condition of British colonies,
17 ; refuses Spain's request to prepare
for war against England, 32; sends
Kalb to American colonies, to ascer-
tain their wants, their resources, and
disposition, 40, 41; his judgment more
impartial and clear than that of any
British minister after Shelburne, 41 ;
his comments on proceedings in Brit-
ish parliament. 47 ; contemplating as-
cendency of Britain in Asia and Amer-
ica, sees the ill, but does not see the
remedy, 56 ; the idea of emancipating
the whole colonial world alluring to
him, 56; sees importance of rising con-
troversy between England and her
colonies, and sends Count du Chatelet
as ambassador to England, 76; dis-
cusses a treaty of commerce with
America, and is sure of separation of
the colonies from Britain, 95, 96; col-
lects documents, papers, sermons, &c,
about America ; concludes that Amer-
ican representation is impracticable,
103; thinks Americans will never yield
except in appearance, 132 ; favors com-
merce of Spanish and French colonies
with English colonies in America, but
Spain declines to interfere, 132, 133;
approves Du Chatelet's opinions about
America, and promises to communi-
cate them to king of Spain, 138 ; threat-
ens to retaliate for British subscrip-
tion for Corsica by raising one in
France for people of New York, 140;
answers Rochford, that success of Rus-
sia's projects, which Rochford desired,
would be dangerous to repose of hu-

manity, 154; counsels Spain to make
pacific settlement with England as to
Falkland Islands, 216; dismissed and
exiled because he was the friend of
philosophy, freedom of industry, and
colonial independence; his aims, bis
achievements, and his policy, 217.

Christison, Wenlock, a banished man,
enters court during Leddra's trial;
interrogated, and denies guilt; found
guilty, but discharged, i. 368.

Christian colonies, the design to plant
matured, i. 93.

" Christian Commonwealth, The," title
of Eliot's suppressed treatise, i. 435.

Christianity, the spread of among the
Indians, I. 456; rejected by Pokanoket
Indians, 457.

Church government, system of estab-
lished,!. 358.

Church, Benjamin, elected director of
hospital established by congress, v. 26.

Church of England, the, confirmed as
the church of Virginia, i. 119, 120;
prostrate under the long parliament,
384; the parties in, i. 219, 220; opposi-
tion to, 220 ; attempt to establish it in
Maryland, ii. 8; refuses advances of
James II., 169 ; persecuted and rebel-
lious, 170; unity of, an unquestioned
rule in England since Henry VIII.,
190, 191; its continuance as national
church taken for granted, 191 ; receives
monopoly of political power in South
Carolina, 200; established in Mary-
land, 211 ; oppression of, turns emigra-
tion from Ireland to America, 273; in
aid of, the crown incorporates Society
for Propagating Gospel in Foreign
Parts, 279.

Cider, tax on, ridiculed by Pitt, and
excites turbulent resistance, iii. 366,
367 ; act modified by influence of Pitt.
385.

Civilization, European, history of, his-
tory of gradual enfranchisement of
classes ofsociety, ii. 78.

Clare, Viscount, defeated by Burke In
election at Bristol, iv. 429.

Clarendon, Earl of, minister under
Charles II., avows his friendliness to
Massachusetts, i. 439; ministry of,
claims preponderance in state for the
king, and renews intolerance in re-
ligion, ii. 161, 162.

Clark, George Rogers, and another,
elected by settlers west of Louisa River
as their representatives in Virginia
assembly, and instructed to ask that
their settlements be made a county,
vi. 184; settlements incorporated and
named Kentucky; Clark oroods over
conquest of land to north of river,
and sends men to reconnoitre French
villages on the Illinois and on the
Wabash; tells George Mason, Jeffer-
son, and others, of Ids purpose, and
house of delegates authorizes him to
aid an expedition against western en-
emies, 185; surprises Kaskaskia and

[

INDEX.

519

Kahokia, 186; receives submission of
people of Vincennes ; his critical situa-
tion: hears of Hamilton's weakness
at Yincennes, attacks and captures
the town, 189, 190; captures prisoners
and goods from Detroit; thanked by
assembly of Virginia; his achieve-
ments, 190; cannot pursue his victo-
rious career, re-enforcements having
been diverted from him, 191; estab-
lishes Fort Jefferson, on the Missis-
sippi, live miles below the mouth of
the Ohio, 191.

Clark. Jonas, clergyman at Lexington,
bold writer of patriotic state papers,
iv. 518; says that from April 19, 1775,
" will be dated the liberty of the
American world." 532.

Clark, member of congress from New
Jersey, objects to Washington's proc-
lamation to those under British pro-
tection, that an oath to the United
States is absurd before confederation,
v. 497.

Clark, a fugitive from Georgia, defeats
Colonel Brown at Augusta, and cap-
tures rich gifts intended for Cherokee
chiefs; is pursued by Cruger and
Brown, and thirty of his men put to
death by order of the latter, vi. 288,
289.

Clarke, John, leader of friends of Anne
Hutchinson, who settled near Provi-
dence, i. 309 ; agent of Rhode Island in
England, 427.

Clarke, Sir Francis, Burgoyne's first
aide, killed in second battle of Beh-
mus's Heights, vi. 11.

Clarke, a Baptist of Rhode Island, ar-
rested for preaching in Lynn, and
fined, i. 362.

Clarke, Richard, of Boston, consignee of
tea, refuses to return tea to London,
lv. 271, 272.

Clavborne, William, secretary of Vir-
ginia, under Sir Qeorge Yeardley, i
152; superseded, 154; secretary of
state, 178; establishes a company for
trading with Indians. 178, 179; occu-
pies Isle of Kent with settlers, 179:
allegiance of his settlement claimed
under Maryland patent, 187; his men
attacked and captured by Maryland-
ers, 187; attainted by assembly of
Maryland, 188; decided by commis-
sioners of plantations that the Isle of
Kent belongs to Lord Baltimore, 188;
enters Maryland, 197; takes posses-
sion of Stone and. his council, and ap-
points new council, 197.

Clergy, the English, most of them sub-
mit to see of Rome in Mary's reign, i.
216; the inferior, of England, at Ref-
ormation, had common faith and
political cause with the people, ii. 80.

Clergymen, in Virginia, their tenure of
office, character, &c, ii. 207, 208, 212.

Cleveland, Colonel Benjamin, joins men
of Watauga prior to battle of Cow-
pens; active in that fight, vi. 292.

Clinton. Charles, of Ulster county, N.Y.,
with his latest breath charges his sons
to stand by the liberties of their coun-
try, 272.

Clinton, Qeorge, admiral, and roya:

{ governor of New York, iii. 18; nis
ament over the tendencies of colonies
toward Independence, 18, 19; urges
the necessity of using troops to enforce
his authority, 19; resolves to exact
from colonies fixed revenues, 24; de-
mands of New York assembly a reve-
nue to the king for five years, 25;
the assembly refusing to comply, he
prorogues it ; calls on the king to take
action, 25; urges necessity of " check-
ing insolence of faction by a powerful
interposition," and advises imposts
on wine and West India produce, 42;
asks assembly for aid for Six Nations,
49; impeached by New York for em-
bezzlement and selling offices, 108.

Clinton, George, appointed to command
of forts on the Highlands, v. 556;
chosen governor of New York ; praised
by Washington, and disapproved by
Schuyler on account of his family con-
nections, 580; hastens with a small
force to Fort Clinton, while his brother
James takes command of Fort Mont-
gomery, vi. 8; escapes on capture of
the fort, 9; thinks Lord North is two
years too late with his political ma-
noeuvre, 71.

Clinton, General James, joins Sullivan
in Indian country, vi. 213.

Clinton, Sir Henry, a major-general,
goes with Lord Howe to America : son
of a former governor of New York,
and related to Bedford and Newcastle,
iv. 482 ; his fleet arrives in Cape Fear
River, in May, 1776; inclined to enter
the Chesapeake, but urged by Lord
William Campbell to attack Charles-
ton, v. 241, 242 : issues proclamation of
pardon to all in North Carolina, who
will submit, save Howe and Hartnett,
242; arrives off Charleston; sends to
Moultrie his proclamation denouncing
the rebellion in South Carolina, 272;
his indecision; lands his troops on
Long Island, a naked sand-bank; his
batteries on Long Island open fire;
embarks his troops, but dares not land
them; says "it was impossible to de-
cide on any plan," and does nothing,
279; embarks in three weeks for New
York, 284; commands two English and
two Hessian brigades convoyed into
harbor of Newport, R.I., 458; dupes
Putnam by feigning attack on Fish-
kill, vi. 8 ; garrisons Fort Montgomery
and returns to New York; receives
from General Howe command of the
army, 132; ordered by Germain to
abandon Philadelphia and hold New
York and Rhode Island, and to attack
Providence, Boston, and other ports,
destroying vessels, stores, and ship-
building materials, 134; ordered by

520

INDEX.

the king to detach five thousand men
for conq uest of the French island, St.
Lucia, 134, 135 ; crosses Delaware with
over seventeen thousand effective men,
his retreat seeming to loyalists a viola-
tion of the king' 8 faith, 137 ; marches
by way of Monmouth to Sandy Hook,
138 ; gains time by Lee's folly and dis-
obedience; sends baggage forward
with strong force under Knyphausen,
Cornwallhvs division remaining ; sends
force against Lee, 139; after Mon-
mouth, abandons his dead and badly
wounded, and retires, 141; reports to
Germain that he will probably have to
abandon New York and go to Halifax,
150 ; arrives in Rhode Island with re-
enforcements the day after Sullivan's
escape ; his army can hold no part of
the country, can only ravage and de-
stroy, 154; ordered to send a thousand
men to re-enforce Pensacola, and three
thousand to take Savannah, 157;
threatens to evacuate New York and
retire to Halifax; complaining and
offensive to the minister, 157 ; represses
confidence of Germain by faithful re-
ports of inadequacy of his force, 171 ;
falls short of Germain's requirements,
who wants ten thousand provincial
levies; understands power of the in-
surgents and his own resources, and
reluctantly sends troops to Georgia
and West Indies; his supplies and
money scant, and New Yorkers unwill-
ing to lend to him ; writes to secretary
of state, " Do not let any thing be ex-
pected of one circumstanced as I am,"
172; resolves to carry out order for
reduction of Charleston; receives re-
enforcements, but is delayed by uncer-
tain attitude of D'Estaing, 263 ; leaving
Knyphausen in command at New
York, embarks with eighty-five hun-
dred men for Charleston, 263, 264; a
disastrous voyage; losses of vessels,
and most of the horses; at Tybee has
ten thousand men, but orders out
Lord Rawdon's light regiments, 264;
summons the town to surrender, 266 ;
magnifies his capture of prisoners,
267; sends expeditions to Augusta,
Camden, Ninety-Six, &c., to reduce
the disaffected, 267; issues proclama-
tion requiring all inhabitants of South
Carolina to be active in securing the
royal government; reports to Ger-
main, general loyalty in the state,
269; had written home more truth
than was welcome, and, in response to
his conditional wish to be recalled,
Germain allows him to transfer chief
command to Cornwallis, 270 ; censured
by friends of Cornwallis, 283; repairs
to New Jersey with nearly four times
as many troops as oppose him, but frets
at attempt on New Jersey as prema-
ture, and resoives to abandon it, 317 ;
embarks eight thousand men for Rhode
Island, but returns to New York with-

out action ; censured for want of
energy; more than ever disheartened
on arrival of French troops; reports
to England that it is daily becoming
less possible to carry on the war with-
out re-enforcements; stoops to fraud
and corruption, 319; enters largely
into plot with Arnold, 320; asks
Andrews release of Washington, on the
ground that he used a flag of truce,
329 ; laments the failure of his scheme ;
basely attributes Andre's execution to
Washington's personal " rancor," 332,
and note; reproves Cornwallis for act-
ing without orders, 400; disregards
Germain's hint to resign, and protests
against Cornwallis's plan, 400, 401 ; re-
solves to hold a station in Chesapeake
Bay, 410; orders Arnold to invade
Connecticut, 411 ; fears attack in New
York, and tells Cornwallis to take a
defensible position in Virginia; fore-
casts De Grasse's plans. 416; will not
be duped by Cornwallis into resigning,
417 ; sure that New York will be at-
tacked, 418: prefers Yorktown as a
station for the protection of the king's
ships, 420; so sure Washington's ob-
ject is New York, that he permits
undisturbed passage of Hudson River,
421, 422 i September 2, first sees that
Washington is moving southward,
422; holds council of war, which de-
cides to relieve Cornwallis, 424.

Closing events of revolution; aims of
chief European nations; decisive inci-
dents spring from South Carolina, vt.
283.

Coddington, William, a leader of Anne
Hutchinson's friends in the Rhode
Island settlement, judge of the com-
munity, i. 309 ; commissioned governor
of islands in Rhode Island, but com-
mission vacated on application to
council, 346.

Coffin, John, commands party of regulars
and Canadians at Quebec, first en-
countered by Montgomery, v. 134.

Coffin, Nathan, an American sailor, his
noble answer to British recruiting
agents, v. 339.

Coke, member of parliament for Nor-
folk, proposes an address to the king
to disavow declaration of commissioner
to America, vi. 154.

Colden, Cadwallader, oldest member of
royal council of New York, iii. 18:
makes report of political condition of
New. York, 39; favors parliamentary
taxation, 75; his fears of democratic
element in America, and his remedies,
248 ; made lieutenant-governor of New
York, 248; sneers at three popular
lawyers imbued with Connecticut
principles, 283; tries to neutralize the
influence of lawyers and great land-
holders by insisting on right to appeal
from verdict of a Jury to the king;
brands John Morin Scott as an incen-
diary, and urges removal of Judge

INDEX

521

R. B. Livingston, 437; promises that
stamps shall be distributed, 496; puts
fort of New York in state of defence,
and boasts that he had "effectually
discouraged " sedition, 506; is resolved
to have the stamps distributed, 518;
gives way, promising to wait for ar-
rival of new governor; is unwilling
to deliver stamps to common council ;
appeals to Gage; thirsts for revenge,
and reports to England that republi-
can lawyers are authors of the mis-
chief, 522 ; after death of Moore, gov-
erns New York; tells legislature that
duties imposed by parliament will
probably be removed next session, iv.
177; directs assembly, with reference
to the complaints of its constituents, to
supplicate the king, who will hear and
relieve with paternal tenderness, 455 ;
says of Duane's motion in congress
that a negotiation will give the people
time to cool, before all the colonies be-
come equally desperate, 582, 583.

Goligny, Admiral, desires to establish a
Huguenot refuge in Florida, i. 53 ; re-
news his efforts for colonizing Florida,
54, 55; the remarkable realization of
liis design to make the southern region
of North America an asylum for the
Huguenots, i. 514, 515.

Colleton, James, appointed governor of
South Carolina, i. 523; quarrels with
colonial parliament, and excludes re-
fractory members; defied by assem-
bly; declares martial law; disfran-
chised and banished, 524.

Collier, Sir George, with a fleet in-
terrupts Massachusetts expedition
against Castine, and disperses it, vi.
214.

Collins, James, imprisoned for treason-
able expressions in Virginia, ii. 16.

Colonial charter, the first provisions of,
i. 95, 96.

Colonial government, system of, how
reached by English government, ii.
272.

Colonial policy, England's, destroying
itself, iii. 44 ; in it seeds of war with
France for territory, and with Amer-
ica for independence, 44; at war with
itself, 305, 306.

Colonial system, Townshend's, first op-
posed by New York protesting against
great powers of colonial court of judi-
cature, iii. 363.

Colonial revenue demanded for military
defence and expenses of civil list, iii.
19; bill for raising read twice in par-
liament and postponed, 367.

Colonies, planted by the poor and hardy,
i. 162, 163; the New England enjoy
respite from persecution during last
twenty years of reign of Charles I.,
i. 330; rapid growth of, 330; beginning
of manufactures in, 331 ; held subordi-
nate to parliament when named in its
acts, but Massachusetts had refused
to admit such subordination, 413; tax

on merchandise exported or imported
from kingdom never levied in 413,
414; the northern, consolidation :f, ii.
137 ; population of in 1688, 175; emigra-
tion of their founders most momentous
event of seventeenth century. 175:
relations chiefly with England and
France, 186; English statesmen, after
Revolution of 1688, had no plan for
administering, 196 ; their governments
most free ever known; popular ele-
ment in had no rival, 271; centre of
gravity for Puritan culture transferred
to, 273; royal requisition for men and
money unheeded; their affairs put in
hands of a board of commissioners for
trade and plantations, 275; taxation
of for English treasury not dreamed
of; but general desire in, to aid in
common defence against French and
Indians, 278 ; strife as to power to tax
colonies; always denied in Amorica,
278; proposal to bring them into closer
dependence on the crown ; requisition
for money on, refused by Pennsylva-
nia and Massachusetts, 280; ordered
to proclaim war against France, build
forts, &c, but excuse themselves, 281;
taught by danger the necessity of
union, 350 ; repulsed from Canada, at-
tempt little more than the defence of
frontiers, 353; undisturbed by war
against Spain, except New England
and South Carolina, 371 ; their denial of
absolute authority of parliament over
them ascribed by king's friends to hes-
itation of ministry, iv. 3; transferred
to a new department of British gov-
ernment, to be filled by Dartmouth, 4;
driven nearer to utter denial of the
power of parliament, but do not go
bevond the power of taxation, 5 ; every
colonial assembly denies right of king
to tax America, and embodies denial
in petitions to him, 13L; all mature
agreements for passive resistance to
taxation, 155; all colonies south of
Virginia follow her example, 160;
union of the, hope of, drawn from in-
tercolonial correspondence, 258; an-
archy produced in by passion for rul-
ing them by central authority, 292;
all feel wounded by news that George
III. is hiring foreign mercenaries with
whom to subjugate them, v. 166; unity
of; never existed as independent states ;
unity symbolized by the crown passes
to them on declaration of indepen-
dence, 251 ; conflicting policies of Eng-
lish ministries and local legislatures
toward, 346, 347; each colony con-
nects its idea of freedom with exclu-
sive privilege of controlling its internal
policy, 347.

Colonists, American, Christians, and
Protestants ; in Virginia, acquire man-
agement of all their concerns, i. 160;
their system, li. 177.

Colony, the, of Anne Hutchinson's
friends in Rhode Island; its basis, the

522

INDEX.

universal consent of inhabitants, i.
309; Its constitution, 310.

Colony, the Popliam, discouragements
of the first winter ; colonists return to
England, i. 206.

Colorado, discovery of, i. 35.

Columbus, Christopher, his early dreams
of discovery, i. 6; his second voyage,
9; his third, 10; his discovery of South
America, 11 ; death of, 12; his mission
to join all nations in commerce and
spiritual life, iii. 7.

Comments in London on the fights at
Lexington and Concord; the father of
Rogers, the poet, after reading morn-
ing prayers, tells his children the sad
story " of the murder of their Ameri-
can brethren ; " the recorder of London
puts on a full suit of mourning, and,
being asked if he had lost a relative,
answers, " Yes, many brothers at Lex-
ington and Concord/* iv. 559.

Commerce, of New England colonies,
sacrificed to interests of English mer-
chants, i. 414; their ports shut to all
but English vessels, 414 ; monopoly for
England of chief American products,
414, 415; importation of European
goods into colonies, except in English
ships, prohibited, 415: New England
merchants excluded from markets of
southern plantations, 415; colonies for-
bidden to manufacture articles that
compete with English, 415; commer-
cial policy of England toward her col-
onies, a monopoly, 416 ; English people
also sufferers, 416 ; its growth, and pro-
tection by government; soon strong
enough to compete with landed inter-
est, ii. 193; the arbiter of alliances,
judge of war and peace, 194; ancient
and modern, compared, 292; of New
York and Philadelphia outgrows laws
of trade, and revenue officers, unable
to enforce laws, receive duties as a
favor, iv. 293 ; foreign, of the colonies,
how necessary articles are obtained,
v. 142 ; thrown open to the world ; ab-
solute free trade inaugurated, 217.

Commercial interest, paramount in Eu-
ropean politics, ii. 291.

Commercial policy, under England's,
toward colonies, America buys little
more than she would have done under
free trade, iii. 96.

Commission, British and French, at
Paris, iii. 47 ; claims of each party as
to Nova Scotia, 47, 48.

Commission, special, the, for the colo-
nies, i. 323; its reception in Boston,
323, 324.

Commissioners appointed by King James
to examine affairs of Virginia, i. 147;
their report to the king, 150.

Commissioners, British, — Lord Howe
and General Howe, — letters-patent
for, issued, May 6, 1776; empowered to
pardon those who give early proofs of
their sorrow for rebellion, and sue for
mercy; the points in controversy, — |

the rights of taxation and to alter
charters; their instructions conform
to opinions of Germain and the king,
v. 244; having failed with congress,
attempt to negotiate through Wash-
ington, insinuating propositions in ne-
gotiations for exchange of prisoners,
549, 550; receive instructions from
Germain to use sterner measures;
their answer, 551.

Commissioners of colonies, under Charles
II., appointed, i. 439; summon meet-
ing of people of Massachusetts to hear
the king's message, 444; summon a
court to try the colony, 445; establish
government in Maine, 446; sustain
the war against King Philip, 461.

Commissioners of revenue, at Boston,
with Governor Bernard, send secret
memorial to England, complaining of
American press, of town-meetings, of
Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and
doubt their ability to enforce the rev-
enue law, iv. 75; apply for armed force
to naval commander at Halifax, and
send a second memorial to lords of
treasury, reporting that governor and
magistracy have no authority, and
that they cannot enforce the revenue
laws, 79; take no pains to avoid giving
offence, 90; beg further protection of
General Gage and Hood, and write to
lords of treasury that insurrection is
imminent, 92; ordered to return to
Boston, wish to get from council some
excuse, but that body declines, and
informs Gage how trivial were grounds
of calling for troops, 1 19 ; more haughty
than ever, arrest Hancock and Mal-
colm, 120; ask exemption of their sal-
aries from colonial income tax, 225;
ships and soldiers for support of reve-
nue officers cost several hundred thou-
sand pounds, 245.

Commissioners on plantations give Vir-
ginia liberty to choose her own gov-
ernor, i. 158.

Commissioners to Canada, appointed
by congress, — Franklin, Chase, and
Charles Carroll; their object, v. 292;
their observations and report in favor
of withdrawing the army from Canada,
and stopping Sullivan's brigade at Fort
George, 294, 295 ; will not permit Woos-
ter to resume command on Thomas's
illness, 296.

Commissioners to negotiate a peace with,
John Adams, Jay, Franklin, Henry
Laurens, and Jefferson, vi. 378.

Committee appointed by congress for re-
forming the army, — Franklin, Lynch,
and Harrison, v. 65, 66; arrive in Bos-
ton ; Franklin sure that separation is
inevitable; his welcome in his native
town; in conference with New Eng-
land commissioners, devises scheme
for forming and supplying a new army
of twenty-three thousand men, whom
Washington is authorized to enlist at
once; the execution of the plan de-

INDEX.

523

ponds on New England colonies; after
conference, the committee remains
two days to advise with Washington,
66.
Committee of congress to meet Lord
Howe, Franklin, John Adams, and
Edward Kutledge, v. 394; visit Lord
Howe, and discuss questions at issue;
Lord Howe disavows Sullivan's state-
ment, " that parliament had no right
to tax America," as extended much
beyond its import; Franklin favors an
acknowledgment of American inde-
pendence, and a treaty of peace be-
tween the two countries; Lord Howe
welcomes this overture, and transmits
it to England, 397 ; committee reports
to congress that he made no proposi-
tion of peace, except that colonies shall
return to their allegiance, and that his
authority seemed not to exceed the
power of granting pardons, and declar-
ing America, or parts of it, to be. in
the king's peace, on submission, 397,

MO

OVOi

Committee of safety, of eleven men,
appointed by second provincial con-
gress of Massachusetts; charged to
resist every attempt to execute acts of
parliament ; authorized to take posses-
sion of military stores of provinces,
and to muster as many militia as they
thought proper, iv. 470; send circular,
dated April 20, 1775, to all towns in
Massachusetts, urging enlistment, and
forwarding of men to Cambridge, iv.
634; entreat assistance from New
Hampshire and Connecticut, 535; have
no choice but to drive out British troops
or perish in the attempt, though there
was no unity in American camp, 541.

Committee to visit the army, composed
of members of congress, most of them
being Washington's friends ; report of
Dana, a member, vi. 45, 46 ; a plan of
an annual draft proposed to, by Wash-
ington, 47.

"Common Sense," Paine's essay un-
palatable to friends of proprietary gov-
ernment, v. 161.

Common sense found by Beid, the meta-
physician, and Chatham, foremost of
British statesmen, to be the criterion
of morals and truth ; that of American
people now claims to judge the great-
est question of the political world, v.
166.

Complot of Arnold and Clinton ; Arnold
complains of neglect; embarrassed by

emulations in Philadelphia, hints to
ritish commander in chief a desire
to change service; accused by council
of Pennsylvania, and sentenced to be
reprimanded; taken under pay by
Clinton, to whom he gives material
information; obtains command at
West Point, 320; after a long corre-
spondence with Clinton through Andr6,
arranges for an interview ; goes to meet
the British flag at Dobb's Ferry, but is

fired on by British guard-boats, and
prevented, 321 ; tries to obtain consent
of Washington to the reception of an
agent with reference to confiscated
property; proposes that Andr6 shall
come up to the "Vulture." British
ship-of-war ; on seeing Arnold's letter,
Clinton embarks troops on the Hudson,
as if for an expedition to the Chesa-
peake, 323; Andre" reaches the " Vul-
ture," and awaits Arnold's summons;
lands and joins Arnold, and rides with
him to house of Smith; the plot to
deliver Fort Defiance to the British,
and to capture re-enforcements sent
to it; Arnold's rewards; Andr6 starts
by land for New York, 324, 325; is left
by his companion Smith, and proceeds
alone to a point near Tarrytown, 326;
halted by Paulding, who questions
him, and refuses bribes, and delivers
him to Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson,
commanding North Castle, 327 ; the
litter orders him to be taken to
Arnold, but, on protest of Major
Talhnadge, the order revoked, and
Andr6 confined; he writes to Arnold,
who escapes to the " Vulture," 328.

Conant, Roger, agent of Cape Ann
colony, i. 264; begins settlement at
Salem, 265.

Conciliatory bills, Lord North's, vi. 60 ;
becoming statutes, with little opposi-
tion, confirm the ministry, 61.

" Conclusions," the, an argument cir-
culated among the Puritans of Eng-
land, urging the religious duty of
strengthening the Salem colony, i.
274.

Concord, Mass., settled in 1635 by Simon
Willard and Rev. Peter Bulkeley, i.
302; its painful infancy, 303; conven-
tion at, declares that "freedom and
slavery are now before us," avows its

Eurpose to nullify divers acts of par-
ament, and sends its resolves to con-
tinental congress, iv. 381, 382 ; its people
summoned, April 19, 1775; minute-
men and militia form on the parades
associated with memories of Winthrop
and Eliot, men of Acton and Concord
and Lincoln, and retire to high ground,
waiting for aid, 523, 524; British ar-
rive in the village; number and posi-
tion of Americans, 524, 525; in doubt
about resistance, 525 ; their advance to
bridge : the British fire a volley, killing
several patriots; Buttrick orders the
men to fire, several red-coats fall, and
the British retreat, 527 ; the battle of
Concord, more eventful than Agin-
court or Blenheim, 528; the Ameri-
cans astonished, and do not pursue,
528 : Colonel Smith begins his retreat,
ana is ambushed with loss along the
route, which swarms with "rebels;"
his troops are driven like sheep, 529;
at last are stopped by officers, when
Lord Percy comes up with twelve hun-
dred troops; he keeps Americans at

524

INDEX.

bay with cannon ; the retreat resumed
and pursued through continual attacks
by militia, till the survivors of British
escape across Gharlestown Neck ; losses
of both parties, 53CM532.

Confederacies, the first in America, of
New England colonies; William Penn
proposes one of all provinces, in 1697 ;
Franklin revives idea, and gives it
life, Hi. 81.

Confederacy of colonies, first meeting of
commissioners, i. 342 ; refusal of Mas-
sachusetts to abide by decision of other
colonies nearly causes its termination.
309.

Confederation, treaty of, between Mas-
sachusetts and Connecticut, proposed,
i. 339 ; commissioners of Massachusetts
appointed to conclude it, 340; articles
of, 340, 341, 342; confirmed by Massa-
chusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven,
afterwards by Plymouth, 342; the
colony beyond the Piscataqua, Provi-
dence, and Rhode Island, not ad-
mitted, 342 ; dies of apathy, 481 ; its last
word, 482; national draft of, brought
into congress, July 12, in handwriting
of Dickinson; chief hindrance to a
strong confederation, the uuwilling-
• ness of colonies to give up power ; not
a single statesman understands the
need of the country, v. 346; articles of,
signed by eight states, vi. 148 ; several

glans to consummate, 334, 335; signed
y Maryland, last of states ; defects of,
352, 353 ; no union formed ; amendment
possible only by simultaneous consent
of every member, 353.

C mfessions of persons accused of witch-
craft, ii. 260, 261.

Conflicts of opinion between Washing-
ton and congress, vi. 49.

Congaree, rendezvous of Carolina militia,
iii. 232.

Congregatlonalists of Massachusetts, led
by coercion of national church to cruel-
ties which their English persecutors
had practised, i. 363.

Congress at Albany, largely attended by
chiefs of Six Nations and their allies,
iii. 21; commissioners of Massachu-
setts urge appeal to king to require
remoter colonies to aid in protecting
New England .and New York, 21, 22;
chief purpose of its directors, the secure
enjoyment of official emoluments, 22,
23.

Congress of commissioners from all
colonies north of Potomac, iii. 78 ; meet
to concert measures of defence and
treat with Six Nations, 78 ; delegates
unanimous for union, 78; committee
appointed to prepare constitution for
a perpetual confederacy; Franklin's
plan agreed to "pretty unanimously,"
79, 80.

Congress of Indians gathers from Mis-
sissippi, Bed Blver, and St. Lawrence;
told they were under protection of
king of France, ii. 327.

Congress of southern tribes, at Augusta,
and peace ratified, iii. 403.

Congress, colonial, meets at New York,
and resolves to attempt conquest of
Canada by sending an army against
Montreal, while Massachusetts Bhall
attack Quebec with a fleet, ii. 351;
second assembling of, iii. 508, 509 ; dele-
gates recognize each other as equals,
509; considered at once the ground-
work on which collective American
liberties should rest ; the plea of char-
tered rights opposed, and thus the first
great step toward independence taken,
509, 510 ; regulates conduct of America,
613; prominence of South Carolina in;
conspicuous ability of James Otis, 513 ;
a repeal of all acts laying duties on
trade, insisted on, 513; Gadsden and
Lynch, of South Carolina, oppose
approaching the English with peti-
tions, 513; closes amid excitement,
consequent on arrival of a stamp-laden
ship; dissent of Buggies of Massa-
chusetts, and Ogden of New Jersey,
from general feeling of congress, dele-
gates of six colonies, except Buggies
and Ogden, sign papers; the colonies
unrepresented assenting, by which the
colonies became " a bundle of sticks,
which could neither be bent nor
broken," 515.

Congress, continental, proposal for de-
ferred, but preparations made for it in
Massachusetts, iv. 293; inception of,
326; Dickinson's plan of adopted by
New York committee, 330; time and
place of fixed by Massachusetts as-
sembly at Salem, by Samuel Adams's
agency, 343, 344; Massachusetts dele-
gates to, 344; eleven colonies repre-
sented, 392 ; a pledge of secrecy
adopted, 395; news received of at-
tack on people of Boston; commit-
tee appointed on rights of colonies,
and on British statutes affecting trade
and manufactures, 396: debate as to
foundation of rights of colonies, 396,
397; Massachusetts delegates present
reports of Suffolk county convention,
which are received with applause,
398; agreed to rest the demands of
America, not on trade, but on an his-
torical basis, to avoid appearance of
revolution ; difference of opinion as to
what grievances should be taken into
account; acts of navigation not in-
cluded in the list, 401; Boss, of Pa-
moves that Massachusetts shall be left
to her own discretion; but congress
approves her opposition to late acts of
parliament, and claims for her sup-
port in case of need} votes that any
one who shall act under authority of
the regulating act should be held in
detestation, 406; committee again di-
vided on declaration of rights ; eleven
acts, or parts of acts, of parliament,
declared to violate rights of colonies,
so that their repeal was indispensable

INDEX.

525

for restoration of harmony, 406, 407;
resolves not to import any goods from
Great Britain or Ireland alter Dec. 1.
1774, 407; a second congress invited
for May, to include delegates from
Nova Scotia and Canada. 409 ; a peti-
tion to the king adopted, embodying the
ultimate decision of America, asking
for peace, liberty, and safety, and
promising to support the royal author-
ity, assenting to parliamentary claim
to the power of regulating commerce.
409 ; the vote for non-importation and
non-exportation the best evidence that
independence was not sought, 410;
invites Canada to "accede to their
confederation,'1 417; English ministry
surprised by its firmness and modera-
tion, 437: delegates from Massachu-
setts and Connecticut received with
honors in New York city; the dele-
gates, commissioners from twelve col-
onies, deputed to consult on measures
of conciliation; their limited powers;
represent the unformed will of an
unformed people, 667, 568 ; the forma-
tion of a great commonwealth and
declaration of independence demanded
by exigencies of the case, but not pos-
sible, 668 ; congress must respect hete-
rogeneous masses of men or different
interests and creeds, 568, 569; by nat-
ural succession of events, are impelled
to Inaugurate a union and found a
nation, 570; listens with sympathy to
story of 19th of April, and approves
unanimously the conduct of Massa-
chusetts ; instructions of Pennsylvania
delegates look to continued union with
Britain. 581; Duane, of New York,
moves in committee of the whole the
opening of negotiations to adjust dis-
putes between king and colonies, 582,
583 ; votes to put colonies in a state of
defence, and, with desire of promoting
reconciliation, humbly to petition the
king ; Duane's motion carried, 583; un-
likely to adopt a New England army
under a Massachusetts commander,
690; has not yet the disposal of one
penny of money ; undertakes to borrow
£6,000 "for the use of America," 591 ;
still seeks to avoid a surrender of lib-
erty and a declaration of indepen-
dence; its policy an armed defence,
while waiting a further answer from
the king, 591 ; hopes by one campaign
to dispose the British government to
treaty ; has no power to lay taxes ; dis-
astrous financial measures taken in
issue of continental bills of two mil-
lion dollars, v. 10; its hope of suc-
cess of second petition to the king
based on readiness of Americans, u
exempted from parliamentary taxa-
tion, to bear commercial restraints, or
to buy a freedom of trade like Scot-
land's, 22, 23; still shrinks from every
act ■ ''at may endanger the acceptance
of its pe«,*. on to the king, 23 ; puts aside

Franklin's plan of confederation, 24 :
Franklin, Jefferson, John Adams, and
Richard Henry Lee, appointed com-
mittee to report on I*ord North's plan
as a basis for accommodation, 24; ma-
jority of refuse to make adequate prep-
arations for resistance, or sanction the
institution of governments in the col-
onies, 25; most decisive measure the
adoption of Jefferson's paper, on Lord
North's proposal for conciliation, 26;
orders a third million paper dollars
printed, and each colony charged to

Erovide for sinking its quota of the
ills, — population to constitute the
rule of apportionment, all persons, free
and slave, to be counted; the continen-
tal revenue to be sustained by a col-
lective poll-tax, 26; its bias to inac-
tivity, 64; debates on boundary line
between Virginia and Pennsylvania,
and right of Connecticut to Wyoming,
65 ; project to establish a navy opposed,
67 ; war not yet waged on sea, nor ports
opened to foreign nations, 68; one day,
defensive measures ; the next, nothing
that can offend Britain, 68; the major-
ity sees that last hope of conciliation is
gone, and acts on petitions from colo-
nies to institute governments; New
Hampshire advised to call a conven-
tion, and form the best temporary
government she can ; the same advice
given to South Carolina, 84; adopts
"rules for the government of the
American navy;" authorizes seizure
of Bhips carrying for British forces, and
sanctions courts to dispose of their car-

Soes ; votes bills of credit for three mil-
ons, 87; Harrison, Franklin, John-
son, Dickinson, and Jay appointed a
committee to correspond with, friends
abroad, 87, 88 ; in December professes
allegiance to the king, 139; invites Vir-
ginia to form a government for herself,
147; authorizes Washington to attack
Boston, 154; rejects Franklin's plan of
a confederacy, but shows determina-
tion to continue the struggle; more
troops ordered for Washington, and
war expenses for the year computed at
ten millions, 163, 164: listens with im-

Satdence to Wilson's draft of an address
isclaiming the idea of renouncing alle-
giance, 209; throws open commerce of
the colonies to all the world not sub-
ject to Great Britain, 217 ; this action
brings the conflict between congress
and proprietary of Pennsylvania to a
crisis, 217; passes John Adams's prop-
osition providing for establishment by
each colony of a government for itself,
249; the preamble to the resolution
an avowal of full independence, and
a blow at proprietary governments,
250, 251 ; not one member of congress
who applies principle of non-concen-
tration of power to congress itself, 253 ;
Richard Henry Lee's proposition for
independence, and a plan of confedera-

5126

INDEX.

tlon ; the debate thereon", 267; commit-
tee appoftited to prepare a declaration
in harmony with proposed resolution ;
Jeft'erson to write it; digesting the
form of confederation assigned to one
member from each colony, 269 ; a com-
mittee raised to prepare a plan of
treaties; a board of war appointed:
its resolutions as to allegiance and
treason, 270; does not agree with
report of commissioners in favor of
withdrawing army from Canada; is
bent on supporting the invasion, 295;
July 1, 1776, longevity of members;
every colony represented, 312, 313;
action of the several colonies looking
to independence, 313; John Adams
speaks on resolution for independence,
314, 315; speech of Dickinson, urging
delay of declaration, 315-318; the reso-
lution for independence sustained by
nine colonies, 318, 319; on the 2d of
July, twelve colonies vote for inde-
pendence, and that all political con-
nection with Great Britain should be
dissolved, 320; also directs publica-
tion of Lord Howe's circular letter,
that the people may know with what
terms Britain expects to amuse and
disarm them, 342 ; debates Lord Howe's
message, and replies that congress
cannot send its members to confer
with him in theirprivate character,
393, 394; desires Washington effectu-
ally to obstruct navigation of the Hud-
son, 439; appeals to the people to make
at least a short resistance, for it had
assurances of foreign aid, 460; in a
panic on approach of British ; resolves
that Washington shall contradict the
report that it is about to disperse, but
he declines ; decides to adjourn to Bal-
timore, against protest of Samuel
Adams, who trusts that his dear New
England will maintain the struggle,
467, 468; needless flight of gives stab
to public credit, 468; meets at Balti-
more in gloom ; its temporizing policy
thrown aside, and, before news of
Trenton, votes to assure foreign na-
tions that America will maintain her
independence, 486; resumes work of
confederation at Yorktown ; not one of
original committee present when " ar-
ticles of confederation and perpetual
union " were adopted ; unity of colo-
nies before declaration of independence
resided in the king ; congress his suc-
cessor, 25 ; does nothing for the army
beyond promise of one month's pay,
and authority to appropriate articles
of necessity, 42 ; partly adopts Wash-
ington's plan of an annual draft for
troops, 47; on fast day, resolves to hold
no conference with British commis-
sioners till fleets and armies are with-
drawn, or independence acknowledged,
70 ; unanimously ratifies treaties with
France, 129, 130; issues an address as-
suming that independence is assui-ed,

and a new people come Into existence,
130 ; resents letter of the commission-
ers, and votes that the idea of depen-
dence is inadmissible ; issues a circular
to five states, urging them to sign
articles of confederation, 148: gives
audience to De Bayneval, the French,
plenipotentiary, 150; publishes address
of British commissioners to show in-
sidlousne8S of their design, 154; abol-
ishes joint commission to France, and
appoints Franklin plenipotentiary, 164,
165 ; not consulting military authority,
forms a plan for emancipation of Can-
ada in co-operation with an army from.
France, 172 ; renounces powers of coer-
cion, and devolves chief executive acts
on the states, 174; resolves that neither
France nor the United States will con-
clude peace or truce with the common
enemy without consent of its ally, 197 ;
asks of France supplies to the amount
of nearly three million dollars, to be
paid for after peace, 202; requires
that, before any treaty of peace, Amer-
ican independence shall be assured by
Great Britain ; makes ineffectual drafts
on Laurens in Netherlands, and Jay
at Madrid, 335; at opening of 1780, is
utterly helpless, and throws every-
thing on the states, 337; takes no
action as to reception of French troops,
but asks the states to show how much
money and provisions they can con-
tribute, 340, 341 ; urges on states sur-
render of their territorial claims in
the west to perfect federal union, and
provides that new states in the west
shall be members of the union;
adopts the principles of armed neutral-
ity, and promises army officers half-pay
for life, 347 ; confesses its own helpless-
ness, and selects the younger Laurens
to set the condition of the republic
before France, 350 ; adopts declaration
of Russia, as to rights or neutrals, 358 ;
a majority of, insists on John Adams
as sole negotiator for peace, 375, 376 ;
but it is finally decided to associate
with him representatives of other sec-
tions of the states ; their instructions,
376; Luzerne's amendments to instruc-
tions to peace commissioners debated,
and passed by seven states to six, 377;
on news of Yorktown, goes in proces-
sion to church to give wanks to God,
429; votes honors to Washington.
Kochambeau, and De Grasse, ana
special thanks to the armies, 429; re-
news its resolution to receive no propo-
sitions for peace except in confidence,
and in concert with its ally, 475, 476.
Congress, provincial, of Massachusetts,
at Concord, notifies Governor Gage of
their convention in a congress, and,
remonstrating against his hostile prep-
arations, wishes to remove people of
Boston into the country, iv. 412, 413:
committees report that powder and
ordnance should be provided at once,

INDEX.

527

and an appropriation of ninety thou-
sand dollars; elects three general offi-
cers; invests a committee of safety
with authority to alarm and muster
the militia, 412, 413; votes to pay no
more money to royal collector ; chooses
a receiver-general ; institutes a system
of taxation; appoints committees of
safety, correspondence, and supplies;
adheres as nearlv as possible to charter
granted by William and Mary, 413.
414 ; foresees that new parliament will
be favorable to the ministry; full of
confidence, adopts all resolutions of
continental congress, and establishes
a secret correspondence with Canada,
433, 434 ; proclaims that " resistance
to tyranny becomes the Christian and
social duty of every individual," 470;
frugal in appropriations, yet holding
property ana blood cheaper than lib-
erty, 470, 471; resolves that a New
England army of thirty thousand men
be raised, the proportion of Massachu-
setts to be thirteen thousand six hun-
dred, 535: resolves that Gage has dis-
qualified himself for serving the colony
In any capacity, that no obedience is
due him, and that he ought to be
guarded against as an enemy; ready
to receive a plan of civil government,
or, with consent of congress, to form
one, 543 ; proposal to extend hostilities
to the sea, hut decision repeatedly
postponed in hope of a return of peace,
556, 557 ; sends by swift packet to Eng-
land an accurate statement of events
of April 19, charging Arthur Lee,
their agent, to give it wide circulation ;
professes readiness still to defend per-
son, family, and crown of the king, but
refusing to submit to tyranny of his
ministry, iv. 558.
Connecticut, motives for its settlement
by Hooker's party, i. 312; desired by
Dutch, and infested by hostile In-
dians, 313 ; attempt to punish them by
Massachusetts, 313; rising of, pre-
vented by Roger Williams, 313, 314;
court decrees war against Pequods,
314; successful prosecution of hostili-
ties secures long peace, 316 ; constitu-
tion of, 318; commonwealth formed,
318, 319; subsequent career of, 319;
people of, wish no guarantee for their
institutions from England; content
with security afforded by the con-
federacy, 344 ; sends younger Winthrop
to London on restoration, 419; her
charter joins New Haven and Hart-
ford in one colony, 421 ; its provisions,
421 ; favors general synod of New Eng-
land colonies, and with Massachusetts
adopts the " half-way covenant," 424,
425 : expenses of government, 425 ; edu-
cation, 425; political education, 425,
126; citizenship and town-meetings,
426; its history under the charter,
"halcyon days of peace," 426, 427;
commissioners compliment to, at ex-

pense of Massachusetts, 444; move-
ments of Dutch in, quickened by rush
of Puritan emigrants to New Eng-
land; first occupied by Dutch; to
whom did it belong, ii. 45; acquires
half of Long Inland, 55; surrenders
claims to it, and obtains favorable
boundary on the main, 73; repulses
Andros, and resents his Intrusion,
138 ; resumes her charter, annulled by
Andros, 173; refuses to be included
in New York, 241; joy at accession
of William ami Mary, 241; its re-
sumption of charter, after Andros's
rule, approved in England, 241, 242;
command of militia, held by gov-
ernor of Massachusetts, conferred on
governor of New York; the legisla-
ture protests, and petitions the king;
Governor Fletcher attempts to take
command, but legislature refuses, 242 ;
king decides that command in Con-
necticut and Rhode Island belongs to
those governments, 242, 243; is heard
in parliament against bill abrogating
American charters; attacks on, by
Dudley and others, 244; elects William
Pitkin governor, in place of the loyal-
ist Fitch, iv. 9; ministry can find no
pretext for annulling her charter. 68;
assembly decides to petition the king
only ; unwilling to confess authority of
parliament over it ; court will not issue
writs of assistance, 86 ; exercising dis-
puted jurisdiction in Wyoming valley,
and seeking leave to found a colony
on south-east bank of Mississippi,
168 ; the most orderly and quietly gov-
erned people in the world, 257 ; elects
committee of correspondence, 262;
people of, anxious for a congress, even
if colonies south of Potomac are left
out, and urge Massachusetts to fix
time and place for its meeting, 331;
ministers of. write cheering letters to
ministers of Boston, 350; legislature
provides for organizing the militia,
prohibits the importation of slaves,
and orders to provide twice the usual
quantity of ammunition; slightly in-
creases the taxes, and directs issue of
fifteen thousand pounds in bills of
credit of the colony, 413; governor con-
venes legislature immediately after
fight at Concord, but people cannot be
restrained, and by second night several
thousand men are on their way to
Boston, 536; scarcely a town of, not
represented among the besiegers of
Boston, 537; still hopes for cessation
of hostilities, and sends Johnson as
envoy to Boston, 540; moved by ex-
ample of Virginia, instructs delegates
in favor of independence, foreign alli-
ances, and permanent union of colo-
nies; begins to conduct its government
in its own name, v. 303; nine new regi-
ments sent to the army at New York ;
poor soldiers, but stern patriots, 369,
370; substitutes the people of colony

528

INDEX.

for name of the king. June 14,

1776.
Connecticut Farms, burned by British

troops, vi. 316.
Connecticut River, lands along, In dis-

gute, claimed under grants from
fovernor Wentworth, of New Hamp-
shire, and New York ; Colden advises
annexation of all of Massachusetts and
New Hampshire, west of, to New York,
iii. 392.

Connecticut troops, resolve to leave the
army at end of their term ; urged and
besought to remain at least ten days,
but in vain; Trumbull's explanation
of their conduct ; their rough reception
at home, v. 143; three regiments of

i light-horse sent on Washington's re-

' quisition; their, rustic manners ; want
of discipline, and claim to exemption
from fatigue duty; sent home at end
of ten days, 353, 354.

Connecticut, valley of, planted with
Puritan villages,!. 311; Earl of War-
wick, first proprietary of, succeeded
by Lords Say and Seal, and Brooke
and John Hampden, 311; people of
New Plymouth open fur-trade there,
311; Dutch try to secure the territory,
311; younger Winthrop builds fort at
mouth of river, 311 ; settlements begun
at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethers-
field, 311; exodus from Massachu-
setts to, 312; personnel of emigrants,
312.

Connolly, John, a physician, land-jobber,
intriguer, and instrument of Dunmore ;
made captain-commandant for Pitts-
burg; issues proclamation of his au-
thority, and orders a muster of militia;
a conflict of Jurisdiction with Penn-
sylvania, and consequent disorders,
iv. 419; authorized by Dunmore to
raise a regiment in backwoods of
Pennsylvania and Virginia ; is arrested
in Maryland, v. 147.

Consignees, of tea, in Boston, visited by
a committee of citizens, and asked to
promise not to sell tea, but to return
shipments to London; all refuse; a
resolve of meeting at Liberty Tree
read, declaring refusing consignees
enemies to their country; violence
threatened, but avoided, iv. 271, 272;
again refuse to resign, 272; promise
that, on arrival of tea, they will make
proposals to the town, 273; conspire
with revenue officers to throw on
owner and master of " Dartmouth "
the burden of landing tea, 277.

Consolidation of the federal union,
first impulse given to, by Robert
Morris, vi. 462.

Conspiracy of a king against liberties of
his people, its atrocity, i. 389.

Constitution, American, the child of the
whole people, expressing a community
of its thought and will, iv. 569.

Constitution, a federal, steps taken to-
ward formation of, vi. 343.

Constitution, British, more immovable
than George Ill.'s design, iii. 369.

Constitution of Massachusetts, details of
its formation, vi. 309-313.

Constitution, the, of Virginia, the ordi-
nance establishing, i. 124; provisions
of, 124, 125.

Contempt, persons who plead the laws

'of England against the charter and
administration in Massachusetts com-
mitted for, by Winthrop, i. 362, 353;
attempt to impeach him, which fails,
353.

Contrecceur, takes post at the Fork,
which he fortifies and names Du-
quesne, the site of Pittsburg, iii. 75.

Conventions of states to consider cur-
rency and prices; at one in August,
1780, only Massachusetts, Connecticut,
and New Hampshire represented, but
a step taken toward formation of fed-
eral constitution in resolutions insist-
ing on a more solid and permanent
union, a supreme head of important
national concerns, &c, <&c. ; Wash-
ington calls attention of Bowdoin to
this action, and wishes it successful
progress, vi. 343.

Convicts, shipment of, from England to
Virginia, il. 14.

Convocation, the, of the clergy, of 1606,
denies every doctrine of popular rights,
maintaining superiority of king to
parliament and laws, and exacting
passive obedience, i. 232.

Conway, Henry Seymour, desires ap-
pointment in America, on Loudoun's
recall, but is refused, iii. 193; dismissed
from army for his votes in parliament,
404; his speech against stamp act, 449,
450; takes seals of southern depart-
ment under Cumberland ; his contra-
dictory qualities, 488, 489 ; sends letters
to American general and governors,
exhorting to persuasive methods, 512;
outburst of popular gratitude to him
on repeal of stamp act, 575, 576; eager
to resign, but remains in office, ex-
changing charge of colonies for the
northern department, iv. 4; leader of
house of commons under Pitt, 15; re-
placed by Lord Weymouth, 64; speaks
out against bill altering charter of
Massachusetts, and advocates repeal
of tax on tea and its preamble as only
possible means of conciliation, 303.

Conway, a French officer of Irish de-
scent, eager for higher rank; Wash-
ington's opinion of him; writes to
Gates, that " Heaven is determined to
save your country, or a weak general
and bad counsellors would have ruined
it; " his injurious words about Wash-
ington communicated to him by Wash-
ington himself; he justifies then), and
reports to Mifflin his defiance of the
chief, vi. 38; offers to form a plan for
instruction of army, and tenders his
resignation to congress, 39: compli-
mented by Gates; appointed inspector-

INDEX.

529

general, and made independent of
commander in chief; strives to win
from Washington Lafayette's love and
trust, and to induce him to abandon
the country, 40 ; writing petulantly to
congress, finds his resignation ac-
cepted, 44 ; thinking himself mortally
wounded, writes to Washington, pro-
nouncing him a great and good man,
45.

Coode, John, heads insurrection in Ma-
ryland, ii. 9, 10.

Cooke, Elisha, agent of Massachusetts
in England, proposes to establish fixed
salary for no royal officer, and his ad-
vice heeded by legislature, ii. 269.

Cooke, member of parliament for Mid-
dlesex, shows the cruelty of fixing the
name of rebels on all Americans, iii.
531.

Cooper, of Boston, testifies that popular
confidence in Washington is beyond
example, v. 498.

Cornbury, Lord, succeeds Lord Bello-
mont, as governor of New York: his
character, ii. 234, 235; appropriates
revenue, 235; imperious in religious
affairs, 236; writes against unwilling-
ness of colonies to furnish men and
arms, 281.

Cornstalk, commander of Shawnees in
battle with Virginians, iv. 424.

Corn wal lis, Colonel Edward, commands
expedition that settled Halifax, iii. 31 ;
harsh treatment of Acadians, 31, 32;
offers rewards for scalps of Micmacs,
32; seeks aid from Massachusetts to
recover Beaubassin, but is refused,
45 ; inhabitants flee at approach of his
force, having burned their homes, 45;
his troops compelled to retire, 46.

Cornwallis, Lord, lands in Brunswick
county, N.C., and ravages plantation
of Robert Howe, — his first exploit in
America, v. 242 ; advances with a small
force to Flatbush, 373; having voted
that parliament had no right to tax
America, takes command in New Jer-
sey, and looks first at Fort Lee, spe-
cially endangered by Greene's neglect
of Washington's order to prepare for
its evacuation, 454; joined by Howe
and fresh troops; leaves Grant in com-
mand in New Jersey, and starts for
England, 469; delays embarkation,
and takes command of force at Prince-
ton, 489 ; leads flower of British army to
meet Washington, 490 ; tries to surprise
Lincoln at Boundbrook, 560 ; on march
to Scotch Plain, encounters division of
Stirling, and routs it, 568: sent to Bil-
lingsport to clear left bank of the Del-
aware ; Greene sent to give him battle;
is largely re-enforced; levels fort at
Bed Bank, which has been evacuated;
returns to Philadelphia, vi. 24; leads a
foray into New Jersey, 154 ; arrives at
Charleston with three thousand men.
266; moves across the Santee toward
Camden, 267; succeeds Clinton in

chief command; resolves to keep all
that had been gained, and to advance,
conquering, to the Chesapeake, and to
organize regiments of southern people,
270; reports at end of June, six weeks
after fall of Charleston, that he had
stopped all resistance in Georgia and
South Carolina, and in September
would enter North Carolina, 272:
thanked by parliament for victory at
Camden, 281 ; prepares for a triumph-
ant northward march ; made to believe
that all North Carolina will welcome
him; requests Clinton to establish a
post with three thousand men on Ches-
apeake Bay, 283, 284; his first measure
in South Carolina a reign of terror;
atrocities of his subordinates, 284 ; his
van driven back at Charlotte by forty
men under Colonel W. B. Davie, 289 ;
surprised by appearance of enemy at
King's Mountain, whose Buccess is
fatal to his expedition ; retreats,
293; his march to the Catawba ford
harassed by people of the country;
ill with fever, and his army lacking
food and forage; sufferings of fif-
teen days; orders troops sent by Clin-
ton into the Chesapeake to embark for
Cape Fear River; thus ends his first
attempt to penetrate Virginia, 206:
complains to Greene of the hanging of
British prisoners at King's Mountain,
and is sharply answered, 381 ; resolves
to intercept Morgan, 382 ; is surprised
by result of Cowpens; persists in his
original plan of striking at heart of
North Carolina, and pushing on to join
British on the Chesapeake, 389 ; leaving
Bawdon to defend South Carolina, and
joined by Leslie, marches to the south
fork of the Catawba; here resolves
to turn his army into light troops,
and destroys superfluous baggage and
wagons, 389, 390; his passage of the
Catawba at Macgowan's disputed by
General Davidson, 390, 391; at Hills-
borough invites all loyal subjects to
repair to royal standard, 393; tries to
bring Greene to battle, but is baffled,
394; brings relics of his army to Wil-
mington, and urges on Clinton the
adoption of the Chesapeake as the seat
of war; moves to Virginia, 400; in
march from Wilmington meets little
resistance, 401 ; at head of seven thou-
sand men in Virginia, no formidable
enemy before him, 412 ; sends Tarleton
to break up assembly at Charlottes-
ville, and Simcoe to capture stores at
Point of Fork; his head-quarters at
Jefferson's Elk Hill, 415; estimated
destruction of property by his army
in Virginia, £3,000,000; gains no foot-
hold, and learns that bulk of people
are bent on independence, 416; starts
his army for Portsmouth, and arrives
near James Island, 417 ; disgusted with
the prospect in Virginia, desires to go
back to Charleston, 418 ; transfers his

VOL. VI.

34

580

INDEX.

whole force from Portsmouth to York-
town and Gloucester; fortifies these
points, though doubting the wisdom
of the measure, 420; finds himself
blockaded by land and sea, 422; re-
ports to Clinton that, unless help soon
comes, he must prepare to hear the
worst, 424; after storming of York-
town, surrenders. 428.

Corsica, intrigues of British cabinet with,
iv. 99, 100.

Cortereal, Gaspar, ranges coast of North
America, and brings away Indian cap-
tives as slaves, i. 13.

Cortes, Fernando, his cupidity excited
by reports of the riches of Yucatan,
i. 26 ; proposes to solve the problem of
a north-west passage, 27.

Cotton, a passenger in the " Griffin," his
political and theological opinions, i. 290;
preaches against rotation in office, 291 ;
makes a draft of laws, 292 ; would tol-
erate ''hypocrites and tares rather
than thorns and briers," 362.

Councillors of Massachusetts; of thirty-

- six appointed by the king, more than
twenty decline to serve ; the others flee
in terror to the army in Boston, iv.
376; mandamus councillors dare not
claim their places without a larger
military escort than they can have,
400.

Country towns of Massachusetts, their
reasoning as to the relations with Great
Britain; not rebellious, but sign the
covenant, sure that their rights would
be restored without bloodshed, iv. 341,
342.

Courcelles, governor of Canada, il. 322.

Court, general, the first in America, held
in Boston, 1. 283; session to discuss
domestic treachery and parliamentary
usurpations, 366; definition of Massa-
chusetts^ allegiance to England, 366;
refusal of new charter, 356; summons
disturbers, 366; its remonstrance to
parliament, 366, 357.

Court-martial for trial of Andr6, com-
position of; lenience of members, vi.
329.

Covenant, the, of twelve gentlemen, to
emigrate to New England, if the gov-
ernment and patent should be legally
transferred to the colony, i. 275.

Cowpens, the, battle of; Morgan places
his troops ; Tarleton arrives and makes
an attack, vi. 385 ; obstinately resisted,
but perseveres, and gains the Ameri-
can flank; finds himself between two
fires; charged by Howard, with Mary-
land light infantry, and Washington's
horse; routed and pursued twenty
miles : British destroy their own bag-
gage, 386; fame of spreads widely, and
the victors praised by congress, states,
and officers, 387.

Coxe, Daniel, claims proprietary powers
in western half of East New Jersey,
and conveys his authority to the West
Jersey society, ii. 224; sends expedi-

tion to explore mouths of the
sippi, which fails, 366.

Coxe, stamp officer for New Jersey, re-
signs, iii. 496.

Coytmore, commander at Fort Prince
George, stops supplies for Cherokees,
ill. 229; complained of by Tiftoe, a
Cherokee chief, as licentious and in-
temperate. 231 ; shot by Indians, 234.

Coronado, Francisco Vasquez, governor
of New Galicia, i. 33; forms an expedi-
tion in search of the seven cities of
Cibola, 33, 34; explores country be-
tween present Kansas and the chasm
of the Colorado, 33-39; discovers Zufii,
or Cibola, 36.

Correspondence, committee of; chief
members. Samuel Adams and Joseph
Warren, iv. 242; Adams chosen to pre-
pare statement of rights of colonists;
and Warren, one of violations of those
rights, 243; eighty towns chose, 262;
their reply to Cushing's timorous ad-
vice, 267 ; write to New England towns
and to New York and Philadelphia
for harmony and concurrent action,
276, 277 : on receipt of act closing the
port of Boston, invites eight towns to
a conference; committees agree as to
cruelty of the port-bill, and promise to
join Boston in every measure of relief;
propose to other colonies a general ces-
sation of trade with Great Britain,
and avow determination to maintain
to extent of their power the rights of
America, 321-3*23; joined by delegates
from other counties, and collectively
deny power of parliament to change
their laws in the slightest degree,
379 ; propose a provincial congress with
large powers; agree to forbid the un-
constitutional courts to do business,
and place every patriot under protec-
tion of county and province, 380.

Cradock, Matthew, governor of Massa-
chusetts Bay Colony, proposes to trans-
fer government to colony, i. 274; fur-
nishes two ships for Winthrop's fleet,
276.

Cramahe1, lieutenant-governor of Can-
ada, puts the walls of Quebec in con-
dition for defence, v. 127.

Cranfield, Edward, chosen by Robert
Mason to be governor of latter's do-
main in New Hampshire, i. 471; the
assembly resists him, and he dissolves
it, 472; disturbances follow, and law-
suits multiply, 472; attempts legisla-
tion with a high hand, 472 ; demands
money for defence against a feigned
invasion, but is refused by assembly,
472; forbids usual exercise of church
discipline ; more taxes called for under
pretence of war, but the people refuse
to pay, 473; writes to England, ask-
ing to be relieved, and his prayer is
granted, 474.

Cranmer, his part in the Reformation,
1. 214 ; his forty-two articles of religion,
214, 215.

INDEX.

531

Creeks, the, the territory of between the
Cherokees and the Savannah and At-
lantic; learn arts of civilization, and
esteemed most powerful Indian na-
tion north of Gulf of Mexico, 11. 405,
406

Cresap, Michael, of Maryland, on notice
by committee of Frederick, sends for
old comrades beyond the Alleghanies,
and, filling his company with eager
volunteers, marches to Cambridge;
falls ill, and dies at New York, on his
way home, and is buried as a martyr,
▼.30.

Crillon, Duke de, commands French and
Spanish fleets for capture of Gibraltar,
vi. 476.

Croghan, visits Ohio Indians, and negoti-
ates treaty on behalf of Pennsylvania,
ill. 64; assembly of Pennsylvania re-
fuses to ratify it, 57: descends Ohio
from Pittsburg to take possession of
Louisiana, 448.

Cromwell, Oliver, desires to confirm
maritime power of England, i. 164;
his plans, 165; makes no appointments
for Virginia, 171 ; proclaimed by Stone,
governor of Maryland, 198; gives little
attention to troubles in Maryland, 200 ;
expresses his interest in New England,
offering its people a home in Ireland,
358; "truly ready to serve the breth-
ren and the churches" in America,'*
859; offers them Jamaica, 360; "the
benefactor of the English in America,"
360; acknowledged leader of Indepen-
dents, 386; lustre of bis victories en-
nobles crimes of his ambition, 392;
public confidence rested on him alone,
892; supreme authority bestowed on
him, 393; his career, 393, 394; his pol-
icy and motives, 394, 395; assumes
supreme power, 395, 396; attempts,
and fails, to make alliance with prop-
erty of the kingdom, 396; dissolves the
parliament, and Penruddoc's insurrec-
tion follows, 397 ; establishes an upper
house, its members to be nominated
by himself, the peers concurring; the

J parliament dissolved, 398; confidence
n himself and own resources the basis
of his power, 398; his death removes
last obstacle to restoration of Stuarts,
398.

Cromwell, Richard, acknowledged by
Virginia house of burgesses, i. 172;
never acknowledged by Massachu-
setts, 376; his accession unopposed,
398; his resignation, 399.

Crown Point, army for reduction of,
consists of New England militia, iii.
137: battle of, 139, 140; victory due to
enthusiasm of New England men, 140;
abandoned by northern army, on con-
current advice of general officers, and
against the protest of Stark and twenty
field officers, v. 354.

Cruelties of British officers never imi-
tated by Americans; Sumter spares
all prisoners ; Marion famed for mercy ;

British officers ridicule the idea of
observing capitulations with citizens,
vanquished traitors, 380.

Cruger, a British officer, rescues Brown
at Augusta, vi. 288 ; evacuates Ninety-
Six, and joins Bawdon, 406.

Cruger. Henry, of New York, elected
member of parliament from Bristol,
with Burke, iv. 429.

Culpepper, Lord, grant to him and the
Earl of Arlington of all the domin-
ion of land and water called Virginia,
for thirty-one years, i. 539; appointed
governor of Virginia for life ; his pol-
icy, ii 10: only his avarice gives him
place in history ; is loaded with grants
and perquisites; sails for England, 11;
returns, and silences discontent by a
few executions; his patent made void,
and the governorship vacated, 12.

Culpepper, John, leader in Albemarle
insurrection, i. 504; sent to England
by colony to negotiate a compromise
with proprietaries, 505; arrested in
England, defended by Shaftesbury,
and acquitted, 506, 506.

Cumberland, Duke of, captain-general
of British army, intrusted with con-
duct of American affairs, iii. 110; be-
gins his career with ostentation, 110;
causes rigors of mutiny bill to be
doubled, 111; proposed to make him
sovereign of American colonies, 153;
accedes to shameful treaty of neu-
trality for Hanover. 177; succeeds in
forming an administration, 486; its
weakness, 489; his sudden death, 528;
rebukes ministry for treaties with
Brunswick and Hesse, and deplores
conduct of Branswickers, v. 180.

Cumberland, British agent at Madrid,
returns from a fruitless expedition,
vi. 375.

Cummings, Charles, pastor of Presby-
terian church on the Wautauga, iv.
443; one of the committee appointed
by assembly, 444.

Cunningham, Colonel William, leads a
force from Charleston into interior;
kills fifty men suspected of being
friendly to the United States; de-
mands surrender of house occupied
by Colonel Hayes and thirty-five men;
sets it on fire, and the garrison capitu-
lates to be treated as prisoners of war ;
Colonel Hayes and his second in com-
mand hanged; and Cunningham kills
some, telling his men to do the like, vi.
381, 382.

Currency, colonial, board of trade pro-
pose to reduce it all to one standard;
issued by New York and South Caro-
lina, ii. 287.

Cushing, speaker of Massachusetts
house, urges that the people endure till
their natural Increase of strength shall
bring a settlement, iv. 267; delegate
in congress from Massachusetts, sides
with Wilson, and votes for committee
to explain position of coi gress as to in-

532

INDEX.

dependence; displaced by his constitu-
ents, t. 182.

Customs, no officer of^ in Massachusetts,
many years after Restoration, i. 467.

Customs, in tho colonies, officers of,
ordered t? their posts, and rigidly in-
structed, ill. 399; a new and uniform
system of admiralty courts to be estab-
lished, 399.

Customs, board of, established at Boston,
iv.50.

Dablok, Claude, a missionary, visits
Onondagas, with Chaumonot, ii 317 :
invites French colony into land of that
tribe, 318 : with Allouez bears the cross
through Eastern Wisconsin and the
north of Illinois, 328.

Dalrymple, an officer of British troops In
Boston, eager to be set to work, iv.
186.

Dale, Sir Thomas, sent to Virginia with
supplies, i. 109; founds Henrico, 110;
frames earliest land laws in Virginia,
115; goes to Europe with Pocahontas
and her husband, 115.

Dalyell, aide-de-camp to Amherst,
makes sally from Detroit, and is
driven back by Indians, ill. 383, 384.

Danbury, Conn., invaded by British
force under Try on, and burned, v. 560 ;
Tryon met at Rldgeneld by a force
under Arnold and Silliman, and one
under Wooster hung on his rear;
Wooster killed; Arnold maintains a
sharp fight till his position is turned ;
British resume their march next day,
harassed on all sides, 561 ; ford the river
to avoid a rebel battery, and, worn out
by fatigue, escape to their ships only
by the aid of Sir William Erskine, 562.

Danby, lord treasurer of England, will-
ing to help in crushing popery, and
favorable to popish plot, ii. 163; im-
peached for intriguing with France,
164.

Danforth, Thomas, writer of declaration
of natural and chartered rights pub-
lished by general court of Massachu-
setts, 1. 436.

Danforth, first president of Maine, ap-
pointed by Massachusetts, i. 470.

Daniel, Father Anthony, his heroic con-
duct and death at the massacre of St.
Joseph, ii. 313, 314.

Dan vers, Mass., favors "strict union of
all the provinces," iv. 254.

Dare, Virginia, daughter of Eleanor
Dare, and grand-daughter of Governor
White, the first child of English pa-
rents born on the soil of the United
States, i. 85.

Darmstadt, landgrave of, too fond of his
Boldiers to let them go out of his sight,
v. 543.

D'Artois, Comte, younger brother of
Louis XVI. and afterwards Charles
X-, longs for war with England, v.
362; avows his good- will for Ameri-
cans, 521.

Dartmouth, Earl of, takes seals of south-
ern department, under Cumberland,
iii. 489; takes charge of American af-
fairs, iv. 4; favors Townshend's pol-
icy of consolidation in colonies, 237;
would have regarded conciliation as
the happiest event of his life, 245;
writes in king's name that Massachu-
setts rebels are a rabble to be reduced
by a small force, 463; declares for im-
mediate rejection of Chatham's plan,
465; says that effects of Gage's at-
tempt at Concord are fatal; happy
moment of advantage is lost, 568, 559;
writes on behalf of the king that he
hopes that in North Carolina the gov-
ernor may not be compelled to seek pro-
tection on board the king's Bhips, — just
as Martin fled to the " Cruiser," v. 54.

" Dartmouth," the ship, arrives on Sun-
day at Boston with cargo of East India
company's tea; Botch, owner of the
ship, promises not to enter her till
Tuesday; on Monday, a great meeting
in Faneuil Hall resolves that the tea
shall be sent back, and no duties be
paid on it, iv. 274, 275; the meeting
ordered to disperse by governor's proc-
lamation, which is received with hiss-
es ; owner and master of " Dartmouth "
agree that the tea shall return, and a
like promise exacted of other con-
signees, 275.

Dartmouth College, a school for Indian
children, on the frontier, threatened
by Indians, iv. 510.

Dashwood, Sir Francis, an opponent
of Pitt's engagements with Germany,
receives officeMii. 260.

Davenant, Sir William, appointed gov-
ernor of Maryland by Charles II., 1. 196.

Davenport, John, pastor of New Haven
colony, i. 320 ; declines request of Mas-
sachusetts to remain in its jurisdiction,
but favors practical union of the colo-
nies, 339.

Davis, Nicholas, a Quaker, ordered to
depart the jurisdiction of Massachu-
setts, i. 367.

Davis, Isaac, captain of Acton minute
men, his parting from his wife, iv. 524;
as they advance toward the British,
says, " I have not a man who is afraid
to go." 526; leads the way to bridge,
and is killed; his widow honored in
her last days, 527.

Dauphin of France, not admitted to
royal council, and ignorant of business,
iv. 318.

Dave, Stephen, the first printer in New
England, L 330.

Dean, James, sent by President Whee-
lock, of Dartmouth College, to visit
Canada Indians, and persuade them
to peace, iv. 510; attends council of
Five Nations, who promise neutrality,
v. 289.

Deane, Silas, versatile, but superficial,
appointed commercial commissioner
to France; instructed to procure news

INDEX.

583

fron England, through Bancroft, v.
867; asks Yergennes fur two hundred
light brass field-pieces, and arms and
clothing for 25,000 men; is offered
merchandise on credit by Beauniar-
ehais: sends for Bancroft, and opens
his affairs to him, 358; beset by ad-
venturers, who wrest from him engage-
ments for high office in the American
army, 363; appointed member of com-
mission to make a treaty with France.
410.

DeAranda, member of the Spanish
ministry, enlarges on the dangers of
independent republics in 'America ; ad-
vises the subjection of Louisiana, and
the keeping New Orleans so insignifi-
cant as not to invite attack, iv. 149,
150.

De Barras, commander of French squad-
ron at Newport, though De Orasse's
senior, will take his orders, vl. 421;
with eight ships of the line, con-
voys ten transports from Newport,
with ordnance for siege of Yorktown,
423.

De Beaujeu, commandant at Fort Du-
quesne, is killed in battle, ill. 125.

De Berdt. Dennys de. chosen agent in
England of Massachusetts house of
representatives, iv. 26.

De isonvouloir, M., a Frenchman of good
judgment and discretion ; visits Ameri-
can colonies; reports that every man
had turned soldier : French ambassador
proposes to send him back to America,
and Louis XVI. consents, v. 59; his
Instructions, 60; sees Franklin and
others of the secret committee; tells
them France is well disposed, and
he will present their proposals to
her ; opposes sending a plenipotentiary,
but will receive any thing in charge,
141; his report to French minister
forms the subject of most momentous
deliberations to French king, 141, 142.

De Bougainville, commander under
Montcalm, ill. 223.

De Callieres, appointed French governor
of New York, in anticipation of its
conquest, ii. 347; governor-general of
New France, proposes to assert French
jurisdiction over land of the Iroquois,
859; resolves to secure mastery of the
lakes by establishing a post, and sends
De la Motte Cadillac to take possession
of Detroit, 359.

Declaration of independence silently pre-
pared in the convictions of the people;
as in the birth of Christianity, and in
Reformation, the popular desire is once
more the voice of the harbinger; the
people, weary of atrophied institutions,
yearn for fuller knowledge of the rules
of right, as the generative principles of
social peace, v. 165, 166 ; Thomas Jeffer-
son chosen to draft it; submitted to
Franklin and John Adams, and re-
ported, vi. 324: a passage about the
slave-trade stricken out, 325; agreed

to by all colonies except New York,
326; its terms, 326-330; observations
on, 330-332 : not signed by members on
same day, but authenticated by presi-
dent ana secretary, and published to
the world, 332; not only announce-
ment of the birth of a people, but also
the establishment of a new government,
331, 332 ; its adoption changes contest
from a war for redress to an effort to
create a self-governing commonwealth,
335; accepted by assembly of South
Carolina, 338, 339; August 2, signed by
members of congress, which has only
a transient army, no confederation or
treasury; Samuel Adams the first
signer, after the president, 355.

De Clugny succeeds Turgot, as French
minister of finance; a rogue and de-
bauchee; Condorcet's comment on his
appointment, v. 246.

Dedham, Mass , men of, young and old,
go out to harass the retreating British,
so that scarcely one male between six-
teen and seventy is left at home, iv.
530.

Deerfield, capture of; massacre of In-
habitants of, by French and Indians,
under Hertel de Bouvllle, ii. 374.

De Graffenried, agent for establishing
palatines in Carolina, captured by
Tuscaroras, sentenced to death, but
released, ii. 384.

De Grasse, French naval commander in
America, ordered to conform himself
to the counsels of Washington and
Rochambeau, vi. 371, 372; to rendez-
vous in Chesapeake Bay, and to bring
as many troops as can be spared from
the West Indies, 421; en ten Chesa-
peake, blockades York Biver, and un-
disturbed lands three thousand men
on James Island, 422; though short-
handed, engages Graves's fleet in
Chesapeake Bay, and compels it to
retreat; captures two British ships of
thirty-two guns each, and Joins De
Barras, 423; bent on keeping at sea,
leaving only two vessels at mouth of
York Biver, but yields to remonstrance
of Washington and Lafayette, 424,
425: defeated and captured in fight
with Rodney, 446; brings from Shel-
burne to Yergennes suggestions which
leave Spain the only obstacle to peace,
470.

De Guinea, French ambassador at Lon-_
don, listens to Rochford's talk about
England's declaring war against
France, and encourages his communi-
cativeness, v. 59; replies to Yergennes,
incredulous as to folly of British min-
istry in its American policy, 60 ; writes
to Yergennes, after Richard Penn's
arrival, that there can be no concilia-
tion now that Rochford assures him
that Boston is to be burnt; and the
seat of operations moved to New York ;
that the plan of ministry is to force
America back flftj years, if they can-

534

INDEX.

not subdue It, 81 ; persists in thinking
negotiations impossible; says that it
cannot yield, but most carry out its
plan or resign; that the king is as
obstinate and feeble as Charles I., and
daily makes his task more difficult, 82:
evades request of English secretary of
state to deny Lee's assertion, that the
Americans will receive the support of
France and Spain, 90.

De Hart, of New Jersey, makes a motion
in congress to stop issue of paper
money by provincial conventions and
assemblies, but no one seconds it, v.
66.

Delancey, James, lieutenant-governor
of New York, compromises with oppo-
sition in the assembly, iii. 66; repre-
sents Virginia in congress at Albany,
78; causes three "rebels" to be exe-
cuted, vi. 459.

De Lancey, of New York, in a few
months, enlists about six hundred re-
cruits for the British army, v. 544.

Delaplace, commander of Ticonderoga,
surrenders fort to Ethan Allen, Iv.
555.

Delaware, Lord, governor of Virginia,
under second charter, i. 105; brings
succor to the colony, 107 ; organizes the
government, 108; falls ill, and returns
to England ; in parliament, favors aid
to colony, 114; sails with re-enforce-
ments for Virginia, and dies on the
voyage, 117.

Delaware, purchase of soil from Cape
Henlopen to mouth of Delaware River,
by Godyn and Blommaert, two direc-
tors of Amsterdam: ratified by Gov-
ernor Minuit, of New Netherland;
the oldest deed in Delaware ; first set-
tlement in. by a company, including
Godyn ana Blommaert, ii. 43; Pieter
Heyes's expedition with emigrants the
cradling of a state: his settlement
called S waanendael, 43, 44 ; occupied by
the Dutch, 44; becomes property of
Amsterdam, 56; colonists driven out
by severity of proprietary govern-
ment. 57; present boundaries estab-
lished, 130; separated from Pennsyl-
vania, becomes almost an independent
republic, 221 ; assembly of, adopts Vir-
ginia resolves, iv. 160; devises plans
for sending aid annually to Boston,
351 ; a little army springs up from the
people, 454; assembly approves pro-
ceedings or congress, but desires ar-
dently an accommodation with Eng-
land ; for more than twelve years
maintains the right of each colony to
an equal vote; passes bill prohibiting
importation of slaves, which is vetoed
by the royal governor, 503; its first
convention, assembly and council of
safety, act in harmony, v. 39; influ-
enced by example of Pennsylvania, 85,
86 ; in March, 1776, still hopes for con-
ciliation, 239; assembly approves reso- I
lution or congress of May 15 ; overturns |

her proprietary government, and gives
her delegates discretion as to voting
on independence, 303, 304 ; finishes its
constitution, Sept. 20, 1776, 503; ac-
cepts articles of confederation, vi. 148.

Delaware and Pennsylvania under one
executive head; their inhabitants in-
terchangeably taking service in one or
both, v. 39.

Delaware Indians visited by Christopher
Gist; promise friendship to the Eng-
lish, iii. 51; pertinent inquiry of a
chief, 60; ravage border of Pennsyl-
vania, 159.

Delaware River, Dutch claim southern
bank of, against Lord Baltimore, whole
country on. transferred to city of Am-
sterdam, ii. 64; banks of, reserved
for Quakers, 77.

De Levi, second in command of French
troops in Canada, takes active '' part *'
in battle of Ticonderoga, iii. 199, 200:
tries to prevent descent on Montreal
by occupying passes of river near Og-
densburg, 214 ; successor of Montcalm,
resolves to reduce Quebec, but is com-
pelled to raise the siege, 239, 240.

De Levy, with force of French, captures
Fort Bull, at the Oneida portage. iU.
157.

De Mantel, leader of French and Indian
expedition against Schenectady, ii.
349.

Demer6, commander at Fort Loudoun,
insists on surrender or execution of
offending Cherokee chiefs, iii. 229;
killed, with twenty-three others, by
Indians, 237.

Democratic tendency, the. in Massachu-
setts, an effort to check it, L 291.

De Monts, obtains a patent giving him
the sovereignty of Acadia and its con-
fines ; also religious freedom for Hugue-
not emigrants, i. 18; his settlements
and explorations, 19; his monopoly
revoked, 20.

De Neyon, a French officer at Fort
Chartres, exhorts savages to bury the
hatchet, iii. 386.

Denmark, has colonies on small West
India Islands, and in the East; the
first European state to forbid the
slave-trade, vi. 92; its subjects for-
bidden to send munitions of war to
Danish colonies in the West Indies,
lest Americans should get them; its
ports closed to prizes of American pri-
vateers, 93.

Depeyster, in command of British at
Cowpens, after Ferguson's death; sur-
renders, vi. 292.

De Pontleroy, a French officer, sent
through America in diaguise, iii. 417.

De Puysieux, French minister of foreign
affairs, favors peace, iii. 58.

De Ramsay, surrenders Quebec, iii 226.

De Rouville, Hertel, leads force against
Salmon Falls, which he destroys with
great cruelties; re-enforced, makes
successful attack on Casco Bay, li.

INDEX.

586

860; leads attack on Deerfleld, 374,
375; on Haverhill, 376.

De Ruyter, a Dutch admiral, his vic-
tories, and magnanimity to the younger
Tromp, ii. 76, 79.

Descartes, visited by the most stupen-
dous thought ever known to man, vi.
71 ; opens a world in which every man
is his own philosopher, 72.

Deserters, a hundred or more, discour-
aged by disaster, abandon the Massa-
chusetts Bay colony, and flee to Eng-
land, i. 284; defame the colony, 286.

De Sireuil, young captain of French

Sigers, mortally wounded at York-
wn. vi. 428.

D*£staing, Count, admiral of French
fleet for America, persuades Marie
Antoinette to propose the expedition;
writes to congress that he is ready
to join the states for reduction of
British forces, and intercepts Brit-
ish ships, vi. 149: summons Cana-
dians to throw off British rule, 172;
repulsed in attempt to recover St.
Lucia, 258; stays six months at Port
Boyal; sends a force which captures
St. Vincent ; attacks and receives sur-
render of island of Grenada ; has a
running fight with British fleet, in
which the latter suffers most, 259;
drawn into direct co-operation with
United States by wish of congress
and his own good- will; captures four
British ships-of-war by surprise; con-
certs with South Carolina an attack on
Savannah, 259; summons Prevost to
surrender ; leads a column of attack ;
is twice wounded, 260 ; sails for France,
261; urges French ministry to send
twelve thousand troops to America,
318.

De Trepezee, sent forward by Montcalm,
at Ticonderoga, to watch movements
of enemy, iii. 197; loses his way and
encounters right centre of English
army, and his force is killed or cap-
tured, 198.

Detroit, its sftaation, occupied by French

, settlers, iii. 376, 377 ; population of, iv.
126; proposal to take it by Morris, of
New York, and Wilson, of Pennsyl-
vania, rejected by congress, v. 65;
re-enforced and fortified by the Brit-
ish, vi. 191.

De Ulloa, Antonio, Spanish governor of
Louisiana ; his cool reception ; obliged
to govern under French flag, iv. 122,
123 ; retires to Havana. 124.

Deux Ponts, Count William de, leads
French assault at Yorktown, vi. 426;
at height of assault, raises cry of Vive
le Boi, 428.

De Yaudreuil, orders De Bamsay to sur-
render Quebec, iii. 226; surrenders
Montreal, 240.

Devonshire, Duke of, resigns his office
in royal household ; his name stricken
from council book by the king, iii.
294.

De Vries, his praise of Virginia, in 1632-
1633, i. 154.

De Vries, David Pietersen, commands
expedition fitted out by patroons of
Swaanendael ; recalled to find colony
destroyed, ii. 44.

Dew, Thomas, of Virginia, projects ex-
ploration of rivers between Cape
Hatteras and Cape Fear, i. 487.

D'Ewes, believes that the finger of God
had guided Massachusetts, I. 328.

Dialects of Indians, study of, throws
light on their condition; each one
analyzed found rich in derivatives
and compounds, ii. 408 ; no tribe with-
out an organized language; pectdiari-
ties in speech of different tribes, 409.

D'Iberville, Lemoine, his achievements
at Hudson's Bay, ii. 347; leads emi-
grants from France to St. Rose, op-
posite Pensacola, but is driven away
by Spanish governor, and proceeds to
Shin Island, 363, 364; ascends the Mis-
sissippi to Bed River; builds fort at
head of Bay of Biloxi ; sails for France,
leaving his two brothers in command,
365; returns, and strengthens the
colony, 366; dies at the Havana, 368.

Dickinson, John, opposes proposition
that Pennsylvania should become a
royal government, iii. 433; the Pennsyl-
vania Farmer, a lover of liberty and of
England ; his plea for American rights,
iv. 60, 62; tells colonists that they are
assigned to be protectors of unborn
ages, and is thanked by Boston, 81;
his letters published in Eugland;
translated into French, and warmly
praised in Europe, 86; writes that
colonies must assert their liberties
when opportunity offers, 260 ; in Frank-
lin's absence, Pennsylvania under his
influence ; opposes cessation of trade,
and favors congress; embodies, in a
letter to Boston, the system which,
for a year, was to be the policy of
America, 330 ; is passed by assembly in
electing delegates to general congress,
357, 358; added to the delegation in
continental congress, and drafts ad-
dress to the king. 403; draws second
petition to the king; is proud of his
work, and would eliminate only one
word from it, "congress," v. 12;
from the first, acts in concert with
proprietary government of Pennsyl-
vania, and dictates to ardent patriots
who have less influence, 37 ; urges Gal-
loway not to refuse a seat in the con-
tinental congress ; claiming to lead the
Satriots of Pennsylvania, adds his in-
ueuce to that of the Penn family, 38;
appointed chairman of committee of
safety, 39; returned to legislature by
almost unanimous vote, and looked on
by loyalists as their last hope ; plainly
included in list of traitors in king's
proclamation, but shuts his mind to
the fact ; reports resolutions instruct-
ing Pennsylvania delegates to oppose

536

INDEX.

all measures for Reparation or any
change in form of government, 85 ;
still confident that the petition he
drew will not be rejected, 88 ; his
speech to the New Jersey assembly,
139, 140 ; with others, wishes to post-
pone declaration till alliance is made
with France, 220 ; stands between con-
servatives and revolutionists in Penn-
sylvania assembly, 265 ; before vote in
assembly on new instructions to dele-
gates in congress, pledges his word
that he and a majority of the dele-

Sitos will continue to vote against
dependence, 267 ; peculiarly unfitted
to frame a national constitution, 346 ;
yields his place in congress to Clymer,
355.

Dickinson, General Philemon, with raw
troops, defeats a foraging party with
wagons, sheep, horses, and cattle, v.
496.

Dickinson's plan of a constitution; re-
quires that measures of primary im-
portance shall have the assent or nine
colonies, while trivial matters must
be supported by seven ; constitutional
amendments; congress can transact
specific business, but not enact general
laws, v. 348; Kutledge sees danger In
Dickinson's indissoluble league of the
states, 348, 349: proposes to obtain
supplies by taxing each state in pro-
portion to its population ; the taxation
of slaves, 349, 350; distribution of
power in congress, 350-352; the great
compromise of our constitution, 352;
form of plan so complicated, and its
type so low, it could not live ; congress
grows weary of considering it, 353.

Dickson, Lieutenant-colonel, command-
ing at Manchac, La., abandons it,
and, sustaining a nine days' siege by
Spaniards, capitulates, vi. 229.

Dictator of South Carolina, grandson
of Shaftesbury, elected, but declines,
11.198.

Dictator, Washington, said by Lord
Germain and Lord Stormont to have
been appointed, v. 486.

Dictator of the United States, Richard
Henry Lee proposes to make Wash-
ington, vi. 412.

Dieskau, commander of French, troops
sent to Canada, part of his squadron
captured by the English; lands at
Quebec, iil. 119, 120 ; commands French
army to oppose Johnson, 138; am-
buscades a detachment of Johnson's
troops, and attacks the camp, but is
repulsed with heavy loss, 139, 140;
wounded Incurably, 140.

Digby, the first builder of sea-going
craft in New England, i. 205.

Digges. Edward, elected governor of
Virginia, to succeed Bennett, i. 171:
nominated to same office by council
of state in London, 171; negotiates
agreement for restoration of Maryland
to Lord Baltimore, 201.

Dinwiddle, lieutenant-governor of Ylr-

?;inla, receives messages of ■friendship
rom Miamis. iii. 62; reports to board
of trade, and asks instruction as to
resisting French, 63: sends George
Washington to French forces on Ohio,
to inquire reasons for invasion of
British territory, 69; urges taxation
of colonies and subversion of charter
government, 146, 147.

Diplomacy, first act of, in New England,
i. 247 ; records o£ reveal the penetrat-
ing sagacity of French statesmen;
England felt no need of employing
able men in, in those days, vi. 121.

Dissent, attendance at dissenting place
of worship made a crime, i. 412.

Dissenters, attracted to South Carolina
by promised immunities, i. 513; royal
charters refused to, in America, 329.

Dixwell, one of the Judges of Charles I.,
escapes to New England, and, chang-
ing his name, finds safe asylum in New
Haven, i. 407.

Dobbs, of North Carolina, opines that
on conclusion of peace it would be
proper to insist on the king's preroga-
tive, iii. 253.

Dock yards, «&c, an act of parliament
to protect, fixing penalty for destroying
any thing belonging to the fleet, ap-
plied to all colonies, iv. 236.

Dogger Bank, action of Dutch and
English fleets near, without decisive
results, vi. 375.

Dominica, a British island, captured by
D'Estaing's fleet, vi. 258.

Dominion, French, in the west, com-
plaint of, by New York legislature, to
the queen; details of its evils, ii. 179;
maritime powers struggling for, for
first time, ft. 291.

Dongan, Thomas, nephew of Tvrconnell,
governor of New York, calls general
assembly, ii. 145.

Donop, Colonel, of Hessian army, v. 177 ;
left by Howe in charge of line from
Trenton to Burlington; ordered to
hang citizens who fire on the troops,
and to seize all provisions in excess of
family needs; outrages by his men on
women and children; hears rumors
of vicinity of Washington, but is as-
sured by Grant that they are incredi-
ble, 469 ; so unsuspecting that he stays
at Mount Holiy, 476; on hearing of
Ball's defeat, crosses to Princeton,
abandoning his stores and sick and
wounded, 487 ; attacks Fort Red-bank,
and is repulsed disastrously; his thigh
shattered, vi. 21 ; his dying words, 22.

" Don't tread on me," the motto on the
standard to be used in the American
navy, v. 233;

Dorchester Heights, commanding Bos-
ton; the committee of safety notify
council of war that they should be
fortified, iv. 603, 604: occupied by-
Washington ; a big night's work: dis-
may of the British, v. 197; the latter

INDEX

537

decide to storm the works, and send
a force under Percy, but attempt de-
feated by violent storm, 198.

Dorchester Neck, a promontory south
of Boston, with three hills command-
ing the town ; to hold this and Charles-
town at the north is to have mastery
of Boston, iv. 603.

D'Orvilliers, admiral of French fleet in
battle off Ouessant ; ascribes his fail-
ure to beat the English to the Duke
of Chartres, commanding one of his
divisions, vi. 162; commander of
French fleet for invasion of England,
226 ; reproached by French public, 227.

Dowdeswell, declares in parliament
that, with reference to America, you
will And the whole fault at home, iv.
296; opposes Boston port-bill, 297;
asks ministry to do justice, before it
is too late, 306.

Drake, Francis, a successful freebooter,
i. 72: visits coast of Oregon, 72; his
piratical exploits, 72, 73; supplies the
colony at Roanoke, 82.

Drayton, William Henry, chosen chief
justice of South Carolina, v. 235;
charges the jury that the law author-
izes him to declare that George III.
has abdicated the government, and
has no authority over us, 238, 239.

Dreuillettes, Gabriel, goes on mission to
Abenaki*, and is successful, ii. 311;
starts on mission to far west, but is
attacked, and expedition abandoned,
320.

Drummond, once governor of North
Carolina, brings news to Bacon's camp
of Governor Berkeley's violation of
his pledge, i. 550.

Drummond, Sarah, wife of a Virginia
statesman, her confidence and cour-
age in the face of possible resistance
to the mother country, i: 552.

Drummond, Lord, representing large
proprietary interest in New Jersey,
exhibits at Philadelphia a paper said
to have been approved by British min-
isters, promising America exemption
from taxation and internal police,
and Massachusetts the restoration of
her charter ; he dupes Lynch, of South
Carolina, into thinking of recommend-
ing the proposals, v. 163; visits Wash-
ington, as messenger from Lord Howe,
and is rebuked for breaking his parole,
371, 372.

Dry den, John, the poet, his lines on the
superfluity of " saints," ii. 167.

Duane, of New York, favors delay,
hoping that the interest of Great
Britain may compel her ministers to
offer reasonable terms; would wait
for commissioners, v. 220.

Du Buisson, commander of fort at
Detroit, successfully defends it against
the Foxes, ii. 383.

Dudingston, lieutenant-commander of
the " Gaspee," his conduct complained
of by people of Providence, B.I. ; refers

the matter to his admiral, who sustains
him, threatening Newport; commits
outrages on shore ; chases the Provi-
dence packet, runs ashore, his vessel
is captured, and himself wounded, iv.
235.

Dudley, Joseph, appointed governor of
Massachusetts, at request of Cotton
Mather, ii. 269; his character, 269,
270; refuse© a salary, and becomes
active enemy to chartered liberties;
urges appointment of council by the
queen, 270.

Dudley, Thomas, chosen deputy gov-
ernor of Massachusetts Bay company,
under Win throp, i 277; his character
and opinions, i 277, 278; a bigot to
the last, 362.

Duffleld, George, Presbyterian minister,
of Philadelphia; John Adams, listen-
ing, draws a parallel between George
111. and Pharaoh, v. 264.

Duhaut, a member of La Salle's colony,
mutinous and violent; with L'Arche-
vdque murders Moranget and La Salle,
11 342; murdered, 343.

Dulany, Daniel, a Maryland lawyer,
argues against stamp act ; his opinions
honorably noticed by Pitt, in parlia-
ment, ill. 503, 504; regret throughout
the continent that his zeal has cooled,
v. 40; Joins party of the proprietary,
ill. 603, 504.

Dumas, a Swiss, living in Holland, and
editor of Vattel, had written to Frank-
lin that " all Europe wish Americans
the best success in the maintenance of
their liberty ; " is charged by congress
to. ascertain the disposition of foreign
powers, v. 141.

Dumas, Count Matthieu, a French offi-
cer, serving in America, writes that
" the constitution of Massachusetts is
perhaps the code of laws which does
most honor to man," vi. 313.

Dunkirk, enforcement of treaty of Paris
respecting, treated as a small matter
by English ministry, iv. 562.

Dun more, Earl of, succeeds Botetourt as*

governor of Virginia; his character;
id not remain long enough in New
York to provoke resistance, iv. 215;
pleads with ministry in favor of pro-
hibiting the slave-trade, 232; his ra-
pacity; having enriched himself in
New York, he goes to Virginia, and,
against positive instructions, advo-
cates claims of the province to the
west, and is a partner in two great
land purchases in Southern Illinois;
part of Louisville and towns opposite
Cincinnati now held under his war-
rant, 418; renews peace with Dela-
wares and Six Nations, 422 ; holds con-
ference with Shawnees, and adjusts all
differences ; his conduct in this matter
44 truly noble, wise, and spirited," 425;
tries to intimidate Virginians by proc-
lamation, and circulates a rumor that
he will excite an insurrection among

538

INDEX.

slaves; threatens that, on insult to
himself or his servants, he will give
freedom to the slaves, ami lay the town
In ashes ; the incongruity of his threat
of freeing the negroes, 607; expects
magistrates of Williamsburg to stop
volunteers marching thither, or he will
regard the whole country in rebellion,
and devastate it at his will ; writes to
secretary of state that he could raise a
sufficient force among "Indians, ne-
groes, and other people,*' 508; issues
proclamation against Patrick Henry
and his "deluded followers," and se-
cretly denounces him to the ministry
as desperate and active in revolt, 651 ;
he expects to arm Indians and negroes
enough to supply the lack of white
men, 563; his threat to excite an in-
surrection of slaves fills the south of
Virginia with horror. 586; fearing
seizure as hostage, withdraws to ship
"Fowey," 587; orders a fort to be
built at- Great Bridge, 145, 146; issues
a proclamation, calling all able to bear
arms to his standard, and declaring
all indented servants and negroes free ;
had concerted this plan with Gage and
Howe ; sends for mdre troops, and pro-
poses to raise two regiments, — one
white and one of negroes, — to be
called Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian, 146,
147; with captain of the " Liverpool,"
agrees to treat Norfolk as a town in
rebellion, 150 ; is fired at by batteries on
shore, his fleet dispersed and wrecked ;
advises those who liad sought his pro-
tection to seek safety by flight; de-
spised for his boastfulness and help-
lessness, and his use of black allies;
roves in waters of Chesapeake, vainly
hoping for help, 338.

lranniore, Lady, wife of governor of Vir-
ginia, fears to be retained as a hostage
by patriots, and retires, with her fam-
ily, to the "Fowey," man-of-war, iv.
551.

Dunning, John, counsel for Franklin

* before privy council, his address, iv.
285, 286; his unsatisfactory reply to
Wedderburn, 288 ; Bays colonies are not
in rebellion, but resisting despotism,
466 ; defends right of Americans to fish
on the banks. 478.

Dupont, De MontB's lieutenant, at-
tempts to carry out his leader's ex-
ploring projects, i. 19.

Durand, French minister to England,
his report to Ghoiseul of British min-
istry; says all England admits that
American colonies will one day be in-
dependent; does not expect a near
revolution ; but, when it comes, loss of
French and Spanish colonies will fol-
low, iv. 55, 56 ; writes that things can-
not continue as they are between Eng-
land and colonies, and that in four
years America will be ready for resist-
ance, 65.

Durant, George, receives grant of neck

of land in Virginia, which now bean
his name, i. 487; takes part in Albe-
marle Insurrection, 505; acts as judge,
506.

Dustin, Hannah, captured by Indiana,
kills ten of twelve, and escapes, ii. 354,
355.

Dutch, the, for many years principal
purveyors of slaves for Virginia, i. 140;
governor of, tries to promote disagree-
ments in New England, 339 ; merchants
largely engaged in slave-trade, 512;
emigrants to South Carolina from New
York and Holland, 513; welcomed in
the East, ii. 23 ; vast designs ripening
among, in 1607, 24; which were op-
posed by Grotius and party, who fa-
vored peace with Spain, 25; ambassa-
dor proposes partnership with Eng-
land in joint colonization of Virginia
and the East India trade, 33; propose
to send Rev. John Robinson with his
congregation to Hudson River, but en-
terprise fails, 37; naval successes of,
promote peace with England, 54; have
to contend with Swedes for the banks
of the Delaware; build Fort Casimir,
on site of Newcastle, 55-

Dutch possessions in Asia and Africa, —
Cape of Good Hope, Negapatam, and
Trincomalee, deemed good things for
Great Britain, vi. 366.

Dutch East India company chartered,
ii. 23; first of great European trading
companies, and model of those of
France and England, 24; refuses to
continue search for north-west pas-
sage, 32.

Dutch West India company, incorpo-
rated for twenty-four years, with ex-
clusive right to plant and trade on
coast of Africa from Tropic of Cancer
to Good Hope, and in America from
Straits of Magellan to farthest north,
ii. 37; colonization not chief motive
for its incorporation, 38; often in con-
test with individual owners of land,
43; never could obtain national guar-
antee for integrity of its possessions,
54; early introduces negro slaves to
Manhattan, 60; denounces resistance
to arbitrary taxation, 63 ; resists claims
of Lord Baltimore to southern bank of
Delaware. 64.

Duties, on imports into American colo-
nies, iii. 464, 465 ; enforced by regular
officers and military and naval officera,
465; congress refuses to take authority
to regulate commerce, and lay duties
on imported articles; yet resolves that
it should have power to levy a duty of
five per cent on foreign goods; assent
of all the states to the measure not
gained, vi. 351.

Dyar, Mary, an Antinomian exile, comes
into Massachusetts, but, claimed by
her husband, is sent to Rhode Island,
i. 364 ; returns to Boston, 367, and is
tried; her remonstrance; reprieved,
but, returning, is hanged, 367.

INDEX.

539

Xablv voyages to America, 1. 5, et sea.

Eastchurch, appointed governor of Albe-
marle, i. 602.

Eastham, Mass., says judges must re-
ject the plan of being placed under
undue bias to the crown, if they would
have their memories blessed, iv. 267.

East India company, loses in conse-
quence of American revenue laws ; the
sale of goods of the annual value of
$2,600,000, iv. 246; applies to treasury
for license to export tea to America ;
duty free in England; warned by
Americans of probable loss, 266; sends
cargoes to Boston, New York, Charles-
ton, and Philadelphia, 269.

East Indies, victories of Glive, Coote,
Watson, and Pococke, secure ascend-
ency in, to England, ill. 301.

East New Jersey. Philip Carteret, the
governor; confirms liberty of con-
science with representative govern-
ment; direct trade with England
encouraged in, ii. 141 ; bought by asso-
ciation of Quakers; new patent for,
granted by Duke of York, 142; be-
comes asylum of Scotch Presby-
terians, 142-144; abode of peace and
Industry, 144; free schools established,
and no poverty, 146; proprietaries sur-
render their charter, 226.

Easton, Colonel James, commanding
Berkshire volunteers in expedition
against Ticonderoga, iv. 664.

Eaton, Theophilus, one of the founders,
and governor of the New Haven
colony, i. 320, 321.

Ecclesiastical court, the, instituted by
Queen Elizabeth, modelled on the in-
quisition, i. 223; its precedents and
parallels, 223

Eden, Richard, writes history of the
greatest maritime expeditions, i. 67.

Eden, Robert, governor of Maryland,
congratulates Hillsborough on return
of confidence and harmony, iv. 226;
beloved by the people, maintains a
prudent reserve in the disputes with
England, and is regarded as a neutral,
not hostile to American rights, v. 41 ;
arrested by order of General Lee, on
suspicion of complicity with Dunmore ;
suffered to remain at large on parole
by Maryland committee, 239.

Eden, proposes repeal of act asserting
the right of parliament to make laws
binding the people of Ireland, and the
measure is adopted by the ministry,
vi. 449.

Edes and Gill, printers of Boston, to be
proceeded against for treason, iv. 142.

Edge Hill: Howe's army marches to at-
tack Americans at, vi. 36 ; Howe recon-
noitres position, and finds it strong;
action between Morgan's riflemen and
Gist's light troops and a British force
under Lord Grey, the Americans hav-
ing the best of it ; British retire to
Philadelphia; their losses; the cam-
paign doses, 37.

Edmundson, William, visits the Quaker
brethren in Albemarle, and makes con-
verts, i. 499, 600.

Education, in Virginia, encouragement
of, i. 144; in Massachusetts, early
provisions for, 369; Harvard College,
general support of, 369; important
influence of general interest in educa-
tion, 369, 370.

Edward VI., his accession opens the way
for religious changes, i. 212.

Edwards, Jonathan, his theological
opinions, ill. 102.

Effingham, Lord, of the British army,
being ordered to America, renounces
his profession to avoid fighting against
freedom; for his resignation, which
offends the court, he is thanked pub-
licly by the Common Hall of London,
as a true Englishman, and receives
warm expressions of approbation from
Dublin merchants, iv. 660.

Egmont, Lord, protests against applica-
tion of mutiny bill to colonial militia,
ill. Ill ; head of admiralty ; plans ap-
plication of feudal system to the Isle
of St. John; angry at neglect of his
scheme by Grenvllle and Hillsborough,
400.

Egremont, Earl of, succeeds Pitt in
office; a weak, passionate man; takes
lead in the house of commons, ill. 273 :
instructs colonial governors to grant
no judicial commissions, save during
-pleasure, 283.

Election, annual, of governor and assist-
ants in Massachusetts, agreed on, i.
288.

Elections, secret service money employed
to cover expenses of; the price of votes
increased, iv. 66; of thirteenth parlia-
ment ; its corruptions, 85.

Elective body, the first in the western
world. 1 120.

Eliot, Andrew, of Boston, affirms that
Americans glory in the name of
Englishmen, and desire only to enjoy
their liberties, iv. 43.

Eliot, of Bristol, visits Newfoundland in
1602, i. 63.

Eliot, John, minister of Roxbury, helps
to translate Psalms from Hebrew, i.
330.

Eliot, John, the apostle of the Indians;
his treatise on the Christian Common-
wealth, condemned as seditious; sup-
pressed by the author, i. 436; his mis-
sionary labors among the Indians,
454,466.

Elliot, Sir Gilbert, defends the stamp
act, iii. 460 ; a close friend of the king,
secures a large majority for Lora
North's plan, iv 481 ; would send terms
of accommodation, with armament, to
America, v. 101, 102.

Elliott, Bernard, commands one of the
companies which occupy Fort Johnson
in Charleston harbor, v. 50.

Elliott, Susannah Smith, presents, on
behalf of women of Charleston, flags

540

INDEX.

to the second South Carolina regi-
ments: her remarks, v. 285.

Elliott, British minister at Berlin, hires
a burglar to steal Arthur Lee's papers;
but, ou Lee's complaint to the police,
sends them back; the king refuses to
see lii in, and in a cabinet order calls
his act a public theft, vi. 123.

Ellis, governor of Georgia, studies how
colonies could be administered by cen-
tral authority, ill. 227 ; wants a small
military force to prevent encroach-
ments by ussembly, 253; had a large
part in introducing new tax system In
America, 388.

Ellis, Welbore, British secretary at war,
brings forward army estimates, in-
cluding proposition of twenty regi-
ments for America, iii. 364.

Elizabeth, empress of Russia, her char-
acter and death, iii. 267.

Elizabeth Islands, first settlement there
abandoned, i. 89.

Elizabeth, queen of England, encour-
ages maritime enterprises, i. 67; a Bo-
man Catholic in all save submission to
the pope, 217 ; her choice of a prayer-
book, 217, 218.

Elizabethtown, N. J., assembly there,
in 1668, which adopts chief features of
New England codes, 11. 72.

Emancipation, opinion prevails, espe-
cially in Virginia, that it would follow
the prohibition of the slave-trade, v.
216.

Emerson, William, at Concord, fears
that lire of British will not be re-
turned, It. 527.

Emigrant, the American, his outfit,
habits, and opinions as to land titles,
It. 419, 420

Emigrants to Virginia, character of, 1.
103, 104, 106, 123; women embark for
Virginia, 1. 123.

Emigration to New England, restrained
by Laud's commission, i. 324, 327; in
first fifteen years, came over 21,200
persons, or 4,000 families, ii. 375, 376.

Endecott, John, one of the founders of
Salem colony, 1. 265; governor, 266;
admonishes Morton's company at
Quincy, 266; commands expedition
against Indians in Connecticut, 313.

Enfranchisement of the mind, its conse-

Suences, i. 203, 204 ; its slow progress,
179.
England, claims glory of being mistress
or the sea, i. 67, 68; history of, from
Restoration, that of struggle between
the republican and the monarchical
principles, 11. 161; her maritime as-
sumptions turning civilized world
against her, iii. 155; parliament and
its functions, 334-336; the American
question more complicated with its
hopes of freedom, iv. 202; people of,
appalled by news of Lexington, 558;
the government still sustained by pub-
lic opinion, the clergy being most zeal-
ous; a few voices for America, v.

547; the whole nation unwilling to
speak the word " independence; "nad
enjoyed almost a monopoly of Ameri-
can trade, but demands some special
advantage, vi. 69, 70; can recover in-
fluence in foreign politics only by
making peace with her colonies, 77;
makes war on her own life by striving
to suppress English rights there; the
subjugation of America to be the prel-
ude to the repression of her own lib-
erties, 77; the power of parliament
and respect for rights of individuals
and communities brought into conflict
by American revolution, 79; change
of opinion specially shown in parlia-
ment, which in 1774 passes measures
asserting its own absolute power by
large majorities, and in 1778 repeals
them, and concedes all the colonies ask,
147 ; wise men predict that, should san-
guinary measures be adopted toward
America, friends of government can no
longer live there, 171: reserves full
freedom to itself, in adjusting its re-
lations to the United States, 181; effect
of Spain's declaration of war; liberals
pledge support to crown; coast-guards
and militia mustered: will not nego-
tiate for peace with France, till the
latter gives up its connection with
America, 374.

English government, the rigid policy of
Massachusetts toward, i. 350.

English merchants, a company of, had

fained dominion in empire of Great
logul, ill. 348

English ministry, the, did not conceal
its intention to resume government of
Massachusetts, and chose the conjunc-
ture of King Philip's war, i. 467.

English settlement in America, first
actual, at Roanoke; its abandonment,
i. 83: visited by new colonists in 1587,
84.

Enos, Roger, lieutenant-colonel under
Arnold; a craven, v. 123.

Envoys of Massachusetts to England,
William Stoughton and Peter Boike-
ley, i. 468; Joseph Dudley and John
Richards sent as envoys in 1682,
477.

Episcopal church, the English, becomes
religion of Virginia, 1. 533.

Episcopal party, the, in England, hostile
to American colonies, L 322; procures
appointment of arbitrary special com-
mission for colonies, 323.

Ernest, Duke, of Saxony, a wise ruler;
rejects tempting offers of George III.
for troops; his opinion of American
cause, vi. 114.

Estrangement of two sections of the con-
federation ; a French envoy reports to
Vergennes that states of north and
south are two distinct parties, vi. 299 ;
In 1779, when fisheries are under dis-
cussion, Samuel Adams says it will
become more and more necessary for
the two empires to separate; threat of

INDEX.

541

four states to withdraw from the con-
federation, 301.

Etchemins, an Indian tribe, live on the
St. John's Rhor, and the St. Croix,
ii. 395.

Europe, gives to America her sons and
culture, ii. 1S5; hour of revolution at
hand, ill. 4 ; decay of liberty and inde-
pendence in several states, iv. 308.

Eustatius, an island, entrepdt of great
commerce, ill. 96.

Eutaw Springs, battle of; the Brit-
ish routed, vi. 407; Colonel Wash-
ington charges a party trying to
rally, and drives them far from the
field; Washington ordered to charge,
but his cavalry is useless in the woods ;
he is wounded and taken prisoner;
Greene's a victory and defeat in same
battle, 408.

Evacuation of Boston, the first victory of
middle class over representatives of
mediaeval aristocracy, v. 204.

Executive officers, of Virginia, become
elective, i. 170.

Expedition to Carolinas, not approved
by General Howe, but induced by
clamors of southern governors, who
vaunt their strength in loyalists, v.
188.

Expeditions against Senecas; Washing-
ton sends three thousand men to gather
at Wyoming ; larger force under Sul-
livan; losses due to his heedlessness
and incompetency, vi. 212.

"Experiment, the Holy," William
Penn's trial of man's capacity for
self-government, ii. 121.

Paqel, secretary of United Provinces,
devbted to England, vi. 233.

Fairfax county, Va., committee of,
adopts vote of Maryland for formation
of military organization, iv. 463.

Fairfax resolves, in which George Mason
and Washington had declared against
slave-trade; their spirit adopted by
Virginia convention, 1 v. 359.

Fairfield, Conn., a model New England
village, pillaged and burned by Tryon's
troops, vi. 209, 210.

" Falcon," the, a British vessel of war,
chases two schooners, taking one;
Captain Linzee, of the "Falcon," pur-
sues the other into Gloucester; his
men tired on; Linzee bombards the
town ; the Gloucester men capture both
schooners and their crews, v. 31, 32.

Falmouth, at, an attempt to seize goods
under writs of assistance, defeated by
a mob. iv. 21.

" Families, Inexorable," of Virginia, v.
256.

Faneuil Hall convention, Boston; asks
governor to call assembly to consider
military encroachments on civil power ;
the governor's refusal received with
derision, v. 114, 115; protests against
taxation of colonies by parliament, a
standing army, &c., 115; English law-

yers find no treason in Its proceedings,
116.

Fanning, David, a North Carolina Brit-
ish partisan; his narratiye of his own
atrocities, vi. 458, 459.

Fanning, Edmund* a favorite of Governor
Try on, of North Carolina ; his answer
to the meeting of free-holders who de-
sire to consult with him, iv. 23; his
extortions in collection of taxes. 104;

I>rocures arrest of " regulators: " 105;
mpeached, convicted, and fined, 108.

Fast day, a national (April 22, 1778), for
prayers to God to strengthen and per-
petuate the Union, vi. 70.

Faucitt, Colonel William, recruiting
agent of George III., goes to Hanover
to muster into British service five bat-
talions of infantry, v. 58; negotiates
with Feronce, the Brunswick minister,
for four thousand infantry and three
hundred light dragoons, 171; negotia-
tions with landgrave of Hesse-Cassel;
extortionate demands of that prince,
173-177.

Fauquier, governor of Virginia, will not
permit assembly to meet, iii. 481.

Federative union of all English colonies
under the British king, long desired by
ablest men of New York ; the idea of
such a union abhorrent to the king, iv.
378.

Fendall. Josiah, appointed governor of
Maryland by Baltimore, i. 200 ; goes to
England, 200, 201 ; returns, and agrees
on restoration of government to Lord
Baltimore; convicted of treason, but
mildly punished, ii. 3, 4; planning in-
surrection, 7.

Fen wick, John, receives deed of half of
New Jersey from Berkeley, in trust
for Edward Byllinge and his assigns,
Quakers; and settles at Salem, on the
Delaware, ii. 101.

Ferdinand, Prince, heir of and co-regent
with Duke of Brunswick, v. 171 ; favors
British proposal for troops; is shot in
battle; deserted by his friends, refuses
food, and dies, 172, 173.

Ferguson, Major Patrick, destroys ship-
ping at Little Egg Harbor; surprises
troops of Pulaski's command, taking
no prisoners, vi. 155; deputed to visit
every district in South Carolina, and
carry out Cornwallis's orders, vi. 270,
271 ; sent to uplands of South Carolina,
where he gathers recruits, 287; en-
counters Macdowell with a small party
of North Carolina militia, and pursues
them to foot of mountains, 289; killed
at Cowpens, 292.

Fernandez, Francisco, discovers Yucatan
and the Bay of Campeachy, i. 25.

Ferrar, John, elected deputy of London
company, i. 118.

Ferrar, Nicholas, made counsel to Lon-
don company, 1. 118, 119; his noble
character, 119.

Ferrelo, Bartolome, traces American
continent to within two and one nail

542

INDEX.

degrees of the month of Colombia
Elver, I. 72.

Few, James, a "regulator," captured
by Governor Try on, and hanged as an
outlaw, Iv. 221.

Fidelity, oath of, offered to freemen of
Massachusetts, 1. 287; to the king;
declaration of, signed under the
Howes' last proclamation by 2.703 Jer-
seymen and 861 Rhode Islanders, and
1,282 in New York city and state ; those
who had accepted British protection
ordered by Washington to withdraw
to enemy's lines, or take oath of alle-
giance to United States, v. 497.

Fielding, commander of British fleet in
English Channel, captures live Dutch
merchantmen, vi. 244, 245.

FUangieri, an Italian author, writes a
work asserting for reason its rights In
the governments of men, vi. 91.

Finances of Massachusetts In alarming
condition; province had issued, no
notes but certificates of debt, which
were kept at par by her high credit;
compelled to legalize paper money of
Connecticut ana Rhode Island, ana to
Issue her own treasury notes, iv. 642,
643.

Finances of the United States; paper
bills emitted by congress, on faith of
separate states, support the war at
first; their value diminished by mili-
tary disasters, and by trick of ministry
in introducing into circulation of Vir-
ginia and other states counterfeit bills ;
several issues by congress, vi. 166; its
recommendation to the states, to call
in their bills and issue no more, un-
heeded; vain attempt of congress to
hide the decline of its credit by a
clamor against the rise of prices. 167 ;
country looks to Netherlands for a
loan; debt of United States: states
invited to withdraw six millions of
paper annually for eighteen years, and
this measure carried by north against
south, 170; on account of British coun-
terfeits, congress compelled to recall
two issues of five millions each, 193 ; at
opening of 1779, increases its paper
money; the purchasing power of pa-
^er money, 334; in December, 1779, a

Eaper dollar worth less than two and a
alf cents, 336; states directed by con-
gress to bring to continental treasury,
monthly, $1,260,000 to April, 1781, 348.

Fish, Major, leads Hamilton's battalion
in storming of Yorktown, vi. 427.

Fisheries, Newfoundland, in 1601 only
connection between England and the
New World, 1. 64; engaged in, by
English, Normans, Bretons, and Bis-
cayans, 66; in 1641, act of parliament
about, the first that refers to America,
66; enforcement of monopoly to Ply-
mouth company, 265 ; fishermen deride
the royal commissioner, 255 ; attention
of French court directed to, li. 326;
British ministry decides to cut off" New

England from, lv. 466; joint right to,
made a part of American struggle, 478 ;
restraint on, extended to middle colo-
nies, except New York, and to South
Carolina, 495 ; congress votes that
common right of the states on New-
foundland, Nova Scotia, &c., shall not
be given up; "Galilean" partisans

Erevail, and congress refuses to stipu-
ite for peaceable use of common rights
of fishing on banks of Newfoundland,
vi. 201; Gerry moves that United
States have common right with Eng-
lish on banks of Newfoundland, and
elsewhere in America; bringing on a
debate, In which threats or secession
are made, 204; discussion on, in peace
negotiations, 478.

Fishkill, British posts at, broken np by
an American brigade, vi. 13.

First u Fourth," the, celebrated with
spirit In Philadelphia, with dinner
and military parade, &c, v. 569.

Fitzgerald. Lord Edward, dangerously
wounded at Eutaw Springs; finds no
consolation in the thought that he
fought against liberty-, vi. 408.

Fitzherbert, a British diplomatist, trans-
ferred to Paris as medium of com-
munication with France, Spain, and
Holland, vi. 455; instructed to share
in peace negotiations, and to invoke
the influence of France to bend the
Americans, 480.

Fitch, governor of Connecticut, a royal
1st, promises to protect Ingersoll, the
stamp officer, ill. 497 ; persists in taking
oath to execute stamp act. when three
members of the council leave the
chamber, 518, 519.

Five Nations, sachems of, met art Al-
bany, by representatives of Virginia,
New York, and Massachusetts, to
strengthen concord, ii. 17 ; attempt de-
struction of New France, 148; bul-
wark of English against Canada, 152,
153; hostility of, prevents Jesuits pass-
ing beyond Niagara, 306; treat for
peace with French, 310, 311; their
fierceness and audacity; peace con-
cluded. 316; humbled, but not sub-
dued, by Frontenac, 357: claimed by
Bellomont as subjects of England, 358;
protect New York by a mutual com-
pact of neutrality. 371.

Fleets. French and Spanish, sail for
British Channel : appear off Plymouth,
are driven to the west by a strong
wind, and return up the channel, the
British fleet retiring; discord and dis-
ease afflict them ; French fleet returns
to port, and the Spanish, execrating
their allies, to Cadiz, vi. 226, 227.

Fletcher, Benjamin, governor of New
York, for William and Mary, visits
Delaware and Pennsylvania, ii. 216;
made commander of militia in Con-
necticut and New Jersey, 231 : tries to
take command of Connecticut ™m«*W-
but fails, 242.

INDEX.

643

Florida, under name of, Spaniards claim
all North America, i. 52; Calvinism to
be planted in, 53 ; France abandons all
pretensions to, 62; left a desert; its
population in J763, ill. 403.

Florida Blanca, Count de, prime min-
ister of Spain in 1777 desires to ex-
tend the commerce of Spain, v. 533;
his policy with reference to American
questions, 534, 535; spurns any con-
nection with United States, and jeal-
ous of the good faith of the French, vi.
159; invites England and France to
submit to his king the points they
would insist on, 164: wishes England
to retain Canada and Nova Scotia by
way of check on United States, 176,
177; thinks United States can never
conclude a peace but under auspices
of France and Spain, 178 ; rejects pro-
ject of Hillsborough to exchange Gib-
raltar for Porto Rico, 375 ; concentrates
all the force of Spain in Europe for re-
covery of Gibraltar, and holds France
to her promise not to make peace till
it Is given up, 441, 442.

Floyd, John, lives in St Asaph, Ky.;
his rare accomplishments and virtues,
iv. 576.

Folsom, brigadier of New Hampshire
volunteers, iv. 543.

Foreign relations, in regard to con-
gress divided between " Galileans "
and "anti-Galileans;" the southern-
ers mainly the first, while the north is
suspected of a leaning toward Eng-
land, vi. 302.

Forbes, Joseph, brigadier-general, com-
mands expedition to the Ohio, 111. 203;
Insists on opening a new route to the
Ohio, 204; persuaded by Washington
to push on, 205 ; finds Fort Duquesne
abandoned by garrison and burned.
206; at his suggestion, the place called
Pittsburg, in honor of William Pitt,
206.

Fordyce, captain of fourteenth British
regiment, in the fight at Great Bridge,
Va., shot dead as he reaches the Amer-
ican breastwork, v. 149.

Forth goes to France, as agent of expir-
ing English ministry, to talk with Ver-
gennes about conditions of peace, vi.

Fort Ann, a British regiment of Bur-
goyne's army is attacked by garrison
ott and driven with loss; returning re-
enforced by a brigade, finds the fort
burned and the garrison gone, v. 578.

Fort Clinton, occupied by Governor Clin-
ton, of New York, vi. 8; stormed by
British under Vaughan, and carried
after gallant resistance, vi. 9.

Fort Constitution, on island opposite
West Point; abandoned, and the river
thus opened to Albany, vi. 9.

Fort Defiance, Clinton intends to bring
bis army to the siege of, vi. 324: an
impregnable monument of patriotism.
325.

Fort Duquesne, significance of its cap-
ture, ill. 207.

Fort Griswold, Conn., captured by Ar-
nold, who refuses quarter to the gar-
rison, vi. 412.

Fort Independence, abandoned by Locke,
on orders from Washington, v. 443:
summoned, with bombast, by General
Heath, 496; compared by Washington
to a mill to which water cannot be
brought; Gates ordered* to use his
whole force to secure it, 556.

Fort Johnson, on Cape Fear River, N. C,
the asylum of royal Governor Mar-
tin, v. 52; set on fire in governor's
presence, and under guns of a man-of-
war, 54. .

Fort Johnson, on James Island, Charles-
ton harbor; its guns dismounted by
order of Governor Campbell : occupied
by three companies under lieutenant-
colonel Motte, v. 50; occupied by first
South Carolina regiment, under Gads-
den, 277, 278.

Fort Lee, on summit of palisades in
Jersey, v. 434; Greene neglects the
order to evacuate, 450 ; approached by
British,, troops, 454; Greene, having
neglected to post guard, takes flight
with two thousand men, leaving nearly
all his stores and cannon; is saved
from being cut off by prompt action of
Washington, 455.

Fort Loudoun, near Junction of the Tel-
lico and Tennessee, built by Captain
Demerg, surrenders to Oconostata, ill.
237.

Fort Miami, capitulates to Indians, iii.
380.

Fort Montgomery, in command of James
Clinton, stormed and carried by British
under Vaughan, vi. 9.

Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan's Island,
Charleston harbor, Colonel Moultrie
ordered to build it, v. 234; its flag cut
down, and replaced by Sergeant Jas-
per, 280; garrison of praised by Lee,
285; by president and common voice
named Fort Moultrie for all time; this
victory the morning star that harbin-
gered independence, 286.

Fort Niagara, commands portage be-
tween Ontario and Erie ; occupied first
by La Salle, then by Dononville; in-
vested by Prideaux, iii. 213; his army
attacks and defeats the French under
D'Aubry, and captures garrison, 214.

Fort Pitt, most important station west
of Alleghanies, ill. 879; strengthened
by Ecuyer ; summoned to surrender by
Delaware*, 382, 383.

Fort Washington, on the Hudson River ;
American pickets driven in; a two
hours' engagement ensues; the Brit-
ish, worsted, are in a desperate con-
dition: the British re-enforced, and
Washington orders a retreat; the skir-
mish restores spirit and confidence of
Americans, v. 404-406; British troops
move against, but are. driven off by

^

544

INDEX.

Greene and Magaw, 443; re-enforced
by Greene, at Putnam's request, 446,
447 ; summoned to surrender by Howe,
on pain of death to garrison ; Magaw
answers that he will defend it to the
last, 460; Knyphausen attacks with
4,500 men; second attack by Conwal-
lis with a brigade, 461, 462; a third
by Percy, 462; Knyphausen gains on
American!, and Rail summons the
garrison to surrender ; Gadwalader as-
sents, but Magaw asks delay ; but he
surrenders, 453.

Port William Henry, bombardment of;
its capitulation, and massacre of pris-
oners, ill. 171-176; courteous and hu-
mane conduct of Montcalm, 175; pu-
sillanimity of English army, 176.

Fortitude of Massachusetts Bay colo-
nists, confirmed by disaster, 1. 284, 286.

Foster, a minister of Littleton, joins the
minute men of Reading at Concord
fight, ir. 528.

Four colonies, New Jersey, Pennsylva-
nia, Delaware, and Maryland, owing to
prudent inactivity of their governors,
quietly await decision of Great Britain,
y. 41.

Fourteenth of August, its anniversary
celebrated, iv. 174.

Fox, Charles James, censures Lord North
for want of decision and courage, iv.
291 ; denounced by the king, and dis-
missed from office, 292; favors open-
ing port of Boston on its payment of
indemnity to East India company,
297 ; declares that, if ministry persists
in right to tax Americans, it will force
them into rebellion, 305 ; says that it is
a point of honor to support American
pretensions in adversity as in prosper-
ity, v. 415; declares for abandoning
rather than conquering America, 417 ;
declares for independence of the United
States, 419-422 ; says America cannot
be brought over by fair means, while
we insist on taxing her, 547; shows
that Britain will gain more in trade
with independent America than with
her in nominal dependence, 70 : thinks
America lost to England, 399 ; hears of
surrender with wild delight, 430; ob-
jects to powers given to Oswald, and
proposes that America, even without a
treaty, be recognized as independent,
448 ; accepts Catharine's declaration of
the rights of neutrals, to the vexation
of the king, 460.

Fox, George, at Barbados, advises lib-
eration of slaves, i. 137; founder of
the Quaker sect, visits North Caro-
lina, i. 500; takes pride in attendance
of Maryland dignitaries at Quaker
meeting, ii. 4; impelled to deliver his
faith to the world, 84; thinks himself
the ward of Providence, 85; his doc-
trine the prophecy of political changes ;
twice barely escapes death, 100; per-
suades German emigrants in Pennsyl-
vania to abjure negro slavery, 136; his

last thoughts given to New World,
136.

Fox, Henry, declines the seals under
Newcastle, ill. 106; enters cabinet
without office, and takes conduct of
house of commons; urges subjection
of colonial militia to mutiny bill. 111.

Foxes, an Indian tribe, make alliance
with English in Wisconsin, ii. 381; re-
solve to burn Detroit, but are com-
pelled to surrender by French, 383.

Franchise, elective, right of, conditioned
on church-membership, i. 288; pro-
posed extension of to non-members,
360.

Francis, Colonel Eben, of New Hamp-
shire, ably supports Warner at Hub-
bard ton; charges for the third time
at head of his regiment, and holds the
enemy at bay till he falls, v. 578.

France, political position favors commer-
cial growth, If. 294, 296; her colonial
rivalry with England, 296, 296; her
efforts to colonize America precede
those of England north of Potomac,
297; extent of her territory in North
America, 344; at war with England,
and every European power her enemy,
344, 345; tries to make alliances with
all tribes from Ontario to the Missis-
sippi. 346 ; power of. on coast of Amer-
ica, falls with Louisburg, ill. 145; saved
by its common people from perishing
of unbelief, 314, 315 ; the king sees neea
of reforms, but unable to direct them,
317, 318: organization of ministry of
Louis XVI., 362-365; public revenue
largely exceeded by expenses, 366, 366;
resolves to increase the subsidy to en-
courage American colonies, 232; the
nobility favors war with England, 362;
cabinet swayed to side of America by
philosophic opinion, 526: ships with
stores continually leaving for the
United States, and American trading
vessels received and protected. 528;
knows war with England is imminent,
and prepares for it, 630 ; America brings
her new life, dispels her skepticism,
and turns her thoughts to freedom, vi.
76; the desire for free institutions, 81;
her conditions in final treaty of peace
with England, 178 ; draws near to bank-
ruptcy, 370.

Franklin, Benjamin, on a voluntary
union of colonies, ill. 59; offers plan
of union to congress at Albany,
which is accepted, 79, 80; revered as
mover of American union, 81 ; points
out resources and advantages of West-
ern America, and advises organization
of colonies in the west, 81 ; argument
against taxation of colonies by parlia-
ment, 113; made colonel of regiment
raised in Philadelphia, 149; agent of
Pennsylvania in England, 168; sum-
moned to bar of house of commons;
thinks France would like to fan the
flames between England and her
colonies, iv. 56; chosen agent to lay

INDEX.

645

complaints of Massachusetts before
the King, 209; holds office of deputy
postmaster-general for America, and
his son a royal governor, bat reasons
on politics without prejudice, 209, 210;
accused by Gage, pursued by Hutchin-
son's sleepless hatred, and regarded
by British ministry as the cause of all
the troubles, and in daily peril of
arrest, 427; avows that there is no
safety for his country, except in total
emancipation, 430; explains to Lord
Howe measures, including repeal of
regulating acts, by which alone tran-
quillity could be restored, 438, 439;
resolves to go home; with him goes the
last hope of compromise, 496 ; in con-
gress, supports boldest measures, urg-
ing union, and wishing independence
as the spontaneous action of a united
people, 581 ; after Bunker Hill, writes
to England, "Americans will fight:
England has lost her colonies for ever,"
624: writes to Strahan, saying, " You
and I were long friends ; you are now
my enemy, and I am yours," v. 12;
had not been active in continental con-
gress; after consultation with Jefferson
and others, reports an outline for con-
federating the colonies in one nation ;
his scheme aims at a real and enduring
union, and contains the two great ele-
ments of American political lire, 23, 24 ;
while in Boston with committee of
congress, confirms the affection and
confidence which Washington ever
bore to him, 66 ; his theory of purposes
of British confirmed by news from
Maine, 67; will not take his seat in
legislature on account of oath of alle-
giance to George III. exacted, 84 ; the
only member of delegation to congress
in favor of independence, 85; ap-
pointed member of commission to
make treaty with France, 410; is be-
lieved when he says that independence
is sure, 520 ; places public opinion of
France on the side of America, vi. 60 ;
had advised his country against woo-
ing Spain, but retains confidence of
French cabinet, 164; excludes Spain
from American negotiations, 443; pro-
poses to Oswald the American condi-
tions of peace, 454; disobeying con-
gress, withholds the conditions of peace
from Vergennes, 455; instructed by
congress to effect the loan of four mil-
lion dollars, 475; opposes guarantee,
in the treaty to English, of right to
collect debts due them in America, 477.

Franklin, William, son of Benjamin, ap-
pointed governor of New Jersey, to suc-
ceed Hardy, 111. 211 ; active in sooth-
ing and confusing patriots; arrested
and kept under guard till sent to Con-
necticut, v. 307 ; proposes to Germain to
reduce one of the middle colonies. by
hanging or exiling all its rebels, ana
confiscating their estates, vi. 171.

Fraser, a Highlander, acting brigadier

TOL. VI. 35

under Burgoyne, v. 572; attacks St.
Clair at Hubbardton; Warner turns
and attacks, and prevails till RIedesel
comes up, when he retreats ; commands
the right of Burgovne's army ; fatally
wounded at second battle of Behmus's
Heights, vi. 11; his dying exclamation,
13.

Frederic Henry, stallholder of United
Provinces, unites all parties, ii. 39.

Frederic II., of Hesse-Cassel, his char-
acter, v. 173-176; writes to Voltaire,
expressing desire to learn the art of
governing men: his education disa-
vowed by the great Frederic ; his crime.
181.

Frederic, king of Prussia, alone among
European sovereigns bulwark of Prot-
estantism, iii. 182; prayed for in New
England, 183; his territory invaded
by allies, 185, 186; George II. of
England refuses to help him, 186;
wins victory at Rossbacb, 187; wins a
great victory over Austrians at Leu-
then, recovers all Silesia, and saves
Prussia. 190; says of Howe's evacu-
ation or Boston, " The retreat, if not
necessary, was opportune," v. 202;
foretells bankruptcy of France, if peace
is broken, vi. 85; rejects plan for trade
with America; had predicted Ameri-
can independence, and regards decla-
ration of it as proof that colonies can-
not be subjugated, 120; supports rights
of neutrals, but declines direct trade
with America; his summary treatment
of Elliott, the British minister, 123;
rejects overtures for an alliance with
England, 124 ; promises not to be last to
recognise independence of the United
States, and in January, 1778, writes,
desiring their complete success, 128;
will never make alliance with England,
221 ; accedes to armed neutrality, 359.

Fredericksburg, Va., six hundred men
gather at, who agree to disperse, but
to reassemble at a moment's warning,
and defend the rights of Virginia from
invasion, 508.

Freedom, religious, in Virginia, i. 159;
in Maryland" act establishing, 193, 194;
ordinance of parliament about, 194;
the effect of in Maryland, 195 ; growth
of tolerant sentiment, 353, 354; in Eng-
land, has its development in religion,
ii. 80; of mind, first asserted in a reli-
gious form by Wycliffe, 185; personal
security of, not formally denied to
America by England; conceded as a
boon, claimed by colonies as a birth-
right, 279; made its way through a
series of sects, each founded on the
Bible, 296; of all races and nationali-
ties, rises from inthralments of the
hand of violence, vi. 297.

Free inquiry, spirit of, penetrates Cath-
olic world, as it had penetrated the
Protestant; illustrative cases of Lu-
ther and Descartes, vi. 71, 72; becomes
speculative and skeptical in France;

546

INDEX.

universality of Its theatre of labor, 73,
74; wave of, broken against the Pyre-
nees, which divide two diverse coun-
tries, 74, 75.

Free thought, its rise in England, iii
169 ; in America, leads people to firm
Institutions, 170.

French, the, compete for the New World,
1. 13; engage in fisheries, 13, 17; com-
mit first act of hostility against Eu-
ropeans in the New World, 56; at-
tempts of, to colonize Florida, not
without effect, 63; hold continent from
Bay Verte to Penobscot River, iii. 47 ;
send priests to proselyte the Six Na-
tions, and traders to undersell the
British, 58; claim twenty of twenty-
five parts or North America, 176.

French cabinet, not one of chiefs of,
primarily friendly to United States,
vi. 83; strives to win co-operation of
Spain in American alliance, and thns
delay action, 160; rushes into war to
cripple England, 176; agrees to send
troops to America, but hesitates as to
number, 318; carries on the war with-
out a plan ; Franklin has already the
{>romise of a gift of six millions and a
oan of four, and Necker consents to
a loan of ten, 371 ; declines to furnish
means for the siege of New York,
414.

French Canadians, service of, In British
army, called for, v. 541.

French colonization, In North America,
first effort to restrain, by Virginia
colony, i. 112.

French East India company, its decay,
iii. 348.

French fleet, the, twelve ships of the line
and three frigates, anchors In Bay of
Delaware, too late to intercept Lord
Howe's squadron, vi. 149: with thirty-
five hundred troops, arrives at New-
port, 150 ; looked to for relief by south-
ern states, 258.

French officers at Brandy wine; gal-
lantry of Mauduit Duplessis; Louis de
Fleury, whose behavior congress rec-
ognizes; Lafayette, whom Washington
commends to the surgeon, as if he were
his son, v. 599.

Fiench possessions in America, conquest
of, intended by England; preparations
by colonies for the enterprise, which
is abandoned, 11. 378.

French posts, principal, in North Amer-
ica, ii. 346, 346.

French priests, early labors of, in Can-
ada, ii. 297.

French troops at Newport, eager for an
attack from the British, vi. 319; sail
for Hudson River, speeded cordially
by the inhabitants, 414 ; entreat Wash-
ington to order assault on exterior
posts at Torktown, 425.

Friday, Nov. 1, 1765, signalized in all
the colonies by demonstrations against
stamp act, iii. 519.

Friesland, famous for its love of liberty,

declares in favor of receiving the
American envoy, John Adams; Its
example followed, vi. 433.

Frobisher, Martin, a navigator, goes
with a single small craft to Labrador,
i. 69; penetrates farther north than
any former mariner, 69; his expedi-
tion in 1578. and its paltry results, 70,
71.

Frontenac, Count, governor of Canada,
in war between France and England,
charged to recover Hudson's Bay, to
protect Acadia, and aid in conquest
of New York, ii. 347 ; puts Quebec in a
state of defence, and scoffs at Phips's
demand for surrender, 351, 352; leads
expedition into Western New- York,
ravages country of Onondagas and
Oneiuas, 356.

Fuca, John de, story of Ids sailing, In
1593, into the straits that bear his
name, a mere legend, i. 72.

Fuentes, Spanish minister to France,
hopes the English will master their
colonies, lest the Spanish colonies
should catch the flame, iv. 103.

Fuller, Rose, calls Boston port-bill a
foolish act of oppression, and says it
can be executed only by a military
force, iv. 296, 297; moves repeal of
tax on tea, 303.

Fur-trade, hope of, leads to explorations
in Patuxent region, i. 178; Weston's
attempt to monopolize in Plymouth
colony, 249 ; on Hudson River, left to

Srivate enterprise, ii. 33; of Delaware,
lsputed by patroons, with Dutch West
India company, 44: controlled by per-
sonal enterprise, 346.
Fur-traders, two French, in 1654. push
west beyond Lake Superior, ii. 320;
others pass winter of 1659 on that lake,
and return to Quebec with much peltry.
321.

Gadsden. Christopher, atCongaree, com*
mands artillery, iii. 232; his answer to
invitation of New York Sons of Liberty,
566, 567 ; had leagued patriots of South
Carolina to oppose all foreign taxation,
iv. 26; his message to Boston, accom-
panying first gifts of rice from South
Carolina, 343; in continental congress,
urges that Gage should be attacked
and routed, 403, 404; remains in con-
gress on retirement of his colleagues,
407; rebukes jealousy of New Eng-
land, and eulogizes its people, v. 64;
makes passage from Philadelphia to
Charleston, in a small craft, amid
great difficulties, 209; presents to
South Carolina convention the stand-
ard to be used by American navy;
speaks openly for independence, 233;
a prisoner on parole; a persuasive
example of republican virtue; is im-
prisoned at St. Augustine, vi. 285;
falsely charged with conspiracy by
Andrf, 32S.

Gage, successor to General Prideaox,

INDEX.

647

ordeted to take possession of passes
near Ogdensburg, but fails to obey, ill.
214; made civil governor of Massachu-
setts, and sent over with four regi-
ment*; ordered to shut port of Boston,
and to bring ringleaders to punish-
ment, iv. 301; fit neither to reconcile
nor to subdue; fears to arrest Samuel
Adams, Hancock, and Warren, as or-
dered, 324; his proclamation, denounc-
ing the covenant and all who signed
it, read throughout the continent with
indignation, 347, 348; on observance
of fast day by the people, issues proc-
lamation against " hypocrisy and sedi-
tion," 358 ; receives regulating act, and
two other oppressive ones, 370; assents
to the council's violating the act of
parliament by meeting in Boston, 381 ;
writes to England, that, " to reduce
New England^ a very respectable force
should take the field, 385 ; " proposes
in a private letter that the obnoxious
acts be suspended ; in an official paper,
that the colonies should be cut adrift
and left to anarchy and repentance,
430; superseded by William Howe;
Hume's characterization of him, 481;
prepares to seize provincial stores at
Concord, but most are removed;
orders that no one be permitted to
leave Boston, 516; proscribes Samuel
Adams and John Hancock as rebels
and traitors, all In arms around Bos-
ton, and members of provincial gov-
ernment and congress, and establishes
martial law in Massachusetts, 591 ;
calls for thirty-two thousand troops:
writes to Dartmouth that "we neea
not be tender of calling on the savages,"
092; writes of Bunker Hill, " The suc-
cess, which was very necessary in our
present condition, cost us dear, . . . the
conquest of this country is not easy,"
624; tries to terrify Americans by pre-
dicting coming of Russians, Hessians,
and Hanoverians; his cruelty to pris-
oners, v. 32; cuts down the Boston
Liberty Tree, 33; recalled, but without
official censure, 58 ; sails for England ;
dismissed with high rank and emolu-
ments, 66; one of his last acts to plot
With British admiral revenge for de-
tention of Captain Mowatt, at Port-
land, 67.

Gage's agents, their efforts to influence
continental congress to concessions, iv.
399.

Galitzin, Prince, Russian envoy at the
Hague, invites states-general to a
union for protection of neutral trade
and navigation, vi. 357, 358.

Galloway, Joseph, of Pennsylvania, a
royalist, urges vigorously complaints
against proprietaries, ill. 434; acts as
volunteer spy for British government;
proposes sending colonial envoys to
British court, but the suggestion is
spurned, iv. 392 ; loses his importance,
403; seconds Ross's motion to insulate

Massachusetts, 406; elected to second
general congress, refuses to serve, 457 ;
goes over to Howe, v. 457.

Gallows, use of, established by the Eng-
lish; their officers threaten highest
American officers and statesmen with ;
set up by Cornwallis for those he styles
deserters, vi. 330.

Galvez, colleague of Florida Blanca, and
minister of Spain for the Indies ; honest
and laborious, and prejudiced in favor
of commercial monopoly, v. 534.

Galvez, Spanish governor of Louisiana,
learning of war between Spain and
England, drives the British from the
Mississippi; plans recovery of East
Florida, and taking of Pensacola and
Mobile, vi. 229.

Gama, vasco da, his voyage to Hindo-
stan, i. 10, 11.

Gansevoort, Lieutenant-colonel, com-
mands fort at carrying-place, between
St. Lawrence and Hudson, v. 584;
sends re-enforcements to Herkimer,
who drive through quarters of the
Yorkers, capturing Sir John Johnson's
papers, &c, 585; receives from con-
gress a vote of thanks and a command,
586.

Garay, Francisco de, governor of Ja-
maica, his expedition to Gulf of Mexi-
co ana the Mississippi River, i. 25, 26;
killed in a dispute with Cortes, 26.

Gardner, Isaac, of Brookline, a man of
promise, killed by British on nine-
teenth of April, 1775, iv. 531.

Gardner, Thomas, instructed, as repre-
sentative of Cambridge in Massachu-
setts legislature, to see that " all their
rights might be transmitted inviolable
to their latest posterity," iv. 161 ; favors
a solemn appeal to Heaven and a joint
effort to drive out tyranny, unless their
rights are restored, 260; proposes a
county congress in Middlesex, Mass.;
considers the call to stand up for the
country the call of God, iv. 372. 373;
mortally wounded at Bunker Hill ; his
death mourned by his townsmen, and
he has funeral honors by order of
Washington, iv. 622, 623.

Gareau, Leonard, a missionary among
the Hurons, starts with Dreuillettes on
a mission to the far west, and is killed
by Indians, ii. 320.

Gamier, French charge* at London, writes
that act relieving British officers in
America from responsibility to Amer-
ican courts must result in complete
reduction of colonies or their indepen-
dence, 328 ; to Vergennes, that he has
bought a member of parliament, who
will furnish valuable secret informa-
tion, 428; writes to Vergennes that
every negotiation by present British
ministry will fail in the colonies, and
that the submission of the Americans
is not to be expected, 484; says Frank-
lin will cut out work enough for minis-
ters who have persecuted him, 496.

648

INDEX.

M Gaspee," the, a British vessel of war,
chases the Providence packet, runs
ashore, and Is captured, iv. 236; Thur-
low and Wedderburn pronounce Its
burning worse than piracy, 249; com-
missioners, on her capture, elicit no
evidence, 267.

Gates, Horatio, adjutant-general of con-
tinental army, his trifling character, v.
6; made major-general, and appointed
to command in Canada, 299; resents
Washington's expression of regret for
abandonment or Crown Point, and
intrigues with New England mem-
bers of congress to get Schuyler's place,
854; his dishonorable conduct before
Trenton; hastens to Philadelphia to
intrigue with congress, 478; New
England members determined to make
him commander of northern depart-
ment, 654; boasts of his repulse of
Carleton, and refuses to serve as a sub-
ordinate at Ticonderoga ; ordered by
congress to take command there, 656;
stations Washington's troops, 6C6;
complains to Hancock that too many
troops are drawn to the Jerseys ; writes
to Lovell, abusing Washington; loses
his independent command, 557 ; elected
by congress to succeed Schuyler, and
granted all he demands, 590; encamps
at Behmus's Heights, vi. 4; does not
> appear in second battle of Behmus's
Heights, 12; had he been firm, Bur-
goyne's army would have surrendered
as prisoners of war, 13, 14; consents
to Burgoyne's stipulations, 14; does
not send Morgan's corps to Washing-
ton, as ordered; announces his vic-
tory, not to Washington, but to con-
gress, 22; complains to congress of
the betrayal of his correspondence to
Washington, and comes to rupture
with him, 40; denies the charge of con-
spiring to supersede Washington, 45;
appointed to independent command
of southern department, 275; plans to
march directly to Camden ; ignores the
best route, and starts on the shortest,
276; issues a confident proclamation;
might have turned Rawdon's flank,
ana easily captured Camden, 277; has
only three thousand and fifty men fit
for duty, " enough for our purpose," he
says; gives orders to march at night,
and starts in haste, 278; runs away
from battle, and pushes on to Char-
lotte, and thence to Hillsborough, 281 ;
subjected by congress to a court of
inquiry, 380.

Gates, Sir Thomas, one of three commis-
sioners to govern Virginia colony, i.
106; reaches Virginia to find the col-
ony in wretched condition, 107; first
named in original patent for Virginia ;
takes three hundred emigrants to Vir-

finia, and assumes the government,
10.
Gatinois, French regiment of, shares in
storming of Yorktown, vi. 428; Louis

XVI. names it " the Royal Auvergne,"
428.

"Gazette, the Boston," attacks on Ber-
nard in, and censured by council ; house
refuses to order prosecution of the
printers; acquitted on trial, iv. 77;
series of queries calls attention to origi-
nal charter of colony, which reserves
to the crown no negative on it? laws,
110; its solemn warning, 240, 241

General committee of New York, one
hundred in number; eighty-three meet
as soon as chosen, and bind themselves
to submit to committees and to con-
gress, to withhold supplies from British
troops, and at risk of life and fortune to
repel every attempt at enforcing taxa-
tion by parliament, iv. 547 ; send letter
to the king, signed by eighty-eight
members, 547, 548.

General government, in America, its
tendency toward helplessness, and the
growth of spirit of separatism among
the people ; name of " United States "
gives place to " Confederated States; n
cannot form regiments by its own au-
thority ; thirteen distinct sovereignties
and thirteen armies, having scarcely a
symbol of unity, vi. 174, 175.

Generalissimo of continental army,
Massachusetts desires congress to ap-
point one, iv. 589; Washington pre-
ferred *>y Joseph Warren, Warren of
Plymou.h, and others, iv. 590.

Geography, study of, becomes general in
England, i. 68.

George 11., of ' England, cares for little
except his mistress, iii. 63; impatient
of rule of aristocracy, 107 ; his desire
for peace, 242; dies in the hour of vic-
tory, 254.

George 111., on his accession, first sends
for Newcastle, iii. 255; his speech in
council, 255, 256; his ruling passion the
restoration of prerogative, 257 ; hates
" popularity," but is the instrument of
its advance, 258; institutes courts in
New York; names judges, and pays
them, 291 ; strikes Duke of Devonshire's
name from council-book, 294; esteemed
by his courtiers a patriot king, 369:
gives his sanction to system of colonial
taxation, 399; gives his '* hearty appro-
bation " to Granville's " wise regula-
tions " as to colonies, 415 : presents
American question to parliament, as
one of " obedience to the laws and re-
spect for legislative authority of the
kingdom," 439; crazed at passage of
stamp act, 451; on recovery, frames plan
of regency, 454 ; humiliating terms of-
fered him by Grenville, and accepted,
462.463; again appeals to Cumberland,
and through him summons Pitt, 484;
unknowingly promotes the revolution

Predicted by Voltaire, 490; accounts
•om America grieve him, 528; notifies
parliament that orders had been issued
for maintaining lawful authority In
America, 538; declares himself ior a

INDEX.

549

modification, not the repeal, of the
stamp act, 569; gives his assent to
" fatal repeal of the stamp act," 685 ;
chooses rather to lose colonies than
to abate British claims of absolute
authority, iv. 3 ; disapproves and re-
jects petitions of colonies, 131; sets
himself and all Great Britain to sub-
due the town of Boston, 134, 135; pre-
vents repeal of duty on tea, 197; his
character, 197; his highest object to
confirm his authority, 239; adopts
General Gage's opinion in favor of a
vigorous policy, 290 ; his fierce denun-
ciation of C J Fox, 291 : assents to act
changing charters of Massachusetts,
and destroys freedom of her town-
meetings, 328; orders procurement of
evidences of treason on the part of
franklin and Arthur Lee, 340; dis-
solves parliament, and brings on new
election before proposals for concilia-
tion from America can be received,
398 ; to new system, also Connecticut
and Rhode Island on the ruins of their
charters, 406; never harbors a thought
of concession, 428; says blows must
decide whether they are to be sub-
ject to England, or independent,
430; issues proclamation to suppress
rebellion and sedition, which is read
at the royal exchange amid hisses, v.
80, 81; scoffs at thought of insurrec-
tion, but places troops where disorder
is feared, 89; had regarded the loss of
the colonies as preferable to a connec-
tion on American principles, 109 ; says
there could not be a man bold or mad
enough to treat for Britain on the basis
of independence, vi. 62; confesses that
time may come when it will be wise
to abandon all North America, save
Canada, Nova Scotia, and Florida,
147 ; says no troops shall be withdrawn
from colonies, nor their independence
acknowledged, 225: the firm friend of
the slave trade, 298; in 1769, assents
to a Georgia law making slaves chat-
tels, 307; a month after surrender of
Yorktown, writes: "No difficulties
can get me to consent to the getting
of peace at the expense of a separation
from America," 431; consents, reluc-
tantly, to Rockingham's stipulation of
no veto of independence, 438 ; approves
attempt to "sound Mr. Franklin,"
and appointment of Oswald, 439;
speaks of independence as " the dread-
ful price " now offered to America, 447 ;
can contribute only his prayers to ne-
gotiations for peace, 473.
fieorgia, languishing under a corpora-
tion, which taxes, but does not pro-
tect, ill. 84; men of substance abandon
it; trustees desire to surrender their
charter; people strong enough to re-
strain delegated authority, 85; major-
ity of representatives send messenger
to New York to promise concurrence
in doings of congress, 504; most flour-

ishing of colonies, iv. 86; legislature
chooses Benjamin Franklin as its
agent, 86; approves conduct and cor-
respondence of Massachusetts and Vir-
ginia, 140; congress adheres to all
measures of resistance, and resolves
not to purchase or employ any slaves
imported from Africa from that time,
v. 24; people of, say Britain may
destroy their towns, but they can
withdraw to back country, and tire
her out, 164; forms its new constitu-
tion. Feb. 5, 1777, 504; signs articles of
confederation, vi. 148 ; in three months
from capture of Savannah, all prop-
erty of rebels in the state is dis-
posed of, 262; the name of British
grows hateful; their approach, ruin;
their greed destroys the slave's hope
of freedom, 262 ; in rural parts, patriot-
ism revives, and the civil government
is restored, 461.

Gerard, a secretary of Yergennes, at
Philadelphia, disapproves the taking
part by French officers in any cabal,
vi. 45; communicates intentions of
king of France to American commis-
sioners, 57; appointed minister to
United States congress, 71: urges
members of congress to renounce desire
for increase of territory, 177 : ordered
to ascertain ultimate demands of con-
gress, 196; urges abandonment of
claims to fisheries, and valley and
navigation of Mississippi, 198; says,
if forced to choose between alliance
with Spain and one with the states, the
king of France will not take the latter.
203 ; tries to persuade congress to end
the war by a truce, and to effect
Spanish alliance by trusting magna-
nimity of Spanish king, 204.

Germain, Lord George, derives all the
American disturbances from repeal of
stamp act, iv. 295; would put an end
to town-meetings and political debates ;
give corporate power to a few, as in
England ; assimilate their constitutions
to the English ; take away their char-
ters, 300; intrusted with American
department; cashiered for cowardice;
eager and active in enlisting savages
for British army, 544; with Burgoyne
plans the northern campaign, both
seeing the way clear for the army to
march to Albany and New York, 545,
546; on news of Trenton and Prince-
ton, and evacuation of New Jersey,
thinks Howe should be removed, that
Clinton should command army in
Canada, and Burgoyne that in New
York, 546; defends declaration of com-
missioners to America, insisting that
the Americans had become French by
their alliance, vi. 154; persuaded that
United States will fall with their finan-
ces, but, ignorant how to conciliate
the war-weary, he adopts sanguinary
measures to subdue; beset by refugees,
who fire his passions, 170, 171 ; approves

550

INDEX.

oomplot of Clinton and Arnold, 320;
■ees no reason to doubt the re-
covery of the whole country for the
king, 419; heaps praises on Cornwallis,
419; forced to retire from the cabinet;
raised to the peerage, but scorned in
the lords for his cowardice and inca-
pacity, 431.

Germain's plan of southern campaign of
1778; Pensacola to be strengthened;
Georgia and South Carolina to be occu-
pied; Florida rangers and Indians to
attack southern frontier ; line of com-
munication to be established across
South and North Carolina ; Charleston
to be taken; royal government to be
restored in North Carolina ; all America
south of Susquehannah to return to its
allegiance, vf. 250.

German empire, a relic of middle ages ;
its composition and sovereignty, ill.
314, 315.

Germans, the, of Philadelphia, all on
side of liberty, iv. 329.

Germantown, order of Howe's force, vi.
16; right wing of Americans surprises
the British picket; the British retreat;
Cornwallis hurries forward his grena-
diers and Hessians; Musgrave, with
six companies of the British fortieth,
occupies Chew's house : Greene, com-
manding American left wing, is not
heard from: Sullivan and Wayne
separate and advance; Washington
summons Musgrave to surrender, but
the bearer of the flag is killed, 17;
Washington goes to the front ; Greene's
delay, and confusion of his command ;
attacks British right with two bri-

Sades, and is driven back ; fatal blun-
er of Woodford, 18; Washington
orders a retreat; the disaster due to
tardiness of Greene and inefficiency
of Armstrong's militia; partial suc-
cess encourages congress and the army ;
the affair convinces Frederic of Prus-
sia and the French cabinet that inde-
pendence is inevitable, 19.
German troops, potentates assume
right of hiring out their troops, who
share in every great contest from
Poland to Lisbon, sometimes on oppo-
site sides; crowds of adventurers offer
their aid ; George III. contracts with a
Hanoverian lieutenant-colonel for four
thousand recruits ; he forages among
the Swiss, and, despite opposition or
German diet and Austria, gets one
hundred and fifty men ; has recruiting
stations in Neuwied and Frankfort;
his agents aided by British ministers
and diplomatic agents, v. 169, 170 ; men
of Anspach not trusted with arms,
and mutiny, 542; whole nnmber of,
3,596; all from Protestant principal-
ities, 542; facts as to the hiring of.
gathered from papers of princes and
ministers concerned; they prove that
the transmission of uncontrolled power
Inevitably develops corruptness and

depravity, 543, 544; every dynasty ths*
furnished them to the British has
ceased to reign, while the three Saxon
families survive in realms increasingly
prosperous, vi. 115.

Germany, founds no colonies in Amer-
ica, but gives it, in part, its laws of be-
ing, vi. 91 ; German nobles take advan-
tage of quarrel between popes and em-
perors to oppress the people: rise ol
free towns, 93; the power of the pope.
99; sale of absolution in Greece and
Borne, 99, 100; Luther's teachings, a
vindication for all men of the rights ol
reason, 101, 102; his writings, 103;
Charles V. deserts his own standard.
103, 104; thoughts of Germany and
America concur; Gustavus Adolphos
recommends American colonization as
a blessing to the Protestant world;
German emigration to America, 105,
106; the thirty years' war; its effect
on Germany, 106; elector of Branden-
burg becomes king of Prussia and
head of the Protestant church, 107;
England tries to set Russia against
chief Protestant power of Europe,
108, 109; Kant and his method, 109.
110; one of first Germans to defend
the cause of the United States, 110; *
Lessiiig thinks that Americans are
building the lodge of humanity.
110, 111; Herder thinks the United
States shaped by nature for a new
civilization ; Klopstock sees in Ameri-
can war the inspiration of humanity,
111 ; Goethe, always a friend to liberty,
rejoices in successes of Americans,
112; Schiller's sentiments such as be-
came the poet of Germany; German
Eolitical interest centres in America,
ut representatives of German intelli-
gence join to welcome United States
to a place among nations, 113; passage
of subsidized troops, in 1776. permitted
in ; abuses of recruiting ; British agents
sensitive to defamation bestowed on
them ; rulers of larger states think the
dignity of the empire insulted, v. 541.

Gerry, Elbridge, delegate to congress
from Massachusetts, in place of Cash-
ing, v. 164: in congress, obtains a re-
consideration of article on fisheries, vi,
200; champion of American rights to
fisheries, as had under British rule,
201; excites a strong debate in con-
gress, 203.

Gibbon, the historian, can find no room
for reply to Fox's speech on American
affairs, iv. 467 ; writes to a friend about
the expected Russian troops, v. 98;
pronounces the war with America " a
tough business;" "the thinking
friends of the government are by
no means sanguine," 365; agrees
with Lord Minto, that, after substance
of power is gone, the name of inde-
pendence may be granted to Ameri-
cans, vi. 55; in debate on address to
the king to disavow declaration of com-

r

INDEX.

551

missioners, d.vides silently with the
friends of America, 154.

Gibraltar, garrison of, reduced to famine,
and relieved, vi. 375; whole force of
Spain concentrated on the recovery of,
441; Shelburne dares not propose its
cession to Spain, 471 ; attack by French
and Spanish fleets repulsed, 475.

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, writes to prove
the possibility of a north-west passage,
i. 68; obtains patent for colonization.
73; his expedition fails, 74; a second
attempt, which also fails, and its com-
mander is lost at sea, 75. *

Gilbert, Raleigh, commander of ship
" Mary and John," in Plymouth com-
pany's expedition, 1 204; visits Gasco
Bay, and sends his ship to England,
205.

Qimat, Lieutenant-colonel, commands a
battalion at storming of Yorktown, vi.
427.

Ginnings, Sergeant, promoted by Wash-
ington for good conduct in Meigs's ex-
pedition, v. 563.

Gist, Christopher, sent by Ohio company
to examine western country, iii. 50;
Invited to live with Wyandots, 50;
reaches last town of Defawares, Just
above mouth of Scioto. 51 ; first white
man to see land beyond Scioto, 51 ; his
negotiations with Mianiis (see Picqua),
62, 53 ; on a second tour, explores south-
east of Ohio, as far as the Kanawha,
60; joins Washington's army, 76.

Gist, Colonel Nathaniel, commissioned
to take into public service two hundred
red men and fifty whites of neighbor-
ing counties, in order to counteract
the arts of British emissaries on the
borders of Virginia and the Carolinas,
vi. 51.

Gladwin, commander of fort at Detroit,
iii 378; re-enforced by Dalyell, 383.

Glen, governor of South Carolina, pro-
poses meeting of all colonial governors
to adjust quotas for service on the
Ohio, iii. 73.

Gloucester, Duke of, brother of George
III., received at Metz by the Count
de Broglie, and makes acquaintance
of Lafayette, iv. 564.

Gloucester, Mass., freemen of, affirm
their readiness to stand for their rights
and liberties, iv. 248, 249.

Gloucester, opposite Yorktown, Va .for-
tified by Comwallis, vi. 420; the Brit-
ish shut in at by French and Virginia
troops, 425.

Glover, commanding brigade, engages
Howe's advance below East Chester:
in an action, commended in general
orders, v. 441.

Glover, Joseph, an English clergyman,
sails for New England with printing-
press, but dies on the way, i. 330.

Glover, William, elected governor of
North Carolina by proprietaries' dep-
uties, ii. 203.

Godfrey, Edward, governor of Lygonia,

protests against appropriation of that
province by Massachusetts, i. 348.
Goertz, Prussian minister to Russia, re-

Sorts that time has come to fix a pub-
c law for neutral powers in a mari-
time war, vi. 247.

Goethe, his birth and education ; acquires
ideas of popular liberty, and wishes
Americans success, vi. Ill, 112 ; young-
est minister of Weimar, absent from
conference which refuses to furnish
troops to the British, but approves its
action, 115.

Goffe, William, one of judges of Charles
I., escapes to New England, i. 406.

Gomez, Stephen, a Portuguese naviga-
tor, seeks northern passage to Cathay ;
discovers Hudson River, and brings
home a cargo of Indian slaves, i. 28.

Gondomar, Spanish embassador to Eng-
land, his prophecy as to American
colonies, i. 124.

Gonzalez, Antony, a Portuguese officer,
introduces negro slaves to Europe, i.
132.

Goodwin, John, his children bewitched,
ii. 248, 249

Gordon, Rev. William, of Roxbury, Mass.,
declares against perpetuating slavery ;
asks for final check on sale of slaves by
an act of the state, vi. 307, 308.

Gorgeana, the name given by Gorges to
York, Me., on its becoming a city, i.
347.

Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, his attention
turned to Maine, i. 91 ; leads Sir John
Popham into a scheme for colonizing
in New England, 94; with John Mason,
takes a patent for Laconia, and makes
settlements on banks of Piscataqua,
257; invites the Scottish nation to
become guardian of frontier of Maine,
259; governor-general of New Eng-
land, 263; obtains patent for terri-
tory between the Kennebec and New
Hampshire, 263: lord proprietary of
New Somersetshire, 264 ; slanders Mas-
sachusetts, 322; his character and
career, 347.

Gorges, Robert, receives patent for tract
on Massachusetts Bay, and appointed
lieutenant-general of New England,
i. 255; failure of his colony, 255; his
civil dignity ends in dispute with
Weston, 256.

Gorges, William, sent by his uncle, Sir
Ferdinando, to govern territory be-
tween Kennebec and New Hampshire,
i. 263.

Gorges and Popham expedition, the, sail-
ing of, L 97 ; discussions of members,
98; arrival in Bay of Chesapeake, 98;
pitiable condition of the colony, 99.

Gorham, Me., reports its swords not yet
grown rusty, iv. 253.

Gorton, Samuel, an enthusiast of Rhode
Island, pronounces the clergy enemies
to colonial independence; is impris-
oned, I. 338; but liberated; carries
complaints to England, 354, 355.

4

562

INDEX.

Gosnold, Bartholomew, in 1602 sails to
Cape Elizabeth, Me., visits Cape Cod,
enters Buzzard's Bay, i. 88; builds
fort and storehouse on the island
Elizabeth, tbe foundation of the first
New England colony, 88, 89; his re-
ports of his voyage, 89; persuades
Wingfleld, Hunt, and John Smith to
join him in establishing a colony, 94;
death of, 99.

Ooulding. William, patent issued to, and
others, for region from Sandy Hook
to mouth of Raritan, ii 71.

Goupil, Rene, a captive novice, killed by
Mohawks for making sign of the cross,
ii. 309, 310.

Gourgues, Dominic de, leads expedition
to avenge the massacre of French in
Florida T>y Spaniards, captures Span-
ish fort, and hangs prisoners, i. 61.

Government of colonies, two systems of,
one founded on prerogative, the other
on supremacy of parliament, iii. 23;
the latter ultimately prevails, 23, 24.

Governor, authority of, discussed in
Massachusetts, i. 351 ; rotation in office
enforced, 351 ; government of law, not
of discretion, demanded, 351.

Governor of Virginia, under King Wil-
liam, extraordinary; helplessness of
people against him, ii. 206.

Governor's council, of Massachusetts,
the few members left advise not to
send troops into interior of province,
but to constitute Boston a " safe place
of retreat," iv. 382.

Gower, president of the council under
Hillsborough, iv 64 ; sneering at Amer-
ican " rights," declares himself in fa-
vor of enforcing the measures against
the colonies, 449; demands rejection of
Chatham's plan, 465.

Grafton, Duke of, holds seals of northern
department in Cumberland's ministry,
iii. 487 ; his character; seeks Pitt, ana
gains his confidence, 548; resigns his
office in the ministry, iv. 4; left in
position of prime minister, 49; approves
the late regulations for America, and
says that abrogating charters of Amer-
ican colonies would free them from their
fetters, 52; yielding to king's impor-
tunities, prepares to dismiss Shelburne,
120; resigns his office, 182; demands
rejection of Chatham's plan, 465; re-
bukes Camden for disavowing respon-
sibility for the tea-tax, 468, 469; en-
treats Lord North to bring about a
reconciliation; says that the contest is
not only hopeless, but fraught with
disgrace, v. 100 ; to the king complains
of violent and impracticable schemes of
ministers, saying, "Deluded them-
selves, they are deluding your majes-
ty;" as to hiring of German troops,
says, "Twice the number will only
increase the disgrace, and never effect
the purpose," 100; takes part with
Duke of Manchester in opposition, and
resigns his place as keeper of the privy

seal. 103; attempts, in house of lords,
to plead for conciliation, 201.

Grand pensionary of Holland, Van Bleto-
wijck, brings business before states
of Holland to be recommended to
states-general, vi. 232, 233; a weak
politician, and inclined to England,
233; favors accession to Russian dec-
laration of principles of neutrality, 360.

Grant, James, Major, of Washington's
command in Forbes's expedition, sent
against Cherokees, iii. 279; burns fif-
teen Indian villages, 280; extends
English frontier seventy miles west,
and compels Cherokees to covenant
peace, 281 ; he affects superciliousness
toward southern colonists; fights a
duel with Middleton, of South Caro-
lina, 281 ; asserts in house of commons
that he knows Americans well, and that
they will not fight, ridiculing them,
to amusement of the house, iv. 466.

Grant, commands two brigades in Howe's
army at battle of Long Island, v. 375;
commands in New Jersey, on Corn-
wallhVs departure for England, 469;
warns Donop against attack on Tren-
ton, 476.

Grantham, British ambassador at Ma-
drid, deceived by Florida Blanca, at-
tests sincerity of Spain's desire to brine
about pacification, vL 180; appointed
to foreign office, 452 ; .assures Franklin
that the establishment of an honorable
and lasting peace is the aim of the
ministry, 471.

Granville, Earl of, president of privy
council, his enlightenment of Franklin
as to king's instructions, iii. 168 ; de-
clares that colonies must not interfere
with Great Britain in European mar-
kets, 169.

Grape Island, in Boston harbor, British
attempt to secure the hay on: two
thousand men from Weymouth, Brain-
tree, and Hingham swarm to the place,
and the English retreat, iv. 673.

Grattan, Henry, leader of Irish patriots
In 1778; in Irish parliament, moves an
amendment to address, that the coun-
try can be saved only by free trade, vi.
379.

Graves, Admiral, arrives at Boston in the
"Preston." iv. 348; succeeds Arbuth-
not in naval command at New York;
of small abilitv and skill : on a useless
cruise before Boston, and cannot Join
Sir Samuel Hood, vi. 423; discovers
French fleet at anchor at mouth of
Chesapeake; his fleet so damaged in
action that ensues, that he returns to
New York, abandoning the " Terrible,
423.

Gravier, a missionary, succeeds Allofiez
among the Miamis; his achievements;
his death, ii. 360, 361.

Gray. Samuel, killed by British soldiers
in Boston, iv. 190.

Great Barrington, Mass., Judges of in-
ferior court of Hampshire meet at;

INDEX.

553

the regulating act having received
king's approval, a mob forces the
judges to promise to do no business, iv.
874, 375.

Great Britain, opposed to Roman Catho-
lic world and American mind, ii. 271 :
parliament holds itself absolute and
unaccountable, 272 ; retains Gibraltar,
making Spain her implacable enemy,
889; makes war on human freedom,
allured by phantom of absolute au-
thority over colonies, iv. 308 ; its house
of commons become venal, 308 ; excels
the world as a planter of colonies, 312 ;
seeks to create a distinct empire to
coerce and restrain the original colo-
nies, and to this end unites in one prov-
ince Canada and the territory north-
west of the Ohio, to head of Lake Su-
perior and the Mississippi, 414.

Grenada, Island of, duties on produce of,
levied in colonies, iii. 429; captured by
D'Estaing's fleet, vi. 259.

Green, Roger, leads a company from
Nansemund to rivers that flow into
Albemarle Sound, i. 487.

Green, Timothy, publisher of the " New
London Gazette," on Nov. 1, 1765,
issues paper containing an appeal for
liberty by Stephen Johnson, of Lyme,
iii. 520, 521.

Greene, Colonel Christopher, of Rhode
Island, in command at fort on Red-
bank, vi. 20.

Greene, Nathaniel, commander of Rhode
Island troops at Cambridge, iv. 543,
544; starts to share in the conflict on
news of Lexington, but returns to seat
in legislature ; elected general of Rhode
Island brigade, 544, 545; elected briga-
dier-general of continental army, v. 7 ;
writes to Ward, in congress, from
Rhode Island, urging the declaration
of independence, 156; commands forces
In Brooklyn, 371 ; thinks that, consid-
ering the difficulties, the retreat from
Long Island was the best effected he
ever read of, 387 ; advises a general re-
treat and burning of New York city
and suburbs, 392 ; commands a force at
Fort Lee, 434; shares rash confidence
of congress, and thinks there is little
to fear this campaign, 439; writes to
Washington for instructions, but, not
waiting for them, sends Ra wungs's rifle
regiment to Fort Washington, 447;
frames his measures directly contrary
to Washington's orders; instead of
evacuating, re-enforces Fort Washing-
ton, and reports to congress that Howe
cannot take it, 449 ; permits thirty Brit-
ish flat-boats to pass his post, 450; would
never assume responsibility for capture
of Fort Washington, or confess his er-
rors of j udgment, but ascribes the defeat
to a panic, 453; surprised by British,
makes hasty flight, 455; Bent -to Phila-
delphia to explain the pressing wants
of the army, 555; his unaccountable
delay at Germantown, vi. 18; made

quartermaster-general, and wants to
retain command of a division, 48;
in secret partnership with a member
of commissary department, 49; repels
attack on Sullivan's right wine, and
defeats the enemy, 152; asks for the
southern command, 254; resigns quar-
termaster-generalship abruptly, and
congress, on advice of Washington, ap-
points him to southern department,
342; receives like powers with Gates,
but subject to commander in chief,
380; gains confidence and love of his
troops, 382; want of national senti-
ment in the troops ; praises Washing-
ton, 383; fired to emulation by Mor-
gan's success; advised by Morgan,
joins him at Sherrald's ford, 389; joins
Morgan's army at Guilford court-
house, 392; his command crosses the
Dan twelve hours ahead of British,
392; complimented for retreat by
Washington and others, 392, 393; re-
enforced, prepares to hazard an action,
and encamps near Guilford court-
house, 394; nas the confidence of Vir-
ginia and the south, 398 ; on Cornwal-
fis's escape, determines to carry the war
into South Carolina, 401 ; takes position
on Hobkirk's Hill near Camden, 402:
fails in siege of Ninety-Six, 405; joined
by Sumter and Marion, pursues Raw-
don, and otters him battle, 405; de-
taches troops to compel evacuation of
Orangeburg, 406; pushes the British
to Eutaw Springs, and attacks them,
407; his victory and defeat, 407, 408;
prepares to renew the fight, 408; re-
gains his old position on heights of
Santee ; what he had accomplished in
three months, 409 : writes that nothing
can save Cornwallis but a rapid retreat
to Charleston, 424.

Greene, Thomas, successor of Leonard
Calvert as governor of Maryland, L
192.

Green Spring, skirmish at: Wayise sends
Gal van to capture a British field-piece ;
Galvan, confronted by the British line,
retreats to meet Wayne; the latter,
finding himself outnumbered, fights on
till Lafayette arrives to the rescufe;
losses small and equal, vi. 417, 418.

Grenville,. George, retires from British
ministry on Pitt's dismissal, iii. 145;
desires to be chancellor of exchequer
on Legge's dismissal; otters bill au-
thorizing employment of officers of the
navy as custom-house officers; first
who undertook rigidly to enforce navi-
gation acts, 366; succeeds Bute as first
lord of the treasury, 369; favors pro-
tective system, 373 ; seeks information
in every quarter before imposing tax
system on America, 388; first lord of
treasury, 391; adopts the scheme for
taxing colonies, 396; claims for Eng-
land exclusive trade with its colonies,
399: did not intend to introduce des-
potic government into America, 409 ;

554

INDEX.

confesses propriety of allowing Amer-
ica representatives in the body which
taxed it, 411; persists in imposing
stamp-tax, but agrees to postpone it a
year, 411, 412: seeks palliatives to rec-
oncile America to tax, 312; favors
America in the whale-fishery, 412, 413;
elves notice of a bill for stamp duties
In America, 414 ; tendency of his policy
toward the colonies, 416; resolves on
proposing American representation,
443; proposes details of stamp act to
house of common*, and argues in its
favor, 444, 445; his greatest triumph,
485; surrenders seals of office, and
urges the king not to separate his
British and American dominions, 486 ;
his administration turned out for ex-
ercising its constitutional right to con-
trol the king in the use of the court fa-
vor, 489 : in house of commons, moves
to consider America as " resisting the
laws by open and rebellious force,"
531; declares meetings like those in
Boston to be illegal, and. deserving of
punishment ; favors prohibition of
American fisheries, iv. 76 ; his influence
the special resource of Hutchinson and
Oliver, 87 ; agrees with Burke that the
order requiring Massachusetts to re-
scind a vote under a penalty is illegal
and unconstitutional, 130; his last and
most honorable public act, the intro-
duction of a bill to establish a more
impartial mode of deciding disputed
elections, 201

Grenville, George, the younger, attacks
administration in harsh terms, and
names Lord Chatham as the proper
person to treat with America, vf. 59

Grenville, Thomas, son of George, cho-
sen by Fox to communicate with Eu-
ropean belligerents as to peace ; igno-
rant and inexperienced, welcomed in
Paris by Franklin, who introduces
him to Vergennes, vi. 444; otters Ver-

. gennes and De Axanda peace on the
basis of American independence and
treaty of 1763, 444, 445; claims right
to treat with America, but confesses
that he is acting without the sanction
of parliament, 447, 448.

Grenville's policy examined by a New
York freeman, iii. 472-474.

Grenville, Sir Richard, commander of
Raleigh's expedition in 1585, i. 78;
burns an Indian village, 79; sails for
England, 79; returns with supplies,
after departure of colony. 83.

Greenwood, John, hanged for dissent,
i. 226.

Grey, Major-general, attacks Wayne's
command, and routs it, v. 600; sets
fire to shipping at New Bedford, and
levies cattle and money on people of
Martha's Vineyard, vi. 152.

Gridley, Jeremiah, counsel for the crown
in trial touching writs of assistance,
iii. 274.

Gridley, Richard, an engineer, accom-

Sanies Prescott to Breed's HOI, and
raws lines of a redoubt, iv. 604, 605 ;
forsakes Prescott, 605.

Grimaldi, Spanish ambassador at Paris,
reports an ardent desire for peace
there ; tries to make a protecting al-
liance with France, iii. 261: minister
of foreign affairs, proposes to aid secretly
the English colonies, if the king of Spain
should not be known in the matter,
v. 231 ; wishes not to raise a republic
on the western continent, but to let
England exhaust herself in a long civil
war; admits American ships to Span-
ish ports, even privateers, but wishes
no change in relations of colonies to
England, fearing their independence
for Spain, 363 ; driven from ministry
and country, 533.

Grindal, in 1576 made archbishop of
Canterbury, but, refusing to suppress
the liberty of prophesying, is suspended
and made to resign, i. 222

Grotius, first utters sentiment that
"free ships make free goods," i. 164;
reports designs of Netherlander as
to explorations in America, ii. 24:
favors aristocratic party in United
Provinces, and is arrested, 36; con-
demned to imprisonment for life, 37;
establishes doctrine of freedom of the
seas, 77.

Guadaloupe, captured by British, iii.
210; private letters from, that North
America could never remain long sub-
ject to Britain; that acquisition of
Canada would strengthen colonies to
revolt, 244.

Guercheville, Marchioness de, protector
of Jesuit missions in Canada, i. 19;
joint projector of French colony at
Mt. Desert, 19; her right to colonize,
112; her mission destroyed by Argall,
113.

Guilford court-house, battle of; position
of Greene's army, vi. 394, 395; advance
of Cornwallis, and flight of North
Carolina militia; British press back
second American line, 395; are beaten
back by the third, with great loss;
Stewart's first and second battalions
of the guards cut to pieces ; the Hes-
sians defeat the Americans, 396;
Greene leaves his cannon and the
field to the enemy, 396, 397; though
defeated, the Americans' conduct gal-
lant ; transforms American army into
pursuers, the British to fugitives;
Cornwallis's testimony, 397.

Gunning, British ambassador to Russia,
tells Paniu that the rebellion in Amer-
ica will soon be stopped, and asks leave
to tell his king that be may reckon on
a body of her majesty's infantry, v.
63 ; thinks the empress means to send
twenty thousand men, 63; armed with
a letter from George III. to the em-
press, accepting her offer of troops, Is
instructed to ask of her twenty thou-
sand troops, 92; waits on Panin by ap-

INDEX.

555

pointment, who denies that any offer of
troops has been made, and adds that
the empress was opposed to having
her troops employed in America, 94 ;
denied an audience of the empress,
desires Panin to deliver the letter of
George III.; offers to be content with
fifteen thousand men; again refused
an audience by the empress, 96 ; on ar-
rival of courier with project of treaty,
■ends it to Panin, and lowers his de-
mand to ten thousand men, but Panin
gives him the empress's answer, and
declines further discussion, 96.

Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden,
sees advantages of American colonies;
employs funds of colonizing company
for invasion of Germany, if. 46; com-
mends colonization just before his
death, 47 ; naturally friendly to France
for its aid in revolution of 1771 ; oldest
colonizers of the Delaware his subjects ;
eager to possess a colony ; accepts Rus-
sian declaration, vi. 359.

Guzman, Nufio, nroiident of New Spain,
L33.

Gyles, Thomas, murdered by Penob-
scot Indians, ii. 349.

Habeas Corpus, benefit- of, claimed by
Massachusetts; affirmed by Queen
Anne to Virginia, ii. 279.

HaddrelTs Point, near Charleston, a
post established there, v. 50.

Hakluyt. Richard, one of assignees of
Raleigh's rights in Virginia, i. 85;
encourages an expedition to New Eng-
land, 89; his activity in promoting
colonization, 94.

Hale, Nathan, a captain in Knowlton's
regiment, a Yale graduate, very young,
volunteers to enter the British lines in
disguise; seized, and carried before
General Howe; avows his name and
rank, and his purpose; Howe orders
him to be executed without a trial;
the services of a clergyman and a
Bible denied him ; his noble speech on
the gallows; his letters destroyed by
the provost-marshal, v 407, 408.

♦'Half Moon," the, Hudson's ship, in
which he ascends the Hudson River,
ii. 25-28; detained at Dartmouth by
jealousy of English, 33.

Halifax, Earl of; defends representative

government in privy council, i. 481;
is character, iii. 25, 26; finds colonies
tending to legislative independence
and rebellion, 26 ; determined to secure
Nova Scotia and the Ohio valley, 28;
pronounces country west of Alle-
ghanies centre of British dominions,
29 ; signalizes his entrance to office by

Slanting Protestant colony in Nova
cotia, and granting lands for a Vir-
ginia colony on the Ohio, 32; aspires
to a seat in cabinet, 46; by royal com-
mand, proposes a plan of union of
American colonies, founded on pre-
rogative, and impracticable, 109, 110;

takes office under Pitt, 179; desirous
to take charge of department of colo-
nies, 300; secretary of state, under
Grenville, takes southern depaitment
and colonies, 392.

Halifax, the town, founded by expedi-
tion under Colonel Edward Corn-
wallis, iii. 31 ; settlement of, seen with
anxiety by the French, 44 ; second and
successful expedition sent to take
Chiegnecto, or Reaubassin, 47.

Halket, Sir Fetei, his remains and his
son's buried on Braddock's Field, by.
detachment of Forbes's army, iii. 207. '

Hallowell, comptroller of Massachusetts,
sent to England, bearing royalist ac-
counts of riots in Boston, iv. 92 ; exam-
ined by Lord North and Jenkinson,
testifies to generally favorable condi-
tion of sentiment in the colonies, that
the discontent was mainly confined to
Boston, 98, 99.

Hall, Lyman, presents himself to second
continental congress, as a delegate
from the parish of St. John's, Ga.:
is received with a right to vote, except
when the question is taken by colonies,
iv. 570.

Hamilton, Alexander, first appears at
meeting of New York ; his history, iv.
355, 356; his sympathies at first with
the British, 356 ; a pamphlet from his
pen in circulation since December,
1774, and in February, 1775, he puts
forth another, declaring his advocacy
of a limited monarchy, and his attach-
ment to essential rights of mankind
and to civil liberties, 458; believes
that colonies will, ere long, unite in an
indissoluble chain, 466 ; serves a battery
at Raritan bridge, v. 459 ; joins Wash-
ington's staff, and becomes familiar
with national affairs, 553; gives con-
gress a false alarm, so that members
leave their beds, and flee to Lancaster,
600 ; commends young Laurens's pro-
ject of raising black troops, vi. 256:
thinks Andrews death just, but would
have his feelings respected, 330 ; Wash-
ington's ablest secretary ; his oppor-
tunities for sound judgment of public
affairs, 343; invites Duane to call
a convention of all the states, with
power to form a general confederation:
traces causes of congress's want of
power ; doubts not that a republic can
be formed over an extended territory,
345, 346; the fittest man for special
envoy to France, but not known to
congress, 350 ; his views like those of
Robert Morris, 413; studying law at
Albany, explains to New York legisla-
ture how the United States can obtain
a constitution : a delegate to congress
from New York, and becomes colleague
of Madison ; one supplements the other,
466, 467.

Hamilton, Andrew, governor of part of
New Jersey, under West Jersey so-
ciety, li. '224.

556

INDEX.

Hamilton, Lieutenant-colonel, leadg
storming party at Yorktown, vi. 426.

Hamilton, lieutenant-governor of De-
troit, writes to secretary of state that
small parties of Indians will " fall on
the scattered settlers on the Ohio," and
discourages every thought of mercy, v.
423; sends out fifteen parties of reel
men, with v\ hite officers, to ravage the
frontiers of Virginia, 510 ; and Pennsyl-
vania, 684 ; sends savages to American
frontier ; takes Vinceiines, and drives
people back to British allegiance ; an-
nounces to Spanish governor his pur-
pose to recover Illinois, vi. 187; his
management of Indians; planning
murderous expeditions, when attacked
by Clark, and surrenders the town
after long resistance, 189, 190.

Hampden, John, rumor that he em-
barked for New England, i. 327.

Hampton, Va., blockaded and attacked
by Dunmore, who is driven off with
loss, v. 145.

Hancock, John, of Boston, owns first
American ship that went to sea with a
rich cargo without stamped papers,
iv. 532; the king gives orders to tempt
him by marks of favor, 226; produces
to house copies of Hutchinson's letters,
and scatters them throughout the
colonies, 264 ; urges people not only to
pray, but act, ''ana even die for the
prosperity of our New Jerusalem,"
294; his commission in Boston cadets
revoked by Gage, 373; warned by War-
ren of Gage's Intentions toward Con-
cord, 516; elected president of con-
tinental congress, 582; desires to serve
under Washington, v. 14 ; forwards to
Washington authorization of congress
to attack Boston, 154; while president
of congress, leans toward the south,
which is unanimous in voting him
thanks on his resignation, while three
northernmost states of New England
vote nay, vi. 309; vain, and neglectful
of business, 413.

Hanging Rock, a British post in South
Carolina, surprised by Sumter: a regi-
ment of refugees flee, and their panic
is caught by the Prince of Wales regi-
ment, vi. 273.

Hanoverian troops hired by George III. ;
five battalions mustered into British
service, to garrison Gibraltar and
Minorca; tempted by recruiting agents
of Frederic of Prussia; embark at port
of Ritzebuttel, October 5, and kept in
harbor by the winds till November 1,
v. 58.

Hansford, Thomas, a Virginia partisan
leader, surprised by Beverley, and
condemned to death by Berkeley; his
noble dying words, i. 555.

Harcourt, Lieutenant-colonel, of British
army, captures Charles Lee, v. 465.

Hardwicke, Lord, invited to enter Brit-
ish cabinet; refuses, and gives the
king advice, iii. 389.

Hardy, governor of New Jersey, dis-
missed for commissioning judges dur-
ing good behavior, iii. 291.

Hardy, Sir Charles, commands British
fleet to meet French and Spanish in-
vasion; does not or will not see the
enemy, vi. 226.

Harlot, member and historian of Ra-
leigh's expedition in 1585, inventor of
system of notation in algebra, i. 78;
his observations iu Virginia, 79, 80;
his testimony Induces new expedi-
tion, 83.

Harlem, heights of, Washington's army
remain on nearly four weeks ; its sur-
roundings and defences, v. 433. 434.

Harmony between American ana French
officers, and in mixed council of war,
vl. 421.

Harnett, Cornelius, of New Hanover,
N.C., called the Samuel Adams or
North Carolina ; says of news of Lex-
ington and Concord, " For God's sake,
forward it by night and by day," iv.
533; elected president of provincial
council of that colony, v. 56 ; exempted
in Clinton's offer of pardon, 242.

Harris, British ambassador at St. Peters-
burg, is refused an audience of, vi. 231 ;
says Panin receives all his ideas from
Frederic of Prussia, and tries to cir-
cumvent him through Potemkin, who,
he thinks, can be bought for eighty
thousand pounds, 239; asks empress
for her armed mediation, which is re-
fused, 240; chagrined by Panln's an-
swer to King George's letter, seeks Po-
temkin for consolation, 243; to detach
Russia from complainants of British
violations of neutral rights, promises
that Russian navigation shall never
be interrupted by British vessels, 244.

Harris, Captain, at Bunker Hill struck
at redoubt at last charge, falls into
arms of Lord Rawdon, his lieutenant,
and saved; of four soldiers who lifted
him, three mortally wounded, iv. 621.

Harrison, Lieutenant-colonel, represents
Washington in conference as to ex-
change of prisoners; foils the insidious
questions of his British associates as
to the corruptibility of Washington,
V. 549, 550.

Harrison, of Virginia, member of con-
tinental congress, conducts John
Adams to the chair, saying, " We will
show Britain how much we value her
proscriptions" [Samuel Adams and
Hancock having been proscribed], iv.
582; his answer to Dickinson, v. 12;
member of congressional committee
sent to reform the continental army.
65.

Harrod, at Boiling Spring, Ky., his
pioneer achievements: builds first log
cabin in Kentucky ; his disappearance,
iv. 576.

Hartford, Conn., site of. bought and oc-
cupied by Dutch before any English
immigration to Connecticut, ii. 45.

INDEX.

557

Hartley, visits Franklin as an informal
agent, and is told that conciliation is
possible only though independence, v.
647 ; sends copies of Lord North's con-
ciliation bills to Franklin, vi. 61: is
again sent to Paris to ask of Franklin
an offer of some alliance, or some favor
in trade, 70.
Harvard College, founded in 1638, 1. 330:
general support of, by New England
colonies, 369.
Harvey, John, commissioner to inves-
tigate affairs of Virginia, i. 147 ; com-
missioned governor, 153; his method
of administration, 154; courts favor
of Lord Baltimore, 154; hateful to
colonists, 154; deposed, and goes to
England, 155; his case examined by
privy council, 165; receives a new com-
mission, and returns to Virginia, 156;
superseded by Sir Francis Wyatt,
156.
Hatteras Indians, conjecture ttat sur-
vivors of Roanoke colony were at? ^pted
by, i. 86.
Havana, its importance: its conquest
attempted by England, iii. 292; be-
sieged by English, and its surrender,
293.
Haverhill, attacked by French and In-
dians under Hertel de Bouville and
Des Chaillons, and many people mas-
sacred, li. 426, 427.
Haviland, Colonel, leads force from

Crown Point to Montreal, iii. 240.
Hawke, Sir Edward, attacks and defeats

French fleet under Cons tans, iii. 226.
Hawkins, Sir John, a slave-merchant,
succors French colony in Florida, i.
56; first to interest England in slave-
trade, 136.
Hawley, Joseph, member of Massachu-
setts legislature for Northampton, de-
clares that " the parliament of Great
Britain has no right to legislate for us,"
iv. 24: expelled by Hutchinson from
bar of superior court, 25; unfitted by
his excitable nature to guide, 69;
writes letter to membors of congress,
saying, " We must fight, if we cannot
otherwise rid ourselves of British tax-
ation," and that "our salvation de-
pends on a military union," 374;
thinks four New . England colonies
could sustain themselves against Great
Britain, 391 ; first to discern the coming
national government, writes to Sam-
uel Adams, " It is time for y >ur body to
form into a parliament of two houses,"

V. Ov, o4.

Hay ley, M. P. for London, rebukes the
levity of the house of commons, iv.
462.

Hayne, Isaac, of South Carolina, after
fall of Charleston, obtains British pro-
tection, but vows never to serve under
British flag; on failure of British to
protect him, leads militia against
them : made prisoner, and sent to gal-
lows by Rawdon, against entreaties of

Haynefs children and the women of
the province, vi. 406, 407.

Haynes, a passenger on the "Griffin,"
his character, i. 290.

Haynes, Josiah, an octogenarian, deacon
of Sudbury church, after Concord
fight, urges an attack on British troops
at South Bridge, iv. 528; killed while
pursuing the British, 529.

Hayti, island, first spot in America that
received African slaves; first example
of African liberty, i 136.

Hay ward, James, of Acton, mortally
wounded while pursuing the British
from Concord, by a regular, whom he
killed, iv. 529.

Heads of executive departments of con-
gress substituted for executive com- '
mittees; finances, Robert Morris; for-
eign affairs, Robert Livingston, agree-
ably to the wish of Luzerne, vi. 413.

Heath, Sir Robert, patent for Carolina
issued to, i. 484, 485.

Heath, William, of Roxbury, Mass.,
elected brigadier-general of continen-
tal army; honest, but vain and incom-
petent, v. 7; put in command of posts
on Hudson River, 449.

Heemskerk, Van Jacob, a Dutch naviga-
tor, vainly tries to pass to the south
of Nova ZemNa, ii. 22.

Heister, LieuteL ant-general, chief com-
mander of Hessian troops ; brave, but
without military genius, v. 177; his
recall demanded ; unwilling to have
his men killed in disproportionate
numbers, 540.

Hemp, bounty on American, restored,
but American manufactures of linen
frowned on, iii. 412.

Henly, Lord, denounces people of Boston
for defiance of authority, iv. 129.

Henly, Thomas, of Charlestown, Mass..
"one of the best officers in the army,"
killed, la an attempt to capture Ran-
dall's Island, v. 408.

Hennepin, in the pay of William III.,
publishes a book, in which he falsely
claims to have first descended the Mis-
sissippi; has an audience with William
III., to urge settlement of banks of
Mississippi, ii. 365.

Henry V11I., still a Romanist, L 211;

his rigid and cruel policy, 212.
Henry, Patrick, says in congress, of War-
ren's death, that " a breach on our af-
fections was needed to rouse the coun-
try to action," v. 7 ; elected colonel of
first regiment of Virginia regulars,
43; governor of Virginia, 303: receives
with scorn Rush's letter abusive of
Washington, and sends it to that gen-
eral, vi. 43; pleads against Maury, a
clergyman, in a trial on a contract for
payment of tobacco, claiming for Vir-
ginia the right of directing her affairs
against monarchy and priestcraft, iii.
406; charged with treason, 408; in
assembly, maintains that Virginians
inherit equal franchises with people

568

INDEX.

of Great Britain, and that assembly
alone has right to lay taxes, 468, 469;
attempt to strike out his resolutions
from the journals; " Virginia rang the
alarm-bell for the continent," 470 ; his
argument against slavery, iv. 233, 234 ;
objects to Galloway's scheme for presi-
dent-general, 402; hearing of Hawley's
prophetic words, "We must fight,"
says, " I am of that man's mind,"
411 ; his estimate of Washington, 412 ;
mores in convention to put colony in
a state of defence, 505; leads indepen-
dent company of Hanover to Williams-
burg, 550; denounced in governor's
proclamation, 551.

Herbert, George, anticipates the speedy
spread of religion in America, i. 121.

Herkimer, leader of Tryon county mili-
tia in encounter with St Leger's
troops, v. 584: badly wounded, but
remains, giving orders, 585; "first re-
versed the gloomy scene " of the north-
ern campaign, according to Washing-
ton; a monument voted to him by
congress, 586.

Hervey, a boy of sixteen, lieutenant in
British sixty-second, at battle of Beh-
mus's Heights mortally wounded, says.
" Tell my uncle I die like a soldier,
vi. 7.

Hesse-Cassel, prince of, writes to George
III., offering his regiment of five hun-
dred men ; hurries to England to urge
his proposition, v. 91 ; eager to serve
King George III., and demands a
special subsidy for his seal, v. 178; has
a rival in his own father, but fur-
nishes ninety-one recruits, and four
hundred and sixty-eight additional
yagers, 540.

Hesse, elector of, leases his troops to
England, ill. 145.

Hesse, landgrave of, begins to think his
services as a dealer in troops may be
demanded, iv. 562.

Hessian troops hired by George III., v.
174 ; among the best in Europe, 177 ;
their proportion of the population one
in four of able-bodied men, 180; arrive
at New York, eager for war, 371 ; total
number furnished: their losses by battle
and fever, 540; landgrave impresses
men, to make good their U«ses, vi. 53;
two regiments captured at Yorktown,
and recognising their countrymen in
French regiment, embrace, 429.

Heth, William, second lieutenant in
Daniel Morgan's company, v. 30.

Hewes, of North Carolina, expects, if he
suffers as an American rebel, to be
translated, " as Enoch was of old," iv.
410.

Higginson, Rev. Francis, brought oyer
by Massachusetts Bay company, i. 269;
his happy death, 282.

Higginson, John, minister of Salem,
quotes Scripture against Andros's legal
authorities, ii. 257, 258.

Highlands of the head-springs of Yadkin

and Catawba, spirit of independence
animates people of, who are mostly
Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, iv. 577.

Highlanders, two battalions of, raised
by Pitt for service in America, ill. 164 ;
in North Carolina, ministry still hopes
to rouse them to king's service, iv.
563; settle in Carolina; whole neigh-
borhoods from Rasay and Skye pass
over to Carolina, carrying with them,
their language, customs, and opinions,
v. 52, 53.

Hill, John, commands land force of ex-
pedition for conquest of Canada, ii.
380. 381.

Hillsborough, Earl of, at head of board of
trade, iii. 392 ; secretary of department
for colonies, iv. 64 ; orders Bernard to
require Massachusetts house to rescind
the resolution which gave birth to cir-
cular letter, or to dissolve it, 83, 84;
resolves to make Bernard lieutenant-
governor of Virginia, and Hutchinson
governor of Massachusetts, 88; takes
is opinions from Bernard, 96; declares
that parliament must give up its au-
thority over colonies, or reduce them
to submission, 139; his plan for alter-
ing charter of Massachusetts laid aside,
153; says nothing can be granted to
Americans, save what they ask with a
halter round their necks, 158; embold-
ened by strength of ministry and ap-
parent tranquillity in America, gives
free scope to his conceit and passion;
left with few supporters, the king tires
of him, and his colleagues conspire
against him, 237; demands of Rich-
mond how Rockingham would have
England crouch to the vipers and reb-
els in America, vi. 59.

" Hind," the, a vessel in Sir Humphrey
Gilbert's expedition to North America,
i. 75.

Hingham , military election in, set aside
by magistrates ; triumph of the author-
ities, i. 352; the root of the trouble "a
presbyterial spirit," 352 ; result of dis-
cussion the restriction of magistrates'
power over militia, 353.

Historian, the office of, v. 69: he traces
vestiges of morals through the practice
of all ages, and confirms by induction
the intuitions of reason; must have
an unbiassed mind, candor, analytical
power, v. 69, 70 ; impartiality in ac-
counting for political conflicts easy, if
behind every party lies an "eternal
thought," and if generating cause of
every party is a permanent force, es-
sential to the well-being of society;
every party originates in human nature
and the necessities of life in a commu-
nity, 71 ; the dangers of partiality, 71,
72.

Historians, American, the tone of, with
reference to Revolution, forbearing;
they bring to their work no prejudices
against England; slanders of courts
originate not with c tizens of a repub-

INDEX.

669

Ho, who look on aristocrat* and sover-
eigns as men, v. 73.

History, receives vitality from continuity
of man's progress, iii. 7 ; by recognising
past ages as a part of life, she wins
power to move the soul; most cheering
of all pursuits, 8.

Hobkirk's Hill, battle of; Greene* s pick-
ets attacked by Bawdon; his prompt
dispositions, vi. 402; failure to execute
his orders; two regiments give way;
British break his centre, and he re-
treats; the losses equal; Rawdon re-
tires to Camden, and, re-enforced, pur-
sues Greene, but is kept at bay, 403.

Holdernesse. Earl of, successor of Duke
of Bedford, his characteristics, iii. 57 ;
transferred to northern department,
105; his resignation bought by a pen-
sion and reversion, 260.

Holland, vindicates freedom of the sea, i.
163, 164; extent of her commerce, 164 ;
discusses proposals of peace and com-
merce with Virginia, 174 ; shelters the
English separatists, 236 ; her war with
England does not disturb the Ameri-
can colonies, 358, 359 ; desire of western
settlements to reduce New Amsterdam,
359: three of the four united colonies
declare for war, but Massachusetts
urges delay, 359; first voyages from,
to America, in 1597. il. 23; be-
comes example of maritime freedom,
294; threatened by Great Britain for
permitting commerce between St. Eu-
statius and the United States, v. 524 ;
British ambassador at Hague demands
disavowal of salute to an American
vessel by the fort on St. Eustatius, and
the recall of its governor, 625; this de-
mand incenses the nation ; recalls the
Governor, but returns the paper to
rorke, the ambassador.

Bollis, Thomas, writes from England to
Boston to build no hopes on the king,
and foresees independence of America,
iii. 297.

Holt, John, publishes a paper at Norfolk,
Va. ; two of his printers and printing
material carried off by Lord Dunmore,
v. 144.

TTomespun, general inclination in New
England to be clad in, iii. 666.

Hood, Sir Samuel, commands British
squadron sent to Chesapeake Bay. vi.
423.

Hood. Zachariah, stamp-master for
Maryland, flees to fort of New York,
Hi. 496.

Hooker, Thomas, a passenger in the
" Griffin," "the one rich pearl with
which Europe more than repaid Amer-
ica for the treasures from her coast/'
L 291 ; leads emigrants to Connecticut,
312; his correspondence with Winthrop,
317.

Hooper, William, a native of Boston, in
North Carolina convention brings for-
ward Franklin's plan of % confederacy ;
his draft ot an address to the British

people, disavowing desire for inde-
pendence, ana asking only to be re-
stored to the status existing before.
1703, adopted, v. 55 ; his house burned
by order of Governor Martin, 242 ; his
noble tribute to Washington. 499.

Hopkins, a New England clergyman,
founds morals on the doctrine of dis-
interested love, enjoining the duty of
every one to sacrifice himself for the
glory of God and the freedom of his
country, iv. 239.

Hopkins, governor of Rhode Island,
thinks " little dependence could be had
on voluntary union." iii. 116.

Hopkins, Samuel, a' theologian of Rhode
Island, first broaches idea that negroes
may be emancipated and transported
to Africa ; his memorial to congress, v.
216.

Hore, of London, leads expedition to
Newfoundland, i. 65.

Horsmanden, member of " Gaspee " com-
mission, urges abrogation of charters
of Connecticut andlihode Island, and
consolidation of them in one royal gov-
ernment, iv. 257.

Hosmer, Abner, of Acton, Mass., killed
at the Concord fight, iv. 527.

Hostility, first act of, against colonies by
Great Britain adopted when America
thought of nothing more than petition-
ing, and the non-importation agree-
ment, which was as yet void, iv. 89.

House of commons, having been
" purged," self-constituted sole legis-
lature and sovereign of England, "a
sort of collective, self-constituted, per-
petual dictatorship," i. 391; readily
votes supplies for military establish-
ment in colonies, and renews grant
of land-tax, iii. 404; resolution that
king has power to bind the colonies
and their people, in all cases, passed,
563; Conway asks leave to bring in a
bill to repeal the stamp act; the act
repealed, 575; the bill passed, affirm-
ing authority of parliament over Amer-
ica In all cases, and declaring opposing
resolutions of American assemblies
null, 682; doors of, closed against
American agent of colonies and Ameri-
can merchants, 44; Townshend de-
mands interposition of parliament in
the case of New York, urging that
that province be restrained from any
legislative act till it complied: pro-
posed establishment of board of com-
missioners of customs in America, and
changes in duties; the minister to
establish a civil list in every province,
and to grant salaries as far as Ameri-
can revenue went, 45, 46; urges that
every American before entering office
should sign an acknowledgment of the
unlimited sovereignty of Great Brit-
ain, 47; Grenville moves that the re-
bellion in the colonies be suppressed
J>y force, 47, 48; the king asked to
make inquisition for treason in Bos-

560

INDEX.

ton, 146 ; reply of Sir George Saville to
aristocrats, 178, 179; bill read to reg-
ulate government of Massachusetts,
abolishing town-meetings except for
choice of town-officers, changing mode
of electing councillors and representa-
tives, giving appointment of sheriff to
governor, and making jury system a
snare, 302, 303; Barre declares that
the scheme of subduing colonies was
" wild and un practicable ; " Lord North
is sustained, 431 ; petitions in behalf of
America, and her friends in England
ridiculed as "dead in law," 462; Ac-
laud, moving the king's address, re-
duces question at issue to this: " Does
Britain choose to acquiesce in the in-
dependence of America, or to enforce
her submission? " A dak urges experi-
ment of yielding to colonies' demands;
Sir Gilbert Elliott would send with
armament terms of accommodation;
Rigby votes for the address, because it
sanctifies coercive measures; America
must be conquered ; the house confirms
Its previous vote, v. 101, 102; discussion
of treaties with Brunswick and Hesse ;
Lord North exults in arrangement
which gives needed troops at a low
price; the measure denounced by
Cavendish, as a disgrace to Britain;
the ministers sustained, 179, 180; de-
bate on king's address in November,
1776, leaves ministry with full power
in parliament, 416-418; in February,
1778, repeals its measures for enforcing
absolutism of parliament, passed in
1774, vi. 147 ; an increased minority re-
veals growing discontent at continu-
ance of the war, 399; members of,
in recess of 1781-82, reason calmly
about the war, convinced of its hope-
lessness; a motion made by Conway
against its continuance negatived by
a majority of only one; five days later,
his resolution of the same purport
carried by nineteen majority, 434; the
king's answer to address being equiv-
ocal, Conway brings forward a second,
declaring that the house will consider
enemies to the king and country all
who would continue the war for reduc-
ing the colonies ; it is adopted without
a division, 434; Lord North announces
that Ins administration is at an end,
435; in Rockingham's ministry, house
for first time seriously considers reform
in representation, 449 ; debate between
Fox, Conway, and Burke, on Shel-
burne's policy, 452, 463.
House of lords, agrees to stamp act, iii.
451 ; majority Joins in declaring that
protection without dependence and
obedience is a solecism in politics, in
defence of stamp act, and in urging
suppression of rebellion, 529-531 ;

Sledge themselves to support king's
ignity and legislative authority of
kingdom, 538; Camden reiterates his
opinion that parliament has no right

to tax Americans, 580, 581 ; on second
reading of bill repealing the stamp
act, it passes by 105 to 71 ; protesting
peers declare that the American plea
of non-representation may be used by
all persons in England not represented,
583; Shelburne regards petition of
congress as the fairest ground for ac-
commodation, and is overborne by a
majority of two to one, v. 102 ; treaties
with Brunswick and Hesse sustained,
though Duke of Cumberland, the
king's brother, reproves the ministry,
anu deplores the conduct of Bruns
wickers, 180 ; bitter expressions against
the colonies; general opinion favors
remodelling the government of all, iv.
39 ; Bedford moves an address that the
king would declare the Massachusetts
act of amnesty null and void, 180; the
debate assures Americans that the
war, if it came, would be a war with the
ministry, not with the British people,
460 ; debate on Chatham's plan ; at-
tributed to an American ; resisted by
ignorance, prejudice, and passion, and
rejected by a vote of sixty-one to thirty-
two, 464, 465.

Houston, delegate in congress from Geor-
gia, hearing of severities of the Brit-
ish in his state, writes that the loss of
Charleston will promote the general
cause, vi. 272.

Houtman, Cornelius, a Dutch navigator,
circumnavigates Java in 1595, ii. 22.

Howard, Lord, of Effingham, governor
of Virginia, his avarice, ii. 13; estab-
lishes a chancery court, himself chan-
cellor. 15.

Howard, Martin, chief justice of North
Carolina, corrupt and profligate, iv.
105.

Howard, Lieutenant-colonel, commands
Maryland light infantry at Cowpens,
vi. 385 ; charges the British, and breaks
their ranks, 386; receives a silver
medal from congress, 387.

Howe, Lord, selected by Pitt to be soul
of expedition against Ticonderoga and
Crown Point; his capacity and judg-
ment, iii. 193; killed in a skirmish,
197; and honors to his memory, 197.

Howe, Lord, brother of Lord Howe who
fell at Lake George, and of William
Howe, and an esteemed naval officer,
to be commissioned as colonial com-
mander in chief; his conversation with
Franklin, iv. 438. 439; reports result of
interview with Franklin to North and
Dartmouth, 439; appointed naval com-
mander for America, and pacificator,
482; advocates bill for depriving New-
England of her fisheries, 488; breaks
off negotiations with Franklin, 491:
wishes well to colonies, and still
friendly with Chatham, v. 244; com-
missioned to restore peace, 339; his
declaration to Americans, 340, 341;
eager to meet Washington, addresses
him as a private man; grieves at the

INDEX.

561

rejection of his communication; writes
to Franklin that to promote peace
and anion is the great object of his
ambition; Franklin's answer, 343, 344;
his eyes opened by it, and he sees that
his commission gives him no power
except to pardon, 344; entertains Gen-
eral Sullivan, and persuades him to
act as a go-between, 391; with his
brother, General Howe, prepares a
declaration far transcending his in-
structions, 406 ; arrives with Cornwal -
lis at Trenton, just in time to see last
of Washington's army across, 459 ; will
not hearken to the king's hint to burn
Boston and ravage New England, 663 ;
his fleet in Delaware River, vi. 19, 20;
imperfectly manned, but his fame at-
tracts volunteers, 149; his ships dam-
aged by storm, which prevents a fight ;
gives up his command to Admiral By-
ron, ana never again serves in Amer-
ica, 152.
Howe, William, candidate for parlia-
ment from Nottingham ; says the min-
istry have pushed matters too far, that
the whole British army cannot con-
quer America, that he would refuse a
command there, iv. 429, 430; confers
with Franklin, 480 ; is appointed com-
mander in chief in America. 481 ; ac-
cepts as by order from the king, and
is reproached for breach of faith by
voters of Nottingham, 482 ; arrival in
Boston, 573 ; commands troops against
Charlestown, 608 ; assaults whole front
of American works, leading one column
in person, 615; is repulsed with great
loss, 616; unhurt in the battle, and his
valor praised, 622: his attack on the
American lines denounced by refugees
and candid British officers as a need-
less exposure of his troops, v. 3 ; com-
plains that " congress and committees
rule every province," 20; assigned to
exclusive command in old colonies, 58 ;
amazed at sight of fortifications on Dor-
chester Heights, 197; calls a council
which decides to assault Americans,
198; (Jails a second, which advises in-
stant evacuation of Boston, 199; de-
tained in Nantasket Roads, and there
receives despatches approving his rea-
sons for not leaving Boston, 202 ; sends
Washington a note, not recognizing
his official title, and a second, whose
address is ambiguous, both being re-
turned, 343; his plan of attack at Long
Island elaborate, 374, 375 ; his personal
appearance ; not earnest against Amer-
icans; formed to make war by rule;
not nice in money matters, fond of
pleasures, 383, 384; praised by Ger-
main, and nominated K. C- B. by the
king, 415; calls for ten line-of-battle
ships and many recruits, 418; em-
barks the van of his army, and lands
it on Throg's Neck, 439; loses hope of
gaining Washington's rear, ana re-
solves to strike at White Plains, 441 ;

sure that American army will melt
away; prepares to take up winter
quarters in New York, leaving Donop
to hold the line from Trenton to Bur-
lington; refuses to see Lee, held as a
deserter from the British army, 468,
469 ; receives thanks and honors from
the king for the Long Island victory;
gives himself up to social pleasures,
477; lies six months in sluggish ease,
489; January 18, the king's birthday,
invested with order of the Bath, 497 ;
intrusted with conduct of war within
the United States, 539; accepts offers
to recruit from all promising persons,
544 ; asks for re-enforcement of fifteen
thousand men, wherewith to recover
a country a thousand miles long ; per-
suades Germain that capture of Phila-
delphia will restore Pennsylvania to
allegiance, 548 ; not sanguinary, though
cruelties are inflicted by his subordi-
nates, 550 ; his plan to finish the war
in one year, 551; indignant at adop-
tion of Carleton's plan, and writes to
Germain that he has abandoned the
hope of finishing the war in a year;
inert in Indian recruiting, and scorns
hints from England to lay waste the
country, 552, 553; hopes to get in
Washington's rear, and marches his
whole army in direction of Scotch
Plains, 567, 568 ; June 30, leaves soil of
New Jersey for last time, sending his
array to Staten Island, 568; embarks
his main body for expedition against
Philadelphia; after long delays, an-
chors in Elk River, fifty-four miles
from Philadelphia, 593 ; sends army in
two columns toward Philadelphia, 595;
tries to turn Washington's right, but
fails, 595; encamps at Germantown,
and September 26 Cornwallis takes
possession of Philadelphia, 602; his
plan to take Philadelphia in time to
send aid to Burgoyne defeated by
Washington's efforts to detain him,
602 ; moves his army to Philadelphia,
vi. 21; spends rest of the winter in
intrenchments, 37; so engrossed in
pleasure at Philadelphia that he does
not molest the American army, 46, 47 ;
a brilliant festival given to him by his
officers, 130, 131 ; sends Grant, and fol-
lows with re-enforcements, to capture
Lafayette, 131, 132; crestfallen, returns
to the city, and four days later gives
up command to Sir Henry Clinton,
132; his failure due to sluggishness
and love of pleasure; his manner of
resignation a defiance of his govern-
ment, and a declaration that the colo-
nies cannot be reduced by force; saved
from reproof in England by the greater
mistakes of Germain, 132, 133.
Howe, Robert, of Brunswick county.
N.G., trains the people in the use of
arms, v. 51; in command at Norfolk,
Va., and tries to arrest the flames,
151, 152; his plantation burned by

VOL. VI.

86

562

INDEX.

Cornwallis; exempted from Clinton's
offer of pardon, 242; commander in
southern district of Georgia; marches
against St. Augustine ; loses one quar-
ter of his men by an epidemic; resists
three thousand British at Savannah;
his flank turned, and his force routed,
vi. 251; superseded by Major-general
Benjamin Lincoln, 262.

Howe, William, commands a battalion
under Albemarle, iii. 292.

Huberuburg, the treaty of. a triumph
for freedom, iii. 301 ; hailed by freedom
of mind in Germany as its own vic-
tory, 311.

Huck, a captain of British militia in
South Carolina, fires the house of a
clergyman, and burns every Bible
which contains Scottish translation of
the Psalms, vi. 271; is attacked by
Sumter, who destroys nearly his whole
force, 273.

Huddy, Joshua, Lieutenant, hanged by
Captain Lippincot and loyalists of
New Jersey ; Washington's request for
delivery of Lippincot refused by Clin-
ton ; a court-martial condemns his act,
but finds a loophole for him in his
orders, vi. 459.

Hudson, Henry, commands expedition
projected by London merchants in
1607, to discover the near passage to
Asia ; goes nearer the pole than any ear-
lier navigator, ii. 25; sails for China,
changes his course for North America,
and, touching at points on north-east-
ern coast, goes as far south as Chesa-
peake Bay, and returning ascends the
Hudson, 26, 28 ; returns to England, 29 ;
his services claimed by his king, 31 ; sails
in " The Discovery ' to north of New-
foundland, 32 ; the ship locked in ice,
and the crew mutinous, and Hudson
cast into a boat and cut loose, 32 ; his
fate a mystery, 33.

Hudson River, the, as seen by Hudson,
ii. 29, 30 ; company of Dutch merchants
send five vessels to. 33; states-general
grant them monopoly of trade between
Virginia and New France; the river
for a time known as the Maurice;
monopoly of company expires, 35;
command of, necessary to defeat plan
of separating New England from mid-
dle states by Junction of Howe with
Canada army; the river surveyed
below King's Bridge, and Putnam
undertakes to obstruct the channel, v.
370.

Hudson's Bay, regions on, given to
Prince Rupert and his associates, i.
432.

Huger, agent of South Carolina, details
the weak condition of his state to con-
gress, vi. 256.

Hughes, John, a Quaker, stamp officer
for Pennsylvania and Delaware; is
forced by people to resign; his fears
for British power in North America,
iii. 508.

Huguenots, the conditional toleration
of, the harbinger of religious peace, L
515; the methods employed at Mme-
Maintenon's suggestion to convert
them ; begin to emigrate, but are for-
bidden, 516; persecuted, 517; asylums
offered them by several nations, 518,
519; welcomed in American colonies,
519 ; their settlement in South Carolina ;
other settlements on the San tee, 520;
monuments of their virtues and patriot-
ism in the United States, 520, 521 ; the
delay in giving them citizenship, 521;
fully enfranchised, ii. 197.

Humanity of American officers, imitated
by the British when Shelburne taket
office ; six hundred prisoners for trea-
son sent home to America in cartels
for exchange: clemency of Carleton,
460; moderation of Greene, Wayne,
and Marion, in South Carolina, 461;
British commanders vie with one
another in, ii. 468, 469.

Hume, David, his prophecy as to Amer-
ica, iii. 83; invites Gibbon to admire
how settlements in America promise
stability to English language, iv. 51,
his characterization of General Gage,
481 ; agrees that the republican form
of government is the best; but had
maintained that it would be "most
criminal" to disjoint the established
government in Great Britain, where
a republic would be the forerunner of
a despotism; had written History of
England without love for the country,
or exact study of its constitution : his
work that of a skeptic; would nave
the Americans let alone to govern or
misgovern themselves, v 110 ; professes
to prove that tyrants should not be
deposed. 248 ; on his death-bed, advises
England to give up war on America,
in which defeat will destroy its credit,
and success its liberties, 365.

Humphreys, John, first lieutenant in
Daniel Morgan's company, v. 30.

Hundred associates, the, obtain grant of
New France, including the basin of the
St. Lawrence and Florida, ii. 298; re-
sign colony to king, who transfers it
to new company of West Indies, 322.

Hunt, Robert, a clergyman, associated
with John Smith and Gosnold in plan-
ning a colony, i. 94; his "good doc-
trine and exhortation," 98.

Hunt, Thomas, commarider of second
ship in Smith's expedition to New Eng-
land ; kidnaps Indians, and sells them
to Spaniards, i 207.

Hunter, James, an officer of "regula-
tors," in North Carolina, iv. 220.

Hunter, Robert, royal governor of New
York, "powerless and without a
salary," if. 238; disputes with assem-
bly, and prorogues it; his prediction
that colonies would wean themselves,
239; his report to Bolingbroke, ar-
raigning New York assembly, 339b
240.

INDEX.

563

Huron -Ii\*\ aoit llalect, Indians speak-
ing it, many and widely scattered;
number of Iroquois warriors; geo-
graphical position of, makes them
umpires in the contest of French, for
dominion in the west, ii. 400; their
territorial encroachments, 451.

Hurons, journey to land of, by Jesuit
priests, ii 300, 301: news or, excites
sympathy and charity in France, 303,
304; some of them incorporated with
tribes of Five Nations, 316.

Husbands Herman, of Orange county,
N.C., opposes extortions of tax-officers,
iv. 106; arrested and imprisoned, but
escapes; impeaches Fanning, and is
himself acquitted, 107, 108; representa-
tive of Orange county; voted a dis-
turber of public peace, and expelled
from the house; seized and imprisoned
without bail, 215; Tryon fearing to
detain him, he is set free, 218.

Hnske, a native of New Hampshire,
M. P. for Maiden, urges moderate tax-
ation of colonies by parliament, iii. 117 :
boasts that colonies could pay £500,000
taxes, 405.

Huss, John, a martyr to religious big-
otry, ii. 179, 180.

Hutcheson, an Irish writer on ethics,
sees no wrong in coming independence
of America, ui. 118.

Hutchinson, Anne, founder of party in
Massachusetts which maintains the
paramount authority of privatejudg-
ment, i. 306: supported by Wheel-
wright and Vane, 306; political con-
sequences of her doctrines, 307; is
exiled from Massachusetts, 309; settles
in Rhode Island, 309; constitution of
the settlement, 309, 310; removes to
Butch territory, 310; her sad death,
310.

Hutchinson, Thomas, speaker of the
Massachusetts house of assembly, iii.
20; his hypocrisy, 20, 21 ; declares that
independence of American colonies is
centuries distant, 247; appointed to
bench of supreme court against wishes
of people, 253; receives application for
writs of assistance, 253; threatens to
write history of his time, 296 ; his house
Blobbed, 495; flees to the castle, 495;
expels Joseph Hawley from bar of
the superior court, iv. 25; dates revolt
ot colonies from appointment of De
Berdt as agent of the house in Eng-
land, 26 ; takes seat in council, though
not elected, 41; pleading the charter
as his warrant, tells the grand jury
that they might depend on being
damned, if they did not find against
the "Boston Gazette," 77; succeeds
Bernard as governor; advises change
of charters of Massachusetts, Connec-
ticut, and Rhode Island, 171 ; his eva-
sive policy with reference to the mas-
sacre by British troops in Boston, 191-
193: mak^s use of Boston's instructions
to her re] resentatives to induce Eng-

land to assume a design for a general
revolt, 204 ; dismisses garrison of castle,
gives its keys to Dalrj niple, and retires
to Milton, fleeing in fear next day to
the castle, 206, 207; advises British
ministry that charter of Massachusetts
be vacated, and that the king settle
the government by a royal commission,
209; advises Hillsborough not to recog-
nise Franklin as agent of Massachu-
setts, and negatives appropriations for
his salary, 210: summons two houses
to admit or disprove supremacy of
parliament, 252; caught by Samuel
Adams in his own snare, 253; writes
to England that " we want a full per-
suasion that parliament will main-
tain its supremacy at all events," 258;
admits that he " had wrote what ought
not to be made public," 263, 264; what
he had written, and his punishment,
264 ; expresses desire to resign, saying
that he falls in the cause of govern-
ment, 264, 265; receives tribute from
some members of the bar, 331: goes
to England, 338 ; comforts the king by
his report, obtains a large pension
and a baronetcy, 349, 350; would have

{prevented Franklin's return to Amer-
ca, 496 ; on receipt of news of Lexing-
ton, tries to hide his dejection by say-
ing the country-people must disperse,
to do their corn-planting; sinks into
insignificance, 559.

Hutchinson, son of late governor, with-
draws from council of Massachusetts,
iv. 381.

Hyde, Sir Edward, sent to govern North
Carolina; having no commission, his
authority questioned: severe acts of
his legislature resisted : summons Gov-
ernor Spotswood, of Virginia, to his
aid, ii. 254.

Hyde, Sir Laurens, a lawyer, cites the
patent of the London company in op-
position to the king's nomination of a
treasurer, i. 122.

Hyder Ali, seems about to beat back the
British, but their discipline is too
much for him, vi. 375.

Illicit trade of America, very great,
Grenville's determination to enforce
laws of trade brings him in conflict with
spirits of Boston and New York, iii.
397,398.

Illinois, military occupation of, continued
from La Salle's return from Frontenac,
ii. 359, 360 ; founded by Jesuits and fur-
traders, 363; Indians, country of, lay
between the Wabash, Ohio, and Mis-
sissippi} their numbers exaggerated.
398; prairies of, pass into custody of
England: the transfer from French
opposed by Indians, who finally con-
sent, ill. 510; population of. 511;
Indians agree that English shall take
possession of all posts formerly held by
the French, 511 ; colonization of, urged
by Croghan; several royalist officers

664

INDEX.

take part in enterprise, which embraced
a tract of sixty-three million acres, iv.
21; Franklin favors the enterprise,
21 ; people want institutions of Connect-
icut, and in general meeting arrange
their scheme, 230; write to Dartmouth,
asking a share in government ; a form
prepared for them, which they reject
as ** oppressive and absurd," and such
as could not stand, 270, 271.

Immigrants to America, furnish many
recruits to British army, vi. 171.

Impressment of New England men, in
violation of statute, iv. 90.

Indemnity for refugees; Shelburne in-
structs Strachey to demand adequate
indemnity for confiscated property of
loyal refugees; American commission-
ers' disclaimer of power to treat on the
subject, regarded British as a confes-
sion that they are not plenipotentiaries,
vi. 477.

Independence, not claimed by Virginia
on liichard Cromwell's resignation, i.
173; talk of, in colonies, ii. 281 ; increas-
ing tendencies to, 288 ; reports of public
sentiment with reference to, 289; colo-
nists disclaim desire for, 340; Jrenn's
reference to, ill. 41 ; occupies thoughts of
people, 142; predicted, 153; Lord Cam-
den anticipates it, 254; all doubt as to
necessity of, in Washington's mind, re-
moved by England's reply to Bunker
Hill, and her evident intention to push
the war with vigor; General Greene
freed from doubt, v. 63; the king the
author of, 111 ; forced upon Americans
oy him, 111, 112; the people more

Ikossessed with the idea of it, after the
ting's proclamation called them rebels,
156; brought by progress of the war to
America in all but name, 1G5; the
work of all, and ratified not only by
congress, but by the instincts of the
nation ; its supports and defences, 355 ;
to be decided not by arms only, but also
by the policy and sympathies of foreign
nations, vi. 77; spirit of, loses no
strength in prosperity of the country,
173.

Independents, the, their demands, i.
220; one of the two great parties in
England under the Long Parliament,
384 ; a true representative of their better
principles, Sir Henry Vane, 386; but
for breaking of peace, would have been
a powerless minority. 386; till the army
with enthusiasts, 387 ; can in no event
negotiate with the king, 388 ; unite, and
conquer adversaries in detail, 392.

Independency, spirit of religious estab-
lishment in Massachusetts begins to
subvert fundamental principles of, i.
363.

India, victories of the English in, vi. 162.

Indians, the, of Virginia, their charac-
teristics and customs, i. 80; their hos-
tility to the English, 81; in Mary-
land, begin hostilities against whites,
but are soon brought to peace, 190;

titles in Massachusetts, Endecott ad-
vises their purchase, 270 ; attempts to
convert ana educate them, 453, 454: dis-
couraged by defeat, and discordant,
463, 464; effects of their barbarities on
people of English colonies, ii. 377 ; in-
volved in conflicts between English and
French, which banished them from the
earlier limits of the republic ; aspect
of, throughout present united States,
uniform; eight radically distinct lan-
guages east of Mississippi, 394; their
migratory propensity, 395; their prob-
able numbers at their discovery,
and their distribution, 406, 407; their
love of society, household life; their
passion, liberty to gratify their animal
instincts, 418; matrimonial customs,
419; idleness of the men, and industry
of the women, 421, 422; thriftless, but
hospitable, 423, 424; cruelty to aged
and sick, 424r; have no written law, but
government rests on opinion and usage,
425; regardless of treaties, and fre-
quently massacre pioneers, iv. 420;
allies, as by the British, had failed;
described by a Brunswick officer ; their
taking of scalps approved by Burgoyne,
v. 587 ; in Germain's new plan of war,
to be let loose along frontiers of west
and south to Florida, to murder and
ravage, vi. 134.

Indian war; Cherokees influenced bv
British agents to rise against Ameri-
cans ; people of East Tennessee threat-
ened, but faithful; Cherokees and Six
Nations take up arms ; the Creeks re-
fuse to join them, v. 429; warriors of
lower settlements pour upon frontiers
of South Carolina, whose people take
refuge in stockade forts : Indians joined
by Cameron, the British agent, to pro-
mote a rising among loyalists in upper
South Carolina; opposed by eleven
hundred men under Williamson, who
destroy Cherokee towns on the Keowee
and Seneca: joined on the Little Ten-
nessee by Rutherford, of North Caro-
lina, with 2,000 men, and the joint
force lays waste thirty-six towns, 431 ;
Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Creeks
take no part in war ; Cherokees forced
to beg for mercy ; attribute their dis-
asters to the father over the water, and
give up their lands as far as water-shed
of the Oconee Mountain, 432.

Industry, domestic, in Virginia, occu-
pies first session of legislature, under
the written constitution, i. 140.

Ingersoll, agent in England for Connect*
icut, makes report of Barrels speech,
and sends it home, iii. 447, 448; stamp-
master for Connecticut, arrives, 491;
tries to reason with people, but finally
promises to reship stamps when they
come, 497; urged to resign by New
Haven, 497; attempts to place himself
under protection of legislature, but la
forced to resign, 497, 498.

Ingle, Richard, commander of ship seized

INDEX.

566

by brevet acting-governor of Mary-
land; escapes, and is summoned by
proclamation to yield himself, i. 191;
obtains a letter of marque in London,
and, returning to Maryland, raises
standard of parliament; makes way
with records, &c, 192.
Inglis, rector of Trinity church, New
York, and. later, bishop of Nova
Scotia, publicly burns incense to Dick-
inson's " native candor/' and other
virtues, v. 218.
Ingoldsby, Captain, demands possession
of fort at New York ; issues proclama-
tion requiring submission, ii. 228.
Instructions to commissioners for peace,
amended by Luzerne, laid before con-
gress ; only independence and validity
of treaties with France to be insisted
on; as to boundaries, fisheries, &c, vi.
376; not to act without knowledge of
France, and to govern themselves by
Luzerne's opinion, 377.
Insurgents in Virginia, thanked by
Louisa county ; their conduct approved
by Spottsylvania county: Orange
county declares that " the blow struck
at Massachusetts is a hostile attack on
thiB and every other colony, and a suf-
ficient warrant to use reprisal," iv.
651.
Insurrections in the reign of Edward
VI.. spring from oppression of land-
lords, i. 216.
Intelligence, the advance of, ill. 7.
Intercourse between inhabitants of the
earth, its immemorial duration, ill.
5,6.
Intervention, French, in American revo-
lution, beginning of, v. 59.
Invasion of England ; French and Span-
ish fleets arrive oil' Plymouth ; discord
and disease prevail among them; re-
tire to their respective home-ports;
anger of Spaniards toward their allies ;
eager to fight the French rather than
the English ; French troops wasted by
disease ; capture of island of Grenada
the only trophy, vi. 226, 227.
Ipswich, second town in population of
Massachusetts, advises that the colo-
nies should stand firm, iv. 249.
Iredell, James, of North Carolina, ad-
dresses people of Great Britain, as the
greatest because most free, and as able
to preserve their connection with
America only by enjoying the sight of
its people as free and happy as them-
selves, iv. 361.
Ireland, no toleration act in, after Revo-
lution of 1688; two thirds of inhab-
itants Catholics, ii. 191 ; persecution of
non-conformists by Anglican church,
192; its fertility and fine climate, iii.
348, 349; invaded by English, and bur-
dened with severe government; ex-
cluded from benefits of Magna Char-
ta, 349; decline of English power in,
and passage of Poyning's law : resists
act of supremacy, 350; ecclesiastical,

military, and judicial outrages on the
people, 351, 352; under Charles II.
and James II., 352; *• English colony "
rules the island ; papists not permitted
to sit in parliament, or vote for its
members, 353; characteristics of race,
358; patriots acquire strength at out-
break of American revolution, 359}
Presbyterians disfranchised, 359 ; con-
dition of, considered by France in
connection with invasion of England,
vi. 227 ; French ambassador at Madrid
advises Florida Blanca to send an
agent to the Irish Catholics; people of,
by taking advantage of Lord North's
want of forethought, gain more liberty
than they could have won by insurrec-
tion ; parliament of, abhors the Ameri-
can rebellion, and allows Lord North
to employ four thousand men of the
Irish army in America, 378; refused
militia by Lord. North ; rising of the
people in favor of free trade, and or-
ganization of fifty thousand volun-
teers; parliament yields, and concedes
free trade, 379 ; emancipation comes to,
through success in America, 448; re-
straints on liberty removed; though
owing gratitude to the United States,
the legislature votes £100,000 for the
levy of seamen, 449.

Irish, the, send aid to Plymouth during
King Philip's war, i. 465.

Irishmen in America, courted by Sir
Henry Clinton, and induced to form a
large regiment for Rawdon, exclu-
sively Irish, vi. 171: battles of United
States restore equal rights to, in trade
and legislation, yet Irish officers and
men fight against defenders of their
own rights, 408.

Irnham, Lord, says Hesse and Bruns-
wick have dishonored Germany by
levying troops, v. 179.

Iron, product and manufacture of in
America, iii. 42; committee of parlia-
ment report bill admitting American
iron, in its rudest forms, duty free,
but forbidding erection of rolling-mills,
plating-forges, <&c, 42, 43; proposal in
parliament to demolish every slitting-
mill in America, 43.

Iroquois, the, renew invasions of Huron
country, ii. 313; five sachems visit
Queen Anne, and avow their willing-
ness to help in conquest of Canada,
379.

Issues between Great Britain and the
colonies; appointment of agent in Eng-
land by Massachusetts : right of lieu-
tenant-governor to sit in council,
though not elected, iv. 41; Bernard's
recommendation that the council be-
come a body of royal nomination ; the
navigation acts, the billeting act, the
acts restraining industry, 42; opinion
through • the country divided as to
slave-trade ; restraints on industry in-
operative, 42 ; no province had refused
to comply with billeting act, 42, 43;

5tf6

INDEX.

validity if navigation acts never de-
nied by Mij public body in America,
43; no practical question save as to
legality of writs of assistance, and the
authorities of England haa decided
that they were not warranted by aw.
43.

Irreligion, to be punished as a cirl of-
fence, i. 363.

Italy, in, the United States hope for aid
from the ruler of Florence; but south
of Italv follows Spain, vi. 91.

Isard, brings crazy charges against
Franklin, vi. 67.

Jackson, Andrew, shares in the fight
at Hanging Rock, vi. 273, 274.

Jackson, Richard, Grenville's secretary,
agent of Connecticut and Pennsylva-
nia, ili. 373; advises Grenville against
taxation of colonies without represen-
tation, 396; appointed joint agent of
Massachusetts, 408; speaks and votes
against stamp-tax, 445, 446; refuses to
be of the commission for peace, vi.
70.

Jamaica, assembly of, affirms rights of
colonies, and entreats the king to be
mediator between his European and
American subjects; disclaims inten-
tion of joining American confederacy,
iv. 439.

James, an artillery officer in New York,
his threats against the people, iii. 506.

James I. favors colonization, 1. 94 ; grants

§atent to Gorges and Popham "to
educe a colony into Virginia," 95;
frames a code of laws for it, 96; de-
sires to control the London company,
145 : courts favor of Spanish king, 145 ;
notifies company that he will appoint
officers and hold supreme control of
colonial affairs, 146 ; appoints commis-
sioners to proceed to Virginia, and ex-
amine its condition, 147; forms colo-
nial administration on principles of
accommodation. 150; his character and
theological opinions, 228, 229; identities
interests of English church with those
of his prerogative, 229 ; boasts that he
had "peppered the Puritans," 260.
James II., his accession seems auspi-
cious for Maryland ; resolves to bring
colonies into direct dependence on
crown, and put a new tax on products
of Maryland, ii. 8, 9; orders a writ of
quo warranto against proprietary's
patent, 9; inexorable to Monmouth
and his friends ; his letter to Virginia,
14; his character, 138, 139, his reply
to Andros's letter, recommending con*
cession of legislative franchisee, 149;
his object in consolidating northern
colonies, 154 ; yields to Roman Catholic
influence, 169; on landing of William,
flees beyond the sea, 171 ; courts church
of England, 219; long a proprietary
in America, consolidates his colonies
in one government; his plan adopted
under William ILL, 274.

James Island, Charleston harbor, en-
campment on, supplied with guns and
balls from king's arsenal, v. 50.

Jasper, William, sergeant in Fort Moul-
trie, replaces the flag shot away by the
enemy, v. 280; declines a lieutenant's
commission, accepting a sword, 286.

Jay, John, a lawyer of New York, leadei
of party which dreads an actual con-
flict with Great Britain ; his character,
and love of liberty, iv. 354, 355; his
address to the British people, 408, 409;
abhors "the malignant charge of as-
piring after Independence,'* 455; pro-
poses to lay waste Long Island, burn
New York city, and retire to the High-
lands, v. 367 ; first chief justice of state
of New York ; meets not a single A mer-
ican willing to accept peace under Lord
North's terms, vi. 71; thinks our em-
pire already too great to be well gov-
erned; commends triple alliance of
France, United States, and Spain, 178 ;
chosen envoy to Spain, 205: chosen
commissioner of peace, 378; in Paris,
stays peace negotiations, insisting that
independence should be acknowledged,
and troops withdrawn; proposes a
proclamation of independence under
the great seal, 457 ; thinks Vergennes
does not wish independence acknowl-
edged till France has used us. 457;
refuses to treat with Oswald under his
commission, 458; his discussion with
Aranda ,* says America will be content
with no boundaries short of the Mis-
sissippi, 474; draws up articles of
peace, adding a clause for reciprocal
freedom of commerce, 474; opposes
Shelburne's plan to make wild lands
in United States yield something to
loyal refugees, and the restoration of
loyalists to their civil rights, carrying
both points, 474, 475.

Jefferson, Thomas, prepares declaration
of the conference which sets forth the
policy of Virginia, iv. 336; condemns
the port-bill, and says, if the people
endure it, another act will follow, to
complete despotism, 339 ; sends a paper
to Virginia convention, which fore-
shadows the declaration of indepen-
dence, 359; enters congress, v. 7;
his preamble is adopted, 303; chosen
to draw declaration of independence,
322; his training, character, and in-
tellectual bias, 323, 324; writes decla-
ration, submits it to Franklin and John
Adams, and reports it to congress, 324;
authenticated by president and secre-
tary, and given to the world, 332;
appointed member of commission to
make a treaty with France, but de-
clines, 410; governor of Virginia;
draws preamble to bill to secure re-
ligious freedom in Virginia, vi. 207,
208; in congress, keeps Virginia and
Massachusetts inclose union, 301; his
views of slavery ; trembles for his coun-
try, and hopes emancipation is near,

INDEX.

567

804; announces to congress Virginia's
surrender of her title to lands north-
west of the Ohio, 352; agrees with
Madison as to power of congress over
states, 3S6; protests against the idea
of a dictator; urges Washington to
visit Virginia, to cheer its people, 412.

Jeffries, Lord Chief Justice, nis estimate
of value of condemned prisoners, 11.
14; his address to Baxter, 67.

Jenkinson, Charles, an Oxford scholar,
ridicules the charge that England is
ambitious, ill. 155; Bute's confidential
under- secretary, 260; his unwillingness
to talk of the struggle with America,
394; persuades Grenville to carry out
his plan for taxing colonies, 396; re-
ports a bill making some commercial
changes injurious to colonies, 414;
urges Grenville to forward the stamp
act, 417: argues that America ought
to submit to every act of British legis-
lature, iv. 422.

Jenyns, Soame, mocks at Otis's views
or insolence of New York and Mas-
sachusetts, ill. 441-443.

Jersey, Isle of, French make a vain
attempt to recover it, vi. 375.

Jesuits, the arrival of, in Canada, i. 19;
the order enriched by an imposition on
the fisheries and the fur-trade; they
reach the St. Lawrence River, 21 ; join
Lord Baltimore's colony, 184; are over-
ruled by him, 190, 191; seized, and
shipped to England, 192; escape to
Virginia, 200 ; order founded by Loyola,
and designed to arrest Reformation,
il. 298; their labors in Canada, 300;
life of, among the Hurons, 302; their
explorations extend to Lake Michigan,
305; heroic deaths of, 312; penetrate to
far west, 320; appeal to king of France
to assume defence of New France, 322:
induce Abenakis to break treaty and
resume hostilities against the English,
853; in Spain, Charles III. obtains
assent of the pope to abolition of the
order; put on board ships, to land
where they could; power of Spain
promoted by their activity, and her
authority over Spanish emigrants
weakened by their banishment, vi.
87; separation of New from Old World
described by one of them, 88.
t Jews, the, find an asylum and freedom
of conscience in Rhode Island, i. 431.

Jogues, Isaac, companion of Raymbault,
U. 307; first bears cross to Mohawks,
308; captured by Mohawks, and cruelly
treated, 309 ; is ransomed by the Dutch,
810; received as envoy by Mohawks,
and offers friendship of France to
Onondagas. 312; goes to found a per-
manent mission among the Five Na-
tions, and is killed, 313.

Johnson, agent of Connecticut in Eng-
land, sincerely desirous to avoid a
rupture, iv. 65; reports to England
that people of Connecticut are tired
of altercatlm, and discretion would

restore quiet, 226; sent as envoy ol
Connecticut to Boston, but receives
nothing but falsehood from Gage, 540,
541.

Johnson, Francis, arraigned for dissent,
forced to abjure the realm; gathers
exiled Southwark church in Amster-
dam, i. 227.

Johnson, Guy, removing American
missionaries from the Six Nations,
iv. 510; sent to rouse Six Nations to
take up arms against the rebels, 564;
offered protection by continental con-

Sess, on condition that he would prom-
; neutrality for himself and Indians
under his care, 571 ; active in insulat-
ing settlers in Cherry Valley, winning
support of Six Nations, and duping
magistrates of Schenectady and Al-
bany, 575; lavishes promises on the
Six Nations and the savages of north-
west Canada, in the interest of Brit-
ain; confers with them at Montreal,
where savages promise great deeds
in the field, v. 25.

Johnson, Lady Arbella, death of, i. 284.

Johnson, of Connecticut, thinks it no
sin to pray for change of " monstrously
popular constitution of Connecticut/'-.
that all charter governments might
depend immediately on the king, lii.

Johnson, Samuel, calls Americans "a
race of convicts," iv. 158; employed
by ministry to inflame the public
mind; his early career, his philan-
thropy; becomes a pensioner, and
writes " Taxation no Tyranny ; ** speci-
mens of his wisdom ; his jeers at Frank-
lin, Virginia, and the Carolinas, iv.
491-493 : erases a sentence at command
of ministry, comparing himself to a
mechanic, for whom the employer is
to decide; lacks the highest rule of
morality, 493.

Johnson, Sir John, commands the royal
Yorkers In St. Leger's expedition, v.
584.

Johnson, Sir William, disregarding his
instructions, at congress at Fort Stan-
wix, extends Indian frontier to the
Tennessee River, iv 127, 128.

Johnson, Stephen, pastor of church at
Lyme, Conn., his sermon on the stamp
act, ill. 499 ; publishes a stirring appeal
for liberty in the "New London Ga-
zette," 520, 521.

Johnson, William, commander of colo-
nial forces sent against Crown Point,
iii. 137; is wounded, and made a baro-
net. 140; loiters away the autumn,
and dismisses New England troops,
141 ; charged with all Indian relations,
153; succeeds Prideaux in command,
in attack on Fort Niagara, 214.

Johnston, Samuel, of Edenton, N.C., a
stanch patriot; invested by last pro-
vincial congress with power to call a
new one, issues summons to chooss
delegates, v. 53, 54.

565

INDEX.

Johnstone, a dispute between him and
the commanding officer made occasion
to assert supremacy of military, iii.
443; late governor of West Florida,
says in parliament that Boston port-
bill must produce a confederacy and
a genera' revolt, iv. 297, 298.

Johnstone, British commissioner, de-
clares thai no quarter should be shown
to congress, and would approve the
letting loose of the infernals against it,
vi. 154.

"Join or die," motto of " Constitutional
Conrant," iii. 507; the harbinger of
an American congress, 508.

Joliet, of Quebec, with Marquette, dis-
covers the Mississippi, ii. 328; accom-
panies Marquette on his western jour-
ney, 329-332.

Jones, Sir William, with Francis Win-
nington, referee in case of request of
Virginia, that no tax should be laid on
the people of that colony except by
their own consent; their report ap-
proved by the king, i. 540.

Jones, Joseph, delegate in congress from
Virginia, writes in reply to Washing-
ton as to the comparative powerless-
ness of congress, vi. 340.

Jones, Noble Wimberly, elected speaker
of Georgia house; the governor, Wright,
opposes the choice ; the house votes his
interference a breach of their privi-
leges, and is censured by Hillsborough,
iv. 228.

Jones, John Paul, one of first appointed
officers of American navy, v. 410;
gains honor in command of single
ships, 411 ; encounters British mer-
chant fleet, under convoy of two
frigates, vi. 241; captures both of
them ; the prizes reclaimed by British
ambassador, but returned by grand
pensionary to Jones, 242.

Joris, Adriaen, builds Fort Orange near
Albany, where eighteen families are
settled, ii. 39.

Joseph II. of Austria, assumes imperial
crown of Germany; desires to rival
Frederic; asserts right of freedom of
mind ; visits Paris, to win consent of
France to his acquiring Bavaria by
inheritance ; is silent about American
affairs, or takes the unpopular side;
will not receive Franklin or Deane,
vi. 528 ; predicts that the women and
momentary enthusiasm will induce the
French to make war on England, 58 ;
condemns the rising of Americans,
and constant in his sympathy with
England, 90 ; compared with Frederic
of Prussia, 222, 223 ; yields to empress
of Russia by treaty, and gains advan-
tages for commerce of Belgium, 360;
moved by principles on which America
is founded, proclaims freedom of reli-
gion, 433.

Joseph, William, president of Lord
Baltimore's government, asserts di-
vine right of proprietary, and exacts

oath of fidelity to him from assembly ;

assembly resists, and is prorogued, ii.

19.
Judiciary of colonies, controlled by the

crown, U. 279.
Jumonville. commander of French,

killed in tight with Washington, Hi. 76.
Junius, asks if people of Great Britain

will long submit to be governed by

bo flexible a house of commons, iv. 178.

Kaimes, Lord, affirms that the political
union of the colonies is impossible, iv.
378.

Kalb, Lieutenant-colonel, Choiseul's em-
issary to America; his qualifications,
iv. 41; thinks the colonies will ulti-
mately obtain all they demand, 77, 78;
serves as major-general in American
army; is repulsed at Philadelphia,
and, though the ablest European officer
that had come over, his services de-
clined, v. 592 ; chosen by Lafayette as
his second in command on the proposed
Canada expedition, vi. 44; ordered
south; unequal to exigencies of an
American campaign, 274; at Camden,
his horse killed under him; though
badly wounded, fights on foot; charges
successfully Rawuon's division, but la.
overwhelmed by British dragoons and
infantry. 280; lingers three days, and
dies, testifying to the gallantry of bis
command ; congress votes him a mon-
ument, 281.

Kanawha, valley of, exploration of, con-
tinued by Virginia, i. 538.

Kaskaskia, British troops withdrawn
from, and left in charge of Rocheblave,
a Frenchman; captured by George
Rogers Clark, vi 186.

Kaunitz, minister of Austria, wins favor
as ambassador to France, iii. 182 ; de-
clares that Prussia must be thrown
down, if Austria is to stand, vi. 89;
boasts that he had effected the alliance
of the two great Catholic powers
against the smaller states, 89; repulses
an American agent, 90 ; makes formal
proposals of mediation to France and
England, 224; adopts idea of Ver-
gennes, that negotiations between the
United States and Great Britain shall
go on simultaneously with those of
European powers, 373, 374; throws
blame of his failure on pretensions of
the British ministry, 374.

Keith, George, a Quaker, carries doctrine
of non-resistance to extremes; resists
magistrates, is tried, and fined, ii. 215;
deserted by his friends, accepts an
English benefice, 216.

Kemp, Richard, substitute governor of
Virginia during Berkeley's absence, i.
160.

Kennebec River, the, Gilbert and Pop-
ham expedition enters, i. 205.

Kennedy, Archibald, royalist member of
New York council, favors liberty and
encouragement to colonies in manuiao-

INDEX.

569

tares, Hi. 43, 44; advises annual meet-
ing of comnr'ssioners of all colonies,
an increase of quotas, and opines that
parliament might oblige them to con-
tribute, 59 ; favors a " gentle land-tax,"
and depends on parliament, 74.

Kent, isle of, occupied by Clayborne, i.
179; title of, assigned to Lord Balti-
more, 188; taken by Leonard Calvert,
192.

Kentucky, valleys of. settled by adven-
turers under grant from Cherokees,
who purpose large enterprises of im-
provement, iv. 486; commonwealth of,
begins with independence, 576; an
agent of settlers in, goes north, giving
glowing accounts of its fertility and
Beauty; is excluded from congress,
on account of Virginia's territorial
claim, v. 64; flow of emigration to,
never to be broken by alliance of Brit-
ish with savages, vi. 191.

Kentucky River, a commonwealth rising
on, which renounces dependence on
Great Britain, iv. 575.

Keppel, Admiral, ready to serve against
England's old enemies, but asks not to
be employed in America, iv. 560: tries
strength of French fleet at Brest;
captures one vessel, vi. 161. 162; again
fights with French fleet off Ouessant,
without decisive result; his inability
for so great a command; censures
Palliser, his second in command, and
the admiralty, and declines employ-
ment unless the ministry is changed ;
not punished, but, like Howe and Bur-
goyne, fights the ministry in parlia-
ment, 162.

Keyser, Thomas, with James Smith, of
Boston, first establishes direct traffic
in slaves between Africa and the
American colonies, i. 137.

Kidd, William, commissioned to suppress
piracy ; fails to get rich, and is hanged
for the same crime, ii. 234.

Kieft, governor of Dutch possessions,

1>rovokes insurrection among Indians,
. 310 ; claims for the Dutch the country
on the Delaware, ii. 48; orders mas-
sacre of Algonkins; threatened with
deposition, 50 ; rejected by emigrants
and West India company; lost at
sea, 52.

King's Ferry, garrisoned by British in
two posts, and American line of com-
munication, south of Highlands, cut
off, vi. 209; recovered by Americans,
with country above it, 214.

filing's Mountain, battle of; British,
under Ferguson, posted on summit, in
strong position, vi. 291 ; the Americans
attack; Campbell's and Shelby's col-
umns pushed back, but rally ; sustain
a brisk fight of fifty-five minutes; the
right wing gains the summit, and com-
mands British position ; Ferguson hav-
ing been killed, his force attempts to
retreat, but, failing, surrenders, 292;
the victory changes aspect of the war,

quickens Virginia and the Carolina* to
new efforts, 293.

Kirk, Sir David, and his brothers, de-
mand surrender of Quebec ; withdraw,
on Champlain's refusal; afterwards
receive capitulation of the city. i.
261.

Kirkland, Moses, of South Carolina,
assures Governor Campbell that, on
appearance of a British force, four
thousand men would join it ; is sent to
commander in chief at Boston, to con-
cert an expedition against the south,
v. 48.

Kittery, Me., the people of, offer their
lives for liberty, iv. 253.

Knowledge, emancipation of, follows in-
crease of political liberties, ii. 79, 80.

Knowlton, commander of volunteer ran-
gers, killed in fight at Fort Washing-
ton; in agony of death, asks if the
enemy were beaten, v. 405.

Knox, Henry, General, writes reply to
Farmer's Letters, in which he doubts if
there is any such thing as representa-
tion in the British constitution, iv.
146, 147 ; inefficiency of his command,
v. 368.

Knyphausen, lieutenant-general of Hes-
sian army, v. 177; takes possession of
upper part of New York Island, 447 ;
supersedes Heister, and returns home
to die of wounded pride, 540 ; in com-
mand at New York, vi. 263 ; forms bat-
talions of loyalists; forms three divi-
sions for occupation of New Jersey,
315; lands at Elizabethtown ; is har-
assed by Colonel Dayton, 316; instead
of eager loyalists, finds sturdy lovers
of independence, and is confronted by
Washington's army, 316 ; his army ad-
vances to Springfield, meeting several
checks; burns the houses there, and
retreats, 318.

Kosciuszko, a Pole, disappointed in love,
devotes himself to freedom., and enters
American service as an officer of en-
gineers, at Ticonderoga, v 555; sent
by Greene to select a camp, vi 382;
engineer at siege of Ninety-Six, 405.

L'Archevequk, a member of La Salle'f
colony; with Duhaut, murders Mo-
ranget, ii. 342.

La Corne, commands French force which
found shelter among the Acadians in
Nova Scotia, ill. 44, 45; declares his
purpose to hold every post as far as
river Messagouche, till boundaries
should be fixed, 45.

Laet, Jean de, member of chamber of
Amsterdam, writes an elaborate work
on the West Indies, ii. 40.

La Fayette. Gilbert Motier de, enthu-
siastic in his love of republics, and ad-
venturous in tastes; is inspired with
sympathy for New Englanders, and
America wins in him a volunteer, iv.
564, 565; dissuaded by Count de Brog-
lie, but persists, v. 362, 363; goes

570

INDEX.

with Kalb to port of Los Pasages, in
Spain, where be receives the Icing's
order to give up his expedition, bat,
disregarding it, embarks for America;
waited for by the English; at sea,
writes to his wife in praise of America,
627; receives rank of major-general,
when congress learns that he desires
no pension or allowance, 092 ; wounded
at Brandywine, keeps the Held till
end of battle, 597; wins applause of
congress by routing a party of Hes-
sians, vi. 24; at a banquet given him
by Gates, denes the intriguers of board
of war, and makes them drink Wash-
ington's health, 44; a large force of
British sent against him, when Lee
says American troops cannot stand
against the British, notifies Washing-
toil that his presence is needed, 139;
commands a division in Rhode Island,
150; exhorts savages of Canada to re-

fard English as enemies, 172 ; returns to
'aris, and is received by the king with
gentle reproof, and asked by the queen
for good news of " our beloved Ameri-
cans," 180; advises Vergennes to send
twelve thousand men to America, 318;
wonders at the endurance of Ameri-
can troops, 349; detached to Virginia to
capture Arnold, 410; rescues Wayne's
troops at Green Spring, 418; urges
Washington to march to Virginia in
force, 418; concentrates his force eight
miles from Yorktown, and prophesies
to Maurepas, 420, 421; advises Ver-
gennes to await events before making
peace, 421 ; his name pronounced with
veneration in Paris, 430.

I«a Galissoniere, governor of New
France, sends Bienville with 300 men
to valley of Ohio, 111. 29; takes advan-
tage of gentle character of Acadians to
plant them on the frontier, as a bar-
rier against English, 30: surrenders
government to La Jonquiere, 32.

La Jonquiere, successor of La Galis-
soniere, as governor of New France;
instructed to confine English within
the peninsula of Acadia, iff. 32.

Lake Champlain, difficulties of Ameri-
cans in opposing Garleton's operations
on; a fleet of small craft built, and
commanded by Arnold and Water-
bury, v. 424; Garleton's vast fleet of
flat-boats, manned with sailors, and
well -officered with co-operating troops,
424, 425; Arnold attacked in the rear
by Garleton's fleet; the action; the
British fleet anchor, and the Ameri-
cans quietly escape, 426; pursued by
Oarleton, and their vessels captured or
destroyed, 427.

Lake George, Johnson's camp at, iii.
138 ; gathering of Abercrombie's troops,
196.

Lallemand, Gabriel, companion of Br6-
beuf, and with him tortured and mur-
dered at St. Louis, ii. 313, 314.

Lambervllle, Jesuit missionary among

Onondaga*, an innocent decor, for-
bearance of chiefs toward him, iL 153.

Lameth, Charles de, a French volunteer,
first mounts the parapet at Yorktown;
wounded in both Knees, vi. 427.

Lancaster, Mass.. Indian massacre at, L
462,463.

Landing of the British at New York,
September 13, the day fixed for; four
ships-of-war sail Into East River, and
six others follow, Washington mean-
time removing his guns and stores; on
the fifteenth, eighty-four boats laden
with troops land between Turtle Bay
and the city, v. 398; Washington finds
Massachusetts and Connecticut troops
running away, and Putnam's division
in lower part of the city likely to be cut
off; his personal energy and daring;
seems to seek death in his efforts to
rally his troops, 399; the flying patriots
escape to Bloomingdale ; the Ameri-
can colors struck on Fort George, and
British flag raised by Lord Dunmore ;
movements of Putnam's division
under guidance of Aaron Burr ; it is
saved by a woman, 400; Washington
the last to retire. 401.

Lands, tenure of, in Virginia, i. 114, 115;
of the commonwealth in Massachu-
setts granted to freemen, 337.

Lane, Ralph, governor for Raleigh, of
the colony of Carolina, in 1585; his
credulity, i. 81 ; his discoveries incon-
siderable, 82; his departure with
colonists for England, 83.

Langdon, of New Hampshire, his counsel
to the king, iv. 94; reads to army the
declaration of continental congress for
taking up arms; the same read on
Prospect Hill, amid such acclaim as
alarms the British on Bunker Hill
into battle array, v. 19.

Langdon, president of Harvard College,
prays with Prescott's troops as they
start for Bunker Hill, iv 604.

Language, the English, apostrophe to,
iii. 302.

Language, Indian, copious for matters
within Indian's knowledge; a syn-
thetic character pervades all Indian
languages, ii. 410; original language
has a fixed character, which may be
modified, but not essentially changed,
416; Indians' language refutes theory
that they are wrecks of more civilised
nations ; improvements in, 417.

Las Casas, suggests the employment of
negroes in Hispaniola, i. 135; but lives
to repent of it, 135.

La Salle, Robert Cavalier de, a Jesuit,
but leaves the fraternity; goes to
Cauada; returns to France, is en-
nobled, and receives grant of Fort
Frontenac, ii. 333; fired by news of
Marquette's discoveries, obtains a
commission for perfecting the dis-
covery of the Mississippi, 334; first
launches a vessel on Niagara River;
proceeds to the Illinois, 335; builds a

INDEX.

571

fort, which, in his despair, he names
Creveoceur ; returning to Illinois, tinds
the post deserted; descends Missis-
sippi to the sea, and claims territory
for France, naming it Louisiana, 338 ;
returns to Quebec, to embark for
France; forms colony for that terri-
tory; lands in Bay of Matagorda;
takes possession of Texas for France ;
seeks the Mississippi in canoes, but
fails ; resolves to go to Canada on foot.
and return to relieve the colony ; shot
by a comrade; father of colonization
in the great central valley of the west.
338-343.

Laud, William, archbishop of Canter-
bury, head of special commission for
colonies, i. 322.

Laudonniere, leader of Ooligny's second
expedition to Florida, i. 55; escapes
from massacre by Spaniards, 59.

Laurens, Henry, chosen vice-president
of South Carolina, v. 235; thinks, if
arms could be had for three thousand
black men, British could be driven
from Georgia, and East Florida sub-
dued in two months, vi. 256; appointed
by congress to negotiate a loan of ten
millions in the Netherlands, 335; cap-
tured on his voyage to Europe, and
in his papers found an unauthorized
project for a treaty concerted by Neuf-
ville and William Lee, 361; confined
in Tower as state's prisoner, 362;
transfers South Carolina's contract
for supplies with Holland for supplies
from the state to the United States,
and pays all arrears from Franklin's
fund of six millions, 372; elected a
commissioner of peace, 378.

L turens, John, serves D'Estaing as aide
and interpreter, vi. 150; is eager to
go to Charleston, and command a regi-
ment of blacks; arrives there, with
advice of congress to arm slaves, 256;
scornfully refuses to bear message of
South Carolina council to invaders,
257 ; chosen by congress special envoy
to France, 350; delivers to French
ministry his demand for a loan of
twenty-five million llvres, and says
menacingly that the failure of his
mission may drive the states to their
old allegiance, and hostility to France,
871 ; commands a detachment at storm-
ing of Yorktown; among the first to
climb the redoubt, capturing Major
Campbell, its commander, vi. 427;
killed in repelling a party of British
in South Carolina, 462.

Lauzun, Duke of, commands dragoons
at Gloucester, Va. ; attacks and tram-
ples down Tarleton's legion, vi. 425,
426 ; carries news of Yorktown to Paris,
430.

Laval, Francis de, bishop of Quebec, longs
to go on a mission to tar west, ii. 321.

Law, American, the growth of necessity,
not of the wisdom of individuals, iv.
868.

Lawrence, Richard, an Oxford man,
with Governor Drummond, brings
news to Bacon of Berkeley's violation
of his pledge, i. 550.

Lawrence, governor of Nova Scotia,
a malignant persecutor of Acadians,
Mi. 131, 132; praised for his cruelty by
board of trade, 136.

Lawson, surveyor-general for northern
province of Carolina, captured by
Tuscaroras, charged with severity,
and executed, ii. 384.

League and covenant, reported by
Warren, of Boston committee of cor-
respondence, to suspend all commer-
cial intercourse with England, and not
to purchase or consume goods from
there, after last day of August: names
of those refusing to sign to be pub-
lished: copies of covenant sent to every
town in the province for subscription,

_ iv. 341 ; this act a proof of desire for
conciliation, 341; attempts at intimi-
dation increase subscriptions, 348.

League of Roman Catholic powers, not
controlled by policy of Roman bigotry;
new principles intervene, Hi 286.

Le Caron, a Franciscan monk, pene-
trates to rivers of Lake Huron, ii. 297.

Leddra, William, tried for Quakerism,
refuses a pardon, on condition of leav-
ing the colony ; is hanged, i. 368.

Ledyard, Colonel, commander at Fort
Griswold, having surrendered, is run
through the body by a British officer,
vi. 412.

Lee, Arthur, supported by Samuel
Adams and one third of house, as a
candidate for agent of Massachusetts
in England; chosen substitute to
Franklin, iv. 209; with Richard Penn,
presents petition of congress to Dart-
mouth; told that there would be no
answer, expresses sorrow at a refusal
which will cause so much bloodshed,
y. 81; commissioned by congress to as-
certain the disposition of foreign pow-
ers, 141 ; appointed member of commis-
sion to make a treaty with France,
410 ; stopped at Burgos, and meets Gri-
maldi, who amuses nim with extrava-

fances, and insists on his return to
'aria, 536; intrigues to supplant
Franklin, vi. 67; against advice of
Franklin, goes by way of Vienna to
Berlin; is repulsed by Kaunitz at
former city; refused an interview by
Frederic, but treated with respect, 122;
his papers stolen at instigation of El-
liott, British minister at Berlin, 123
Lee, Charles, has precedence of all mili-
tary men in America, by virtue of his
rank as major-general ; courts patriots,
who make sure of his aid, iv. 373, 374 ;
volunteers mustered by him near
Annapolis disperse, owing to his ar-
rogance and incapacity, 454; denies
military capacity of England, and in-
sists that in a few months efficient
infantry might be formed of Ameri-

672

INDEX

cam, 458; gives, as a toast, "A speedy
and general insurrection in Great Brit-
ain and Ireland," 550; an adventurer;
clings to British officers, and looks on
Americans as " bad company ; " hopes
to be made American commander in
chief, v. 4, 5 ; excites disgust at Cam-
bridge, but respected by Washington
on account of his supposed military
experience, 14; British officers dis-
posed to tamper with him; invited to
an interview by Burgoyne; publicly
declines to meet Burgoyne, but secretly
writes him that, on his honor, the
Americans were sure of being sustained
by France and Spain ; his secret kept
in America, but comes through Brit-
ish ministry to Vergennes, 18; revises
his opinion of Americans, and repudi-
ates the thought of reconciliation, 186 ;
sent for by congress, in preparation
for any accident to Washington, and
his coming prayed for by officers of
army, 395; after battle of Fort Moul-
trie, tries to extort from congress in-
demnity for the possible forfeiture of
his property in England, 428; blames
Washington for not threatening to
resign, 440; left behind by Washing-
ton at White Plains with 7,500 troops,
with insti uctions, 448 ; resolves neither
to join noi re-enforce his superior, 449;
remains in idleness sixteen days, in-
different to Washington's explicit
orders to join, 456; again implored by
Washington to join him; returns an
evasive answer; orders from military
chest a payment forbidden by law, 460 ;
receives two orders, after loss of Fort
Lee, to pass into Jersey, which he dis-
obeys ; his deceitful letter to Bowdoin ;
receives important instructions from
Washington, which he garbles, and
sends to Bowdoin with his own com-
ments, 461 ; also receives a letter from
Reed, full of flattery, and writes an
answer, which falls into Washington's
hands, 461, 462; slanders Washington
in a letter to Gates, 464, 465; captured
by British; his pusillanimity and
rant, 465, 466; demands advantage of
the Howes's proclamation, which is
refused; his letter to Captain Ken-
nedy not genuine, 466, note; congress
and Washington intervene for him;
a deserter, he redeserts, and offers to
negotiate for return of colonies to al-
lowance; authorized by Howes, asks
congress to send two or three members
to him, 548; his request refused, and
himself suspected of treachery, 549;
repeats his request, with same result,
550 ; presents to the Howes a plan for
reducing Americans, at the same time
writing to Washington in affectionate
terms, and claiming pity; his plan
rejected by the Howes, 550; though
ordered to be sent to England, remains
in America, 550 ; exchanged for Pres-
cott, 569; plotting to ruin the army,

advises In council not to attack ttia
British, carrying with him all the offi-
cers, exept Greene, Lafayette, Wayne,
and Cadwalader; at Hopewell, urges
building a bridge for the enemy rather
than an attack on them, vi. 137 ; says
Washington's plans must fail, 138 : de-
lays attack at Monmouth, till ordered
by Washington, and then moves lan-
guidly and aimlessly; tells Lafayette
that they cannot stand against British
soldiers; defeats operations by con-
fused orders, 139 ; leaves most of his
command to act for themselves, and is
then indignant at their retreat, 139:
abashed before Washington; ordered
to the rear by Washington, and leaves
the field, 140 ; treated with forbearance,
but writes that this campaign will close
the war, — British terms being accept-
ed, —and demands reparation for in-
jury ; found guilty of disobedience and
misbehavior; suspended from com-
mand for twelve months by court-mar-
tial; censured by congress, and dis-
missed from service ; no longer hides his
desire that America shall return to her
allegiance ; favors rotation in military
office, so that Washington may go out,
and for the United States predicts two
years of anarchy, followed by tyranny ;
dies of fever, in October, 1782, 142.

Lee, Francis, delegate to general con-
gress from Virginia, v. 44.

Lee, John, one of Franklin's counsel
before privy council, iv. 285; his reply
to Wedderburn feeble, 288.

Lee, Major Henry, of Virginia, enters
main work of Paulus Hook with a
party, and captures one hundred and
fifty-nine prisoners, vi. 211, 212; de-
tached to serve in the Carolinas, 380.

Lee, Richard Henry, of Virginia, his
descent and education; his speech
against slavery, and favoring a pro-
hibitory tax on the trades, ill. 278,
279; prediction of results of passage
of the stamp act, 418; takes part in
conference which' announces the policy
of Virginia, iv. 335; proposes in con-
gress that colonies are, and ought to
be. free and independent, that all

Suitical connection between them and
reat Britain is totally dissolved,
favoring foreign alliances and a plan
of confederation, v. 267 ; aids in fram-
ing constitution of Virginia, 303.

Lee, William, repulsed by Frederic of
Prussia, vi. 220; concerts terms for a
commercial convention between Neth-
ei lands and the United States, with
De Neufville, of Amsterdam ; this act
regarded as a nullity by American
commissioners; dismissed from its
service by congress, 236.

Legge, chancellor of exchequer, returns
on Pitt's dismissal, iii. 145; dismissed
from office, 259.

Legislation of Virginia colony, its char*
acteristics, i. 173, 174.

INDEX.

573

Legislature, the, of Virginia, assembled
July, 30, 1619, L 119; its proceedings,
119, 120.

Leibnitz, foretells a general overturn in
Europe, v. 246, 247.

Leicester, Mass., men of, think it their
duty to risk their lives and fortunes in
defence of their liberties, iv. 250.

Leisler, Jacob, matures the " Dutch
plot" in New York, ii. 173, 174; gover-
nor of New York ; takes possession of
fort, 227 ; asks orders from Sloaghter ;
is arrested and condemned for high
treason, and sentenced to death, 229;
his attainder reversed, and his princi-
ples ultimately become those of colony,
230, 231 ; assembly of New York makes
appropriation for his family, 233;
charges Winthrop of Conuaticut with
treachery, in expedition agMnst Mon-
treal, 361.

Leitch, Major, commands three compa-
nies of Weedon's Virginia regiment
in fight at Fort Washington, and re-
ceives three balls in his side, v. 405;
" one of Virginia's noblest sons," 406.

Le Moyne, Father, envoy to Onondagas,
H. 316; still hopes to soften the Mo-
hawks, 317; compelled by latter to
return; visits and propitiates Five
Nations, except Mohawks, 319.

Lenni-Lenape Indians, the, occupy New
Jersey, the valley of the Delaware,
and the Schuylkill basin; degradation
of one branch, the Delawares, ii. 396.

Lenox, Mass., farmers of, resolve that
they are not required to crouch be-
tween the two burdens of poverty and
slavery, iv. 250.

Leon, Juan Ponce de. his early life, i. 23;
embarks for Florida, and becomes its
governor, 24; killed by Indians, 24.

Leonard, Daniel, member of the Massa-
chusetts house for Taunton, deceives
the governor into belief that legislature
tends to conciliation, and .that, on ar-
rival of more ships, indemnity to East
India company would be publicly ad-
vocated, iv. 342; holds up spectres of
" high treason," " anarchy," &c, ar-
guing that colonies had no griev-
ances, that British government would
sweep away all resistance, and that
New England, or perhaps Massachu-
setts, would be left to stand alone; his
harangue read with triumph by the
loyalists, 472. 473.

Leslie, a British officer at Boston, lands
at Marblohead with two or three hun-
dred soldiers, and goes to Salem to
capture military stores; proceeds to
Dan vers ; pledging his honor not to go
over thirty yards on the other side, is
allowed to cross the bridge ; an alarm
spreads, and he hurries to Marblehead,
and ombarks, iv. 487 ; commands Dun-
more' s force in the attack on Woodford
at Grottt Bridge, v. 149 ; abandons the
fort, and retreats to Norfolk. 150 ; com-
mands British force in fight at Fort

Washington, 404; is censured by Howe
for imprudence, 406; in command in
South Carolina, and his troops give up
hope of subjugating the state, vi. 461.

Leasing, the antitype of Luther, his ad-
monition to his countrymen, vi. 73.

L'Estrade, Baron de. joint leader with
De Deux Ponts of French assault at
Yorktown, vi. 426.

Letters of royalists In America, shown
to Franklin, in proof that all evils
complained of by colonies were pro-
voked among themselves, written by
Hutchinson, Oliver, and Paxton, to
bring about coercion, iv. 245, 246; sent
to America by Franklin, with proofs
of the traitorous designs of their
writers, 246; read to house of Mas-
sachusetts in secret session, and show
a scheme to bring military rule into
the province and abridge its liberties;
vote of house to this effect. 263; dis-
cussed and preached upon throughout
colony, 265; controversy about them
in England, 283-285.

Leverett, agent of Massachusetts In Eng-
land, instructed to make interest in its
behalf with parliament and privy
council, i. 435.

Levi, Henry de, a religious enthusiast,
made viceroy of Canada in 1624, i. 21.

Lewis, Andrew, commander of army of
South-western Virginia against the
Shawnees, iv. 423; remains in camp
till end of action, and "odium is
thrown on his conduct," 424; re-en-
forced after the battle, crosses Ohio and
Joins Dunmore. 424; chosen brigadier
for Virginia, despite the odium he
incurred at Kanawha; forced by con-
gress to resign, v. 213-

Lewis, Charles, brother of Andrew, com-
mands a company in battle with the
Shawnees, and is mortally wounded,
iv. 423, 424.

Lewis town, in New Netherland, invaded
by Marylanders, but reclaimed as be-
longing to Duke of York, ii. 83.

Lexington, Mass., people of, resolve to
drink no more tea till repeal of revenue
act, Iv. 152, 153; Hancock and Adams
receive there a message from Warren,
announcing approach of British troops,
617 ; its population and sturdy patriot-
ism, 518.

Lexington Common, April 19, 1775, alive
with minute men, iv. 518, 519; dis-
missed, to return at beat of drum:
reassemble, in part, on approach of
Pitcairn's troops ; ordered to disperse,
and. refusing, are fired on by troops \
bidden to flee by their captain, a few
return a harmless fire, 519, 620; the
first martyrs in the cause of liberty,
520; their eulogy, 521; British troops
cheer for their victory, and march for
Concord, 523.

Lexington. Ky., the hunters of the Elk-
horn valley give the name to their
encampment, iv. 534.

674

INDEX.

liberal government, an enduring, can
be established in England only by
junction of Chatham's followers and
the liberal wing of Rockingham's sup-
porters, vi. 437.

Liberties, the, of Massachusetts, how
they were preserved, i. 367, 358 ; body
of, demand for, 332 ; and its adoption,
832; its provisions, 832-335; essential
elements of New England life grew up
before their establishment by author-
ity, 335.

Liberty in England, in reign of
Charles II., its devious course to a
refuge in Holland, ii. 167 ; the largest,
enjoyed by Connecticut and Rhode
Island, of all the American colonies;
the two compared, 243: personal, in
affairs of conscience, diffused through
Europe and America, lii. 310; the
authority of reason invoked; skepti-
cism the method, revolution the ten-
dency, of the new reform, 310 ; cause of,
advancing, iv. 19; passion for, in Mas-
sachusetts, such that dying fathers
call their sons to their death-beds, and
charge them to love freedom more than
life, i v. 373 ; American, defended by Fox
and Rockingham, as the bulwark of the
rights of the British people; to lose
America seems to them a less evil than
to hold her conquered, v. 109.

•* Liberty and property, the cry of com-
mercial classes in Englana*. ii. 193.

" Liberty." the sloop, seized at Boston
by customs-officers tor false entry, and
cut away by man-of-war's boats, i v. 90 ;
a riot results; the council And the riot
to be only " a small disturbance," 91 ; a
town-meeting drafts address to gover-
nor, demanding removal of the ship
"Romney," 91. 92; Bernard replies
mildly, but hastens to get troops sent
to Boston, 92.

IJlbourne's scheme of government for
England, after death of Charles I.,
most consistent offered, i. 390.

Lillio, Theophilus, of Boston, sells tea
in violation of agreement ; finds a post
set opposite his door, with a hand point-
ing in derision; Richardson, an in-
former, asks a countryman to drive
against the post, and is stoned by boys,
one of whom he kills, iv. 186.

Lincoln, Major-general, commands post
at Boundbrook, N.J. ; is nearly sur-
prised by Cornwallis; retreats, but
regains his post, v. 560; in concert
with Gates, sends five hundred troops,
under Colonel John Brown, to harass
Burgoyne's rear, vi. 5; appointed to
southern command; an inert soldier;
his military career, 252, 253; takes
post on eastern side of Savannah, 253;
re-enforced by two thousand North
Carolinians. 253 : his offer to retire not
accepted; detaches Ashe with fifteen
hundred, on separate service, 254 ; un-
dertakes expedition against Savannah,
255; repairs to Charleston, 261; toils

at fortifications, setting sea and shore
batteries, and sinking vessels, 265;
refuses Clinton's summons to surren-
der, 266; calls council for the first
time; proposes evacuation, but does
not act at once ; the British re-enforced,
American cavalry dispersed; Fort
Moultrie falls, and evacuation impos-
sible ; signs a capitulation, 266.

Lincolnshire, movement in, in aid of
colonization, 1. 265.

Lindley, Mary, wife of Robert Murray,
invites Howe and his staff, as they
approach her house on Incleberg, pur-
suing the flying rebels from New York,
to stop and lunch ; beguiles them to
a two nours' stay, during which every
patriot regiment escapes, v. 400.

Linzee, captain of the '* Falcon,** a
British vessel of war, v. 31, 32.

Lisbon, port of, closed by Spain against
Low Countries, ii. 22.

Lisle, forced into British service, leads
his battalion to its old commander,
with Sumter in the Catawba settle-
ment, vi. 273.

Literature, in Virginia, 1. 176, 177.

"Lively," a British frigate, fires on
Prescott's party on Breed's Hill, iv.
605.

Livingston, Robert, of New York, in
his eighty-fourth year foretells the
conflict with England; his last words,
"What news from Boston?" ▼. 115;
hones congress, in treating for peace,
will insist on having Canada, Hudson's
Bay, the Floridas, and the whole con-
tinent, independent, vi. 150.

Livingston, Robert R., his comments on
the stamp act, Hi. 420, 421; says that,
if American liberty should fail, he
would carry his family to Switzerland,
the only free country In the world, v.
115; first American secretary for for-
eign affairs, sends to Franklin final
instructions for negotiating peace, vi.
432

Livingston, William, his anticipation of
independence; instructs New Jersey
committee of correspondence that tea
should not be paid for; a delegate to

feneral congress, iv. 358; governor of
few Jersey, proposes manumission of
negroes to the assembly, but withdraws
the message ; Is determined to push the
measure, vi. 305, 306.
Locke, John, his genius detected by
Shaftesbury, i. 493 : his error in fram-
ing laws for Carolina, 494; his code of
laws for Carolina harmonizes with his
theories on government, 497; protests
against interpolated clause in constitu-
tion, that, while every religion should
be tolerated, church of England should
be national religion of Carolina, 497,
498 ; created a landgrave of South Car-
olina, 510; his ideas of government
compared with Penn's, u. 119-121;
member of board of trade. 275: his
military plan for colonies, 276, 277.

INDEX.

676

Logan, long the friend of the white man,
In revenge for the slaughter of his kin-
dred, takes thirteen scalps, and says,
"Now I am satisfied for the death of
my relations, and will sit still." iv.
421,422.

London, citizens of. entreat the king to
pat an end to "this unnatural and
unfortunate war," vi. 430; the same
wish expressed by public meetings in
Westminster, South wark, and in Mid-
dlesex and Surrey counties, 431 ; meet
and desire the king to dissolve parlia-
ment and dismiss the ministry; their
address refused by the king, but en-
tered on the books of the city, 662.

London company, great meeting of. i.
121, 122; the king interferes, election
of treasurer postponed, 122; auspi-
cates liberty in America. 125; opposi-
tion in, seeks alliance with the king,
145; refuses to surrender charter, 146;
writ of quo warranto against, 147 ; dis-
solved, and its patents cancelled, 149;
what it had accomplished, 149, 150.

Long Island, planted by English under
grant of Lord Stirling; arms of Dutch
in. thrown down in derision, ii. 45; the
whole of claimed by Lord Stirling, 55;
battle of; Howe's force, the most per-
fect army in the world, supported by a
vast fleet, v. 373, 374 ; American force
mostly militia, 374; Washington orders
that Jamaica road be secured, — an
order not obeyed, 374 ; Putnam rashly
orders Stirling to advance and repulse
the enemy, 375; but neither Informs
Washington, nor orders Stirling to
retreat, 376; Clinton gains the heights,
876; and Howe, coming up with his
whole force, orders a general attack,
877; Sullivan's redoubt and guns cap-
tured by Hessians, 377 ; and his men,
in a panic, mercilessly slaughtered, a
few escaping, 378 : Stirling maintains
his position, ana after four hours
orders retreat; his gallant feat with
five companies of Marylanders, at
whose devoted bravery Washington
cries, "My OodI what brave men
must I this day lose ! " endeavoring to
escape, is attacked in tremendous
force, and his party cut to pieces, 879;
refusing to surrender to British gen-
eral, gives his sword to General von
Heister, 379, 880; the disaster due to
Putnam's incapacity, 380, 381 ; distrust
and dejection in American camp, only
Washington winning confidence, 382;
he inspects American works and Brit-
ish camps, and encourages skirmishes ;
receives valuable re-enforcements; his
calmness and persistence cheer the
army, 383 ; resolves on retreat, 385 ; the
embarkation uninterrupted, and nine
thousand men landed in New York,
886, 387: inhabitants of, left to mercy
of English after the battle, and some
take oath of allegiance, 392.
Long Parliament, the, n we Just to colo-

nies, offering equivalent for prohibi-
tion of foreign trade, i. 169; its ordi-
nance of October, 1650. a war measure,
169; its first acts worthy of praise, 381 ;
its subversion of the constitution ; the
liberators of England become its ty-
rants, 382; demands control of na-
tional militia, 383 ; becomes a multitu-
dinous despot, 384 ; the motives which
swayed it, 384; one of the two powers
in the state, the other being the army,
but possessed only a shadow of power,
392.

Lotteries, authorized for the benefit of
the Virginia colony, i. Ill; one pro-
posed by congress, v. 546.

Loudoun, Earl of, appointed commander
in chief of British forces in America,
and governor of Virginia, lii. 151 ; his
dilatory policy, 157; assembles large
armament at Halifax, 169; embarks,
as if for Louisburg, but sails for
New York, 170; proposes to encamp
on Long Island for defence of conti-
nent, 176; recalled, and votes in par-
liament to sustain British authority in
colonies by force, 191.

Louis X , of France, his ordinance de-
claring that every man ought to be
born free, 1. 130.

Louis XIV. , of Prance, declares war
against England, i. 448; his remorse
in old age, 515; his subjection to
Madame de Main tenon, 516; forbids
emigration, 516, 517 ; advises that Iro-

S iiois be captured, and made galley-
aves, ii. 153; his rumored intention to
send a large fleet to lay waste coast
of New England, and capture New
York, 357 ; opposed by troops of many
nations, 371; his feeble and hopeless
condition, 386.

Louis XV., willing to make concessions
for sake of peace between Great Brit-
ain and her colonies, lii. 115; demands
ample reparation of George II. for
Boscawen's insult to French flag, and
for unlawful seizure of French vessels,
144 ; his early training, 183 ; his assump-
tion of sovereign power, iii. 579; his
cordial understanding with George
III. ; hates Protestants: unscrupulous
and violent: demands unqualified
registry of his edicts by parliament;
exiles Malesherbes, overturns the par-
liament, and reconstructs the courts;
his vices dishonor him, and degrade
the throne, iv. 238, 239, resolved to
avoid war, 260.

Louis XVI., becomes king of a land of
a corruption and distress ; Joy of Paris
at his accession; Voltaire's comment
on him; has no revolutionary ten-
dencies, believing that the king alone
should reign, iv. 319, 320; chooses Mau-
repas for a guide, 362; by order ol
French embassy at London, reports
that England is in a position from
which she cannot extricate herself;
the Americans will not consent again

676

INDEX.

to become her subjects; this opinion
adopted by French statesmen, 606;
beginning of his intervention in Amer-
ican affairs ; not inclined to aid rebel-
lion, but sees danger of an attack from
the English, and consents to the send-
ing of De Bonvouloir to America, to
make faithful report of events and
public sentiment, to dissipate Amer-
ican Jealousy of France, to make
Americans understand that France
wishes them well, and will welcome
them to her ports, v. 59, 60 ; had pon-
dered American question, but reached
no conclusion. 221 ; does not compre-
hend or heed Turgot's advice, 231:
resolves that peace of France shall
not be broken, but allows his min-
isters to aid America, 362 ; his answer
to American commissioners, 623, 624;
though the measures sanctioned by
him are war in disguise against Eng-
land, professes to be unequivocally
for peace ; does not express sympathy
with America, and is impatient of
the praises of Franklin, 526; with
consent of United States, offers Flor-
ida to king of Spain, vi. 75 ; does not
sympathize with Americans in any
character, or understand how, a mon-
arch and a Catholic, he is pledged to
fight for a Protestant republic, 84, 85 ;
proclaimed by American congress " the
protector of the rights of mankind,"
130: Louisville, Ky., named for him,
ana a county of Pennsylvania for his
son ; would have been welcomed here
in later years, 202; issues declaration
protecting neutral ships carrying con-
traband goods, to be revoked unless
England grants reciprocity, 234, 235;
gives freedom to all serfs on the estates
of the crown, and desires to do away
with all vestiges of feudalism, 297;
happy in the birth of a dauphin; re-
ceives news of Yorktown in the queen's
apartment, 430.

Louis, prince of Brunswick, chief coun-
sellor of stadholder of United Prov-
inces, at the bidding of British ambas-
sador at the Hague, vi. 233.

Louisburg, built by the French, the key
to the St. Lawrence, the bulwark of
French fisheries and commerce in
North America, ii. 393; invested by
English forces, iii. 194; its works car-
ried, and French ships burned, 194,
195; its surrender, and desertion, 195.

Louisiana, its condition at D'Ibervilie's
departure in 1706, ii. 368; people of,
prefer English to Spanish domin-
ion; Indian troubles delay British
officers in taking possession of, iii. 448 ;
protests against her transfer to Spain,
and entreats king ot France not to
sever them; the appeal refused by
Ghoiseul, iv. 122: cool reception by,
of De Ulloa, the Spanish commander ;
people refuse to give up their national-
ity, 122, 123; Spanish restrictive sys-

tem applied to; proposed to make
New Orleans a republic; Ulloa retires
to Havana; people elect officers, and
offer themselves to France as a colony
or free state, 123, 124; valued by
Spain as a screen for Mexico, 126.

Loutre, La, Abbe", schemes to entice Aca-
dians from their homes and make them
a barrier against English, iii. 30; insti-
gates Micmac Indians to harass Eng-
lish settlements, 32.

Louvois, minister of war to Louis XIV.,
employs military force against the
Huguenots, i. 617.

Lo veil, of Massachusetts, writes to Gates,
threatening Washington with " public
clamor and vengeance, and saying that
the army will be lost unless Gates
comes down to lead it;" represents
Washington in a ridiculous character,
vi. 39.

Lovett, Christopher, projects a settle-
ment at York, i. 257.

Lovelace, Lord, governor of New York,
begins the contest that was to end in
independence, ii. 237.

Low, Isaac, chairman of committee of
correspondence in New York, iv. 328.

Lowndes, Rawlins, opposes arrest of
Governor Campbell, or South Carolina,
v. 49.

Lowndes, Richard, elected speaker of
South Carolina assembly, iv. 254.

Lowther, Sir James, moves, in parlia-
ment, to give up ail further attempts
to reduce the revolted colonies: his
motion defeated by a majority of only
forty-one, vi. 430.

Loyal addresses, in England, come In
from public, deceived by belief that
colonies had long sought indepen-
dence ; but measures against America
acquiesced in without zeal, v. 89, 90.

Loyalists of Boston, of whom two hun-
dred enter king's service, desire to
retain the people as hostages, ii. 540 ;
regiment of, in North Carolina ; meet-
ing of officers called, but only four
besides the Scotch appear; Scotch
urge delay ; other loyalists insist on a
rising; the former sure to keep their
word, while many of the latter hide in
swamps, v. 189; of North Carolina,
form seven independent companies in
one day, believing that Cornwallis
holds the state; Tarleton detached to
support them; attacked by Pickens
and Lee, who rout three hundred
under Colonel Pyle ; Tarleton returns
to Hillsborough, and the royalists go
home, 393, 394.

Loyalty of colonies; if they could enjoy
their rights, their greatest happiness
would be their connection with Great
Britain, iii. 436.

Ludwell, Philip, made governor of South
Carolina, ii. 198.

Lunenburg, Mass., feels obliged to emerge
from obscurity and speak its mind,
lest posterity should curse it, iv. 263.

INDEX.

577

Lather, Martin, the great principle of
his action, ii. 180; his teachings, 180,
181; finishes his mission under protec-
tion of German princes, 182; revives
the truths rescued by Augustine ; their
influence on the world, ill. 99; his reli-
gion catholic, including prince and
noble and peasant, 100; vindicates
man's individuality from the point of
view of religion, vi. 71 ; contends that
slavery is not opposed to Christianity,
vi. 296.

Lutheranism, direct influence of, on
America inconsiderable, ii. 181.

Lutherans, the Pennsylvania prases of,
writing of Trenton, says the Lord of
hosts heard the cries of the distressed,
and sent an angel for their deliver-
ance, v. 484.

Luttrell, Henry Temple, in reply to Bur-
goyne, testifies to the spirit, urbanity,
and prosperity of the American people,
and predicts that, if put to proof, they
will evince the magnanimity of Borne,
iv. 483.

Luttrell, James, who had served in
America, says in house of commons
that the measures of the ministry are
death-blows to thousands of British
subjects, v. 180.

Luzerne, French envoy to America, con-
cludes that confederacy will have a
speedy end, if given up to the hatred
between north and south, vi. 302;
insists that commissioners of peace
shall have such instructions as will
leave the negotiations in the hands of
Louis XVI. ; warns congress of danger
to United States of a war on the con-
tinent; amends instructions, 376; ap-
peals in vain to Huntington, of Con-
necticut, to carry his state for the
amendments; ascribes their accept-
ance to absence of Samuel Adams and
all New York delegates, and Sullivan's
division of the New England vote, 377 ;
argues in favor of reforming articles
of confederation, 413, 414.

Lygonia, a district in Maine, set apart
for farmers, i. 263; patent for, brought
by Rigby, who quarrels with Gorges,
348; Massachusetts magistrates decide
that neither has clear right; inhabi-
tants of Piscataqua, Gorgeana, and
Wells, form body politic for self-gov-
ernment, 348 ; appropriated by Massa-
chusetts, 348; the people acquiescing,
349.

Lynch, delegate in congress from South
Carolina, had written to the north,
advising that J ohn Adams be watched,
and would have excluded him from
congress for accepting the office of
chief justice in Massachusetts; is
duped by Lord Drummond, v. 163.

Lynn, Mass., calls for a provincial con-
vention, iv. 254.

Lytteltou, George, Lord, approves prin-
ciple of stamp act, ill. 451; declares
that exempting colonies from one

statute or law makes them indepen-
dent communities. 552; draws a pro-
test against repeal of stamp act, 582,
583.
Lyttelton, governor of South Carolina,
thinks he has restored the royal sway,
iii. 227, 228; makes preparations for
war againnt Cherokees, 230 ; promises
to defer declaration of war, but breaks
his word, 231 ; demands the surrender
of twonty-four Cherokees, as condition
of treaty, 233; procures signatures of
Cherokees to an unauthorized treaty,
233; treats himself to a triumphant
entry at Charleston, 233; greatly es-
teemed by the lords of trade, and
transferred to Jamaica, 234; reports
that difficulties in South Carolina were
due to " having no standing revenue,"
253.

Macevers, stamp officer of New York,
resigns, iii. 496.

Maccrea, Jane, is slain by her Indian
escort; Burgoyne threatens the mur-
derer with death, but pardons him in
fear of Indians, v. 580.

McCulloh, a crown officer in North
Carolina, furnishes information as to
taxable capacity of colonies, iii. 388.

Macdaniel, an officer in Fort Moultrie,
dying, says, " Don't let the cause of
liberty expire with me," v. 281.

MacDonald, Allan, arranges with Martin
to raise a battalion of Highlanders;
the plan connected by rumor with a
negro-rising, v. 53 ; authorized to raise
a regiment of loyalists, 189; summons
Moore to surrender; in danger of being
surrounded, and avoids Moore, and
summons Caswell to resume his alle-
giance, 191 ; attacks hiin, and is driven
back, 192; taken prisoner, 193.

MacDonald, Donald, a veteran of sixty-
five, to command army of loyalists in
North Carolina, v. 189; taken prisoner
by Caswell's men, 192.

MacDonald, Flora, wife of Allan, v. 53.

Macdonnell, with a force of savages,
lays waste west bank of Susquehannah,
vi. 212.

Macdougall, in command at Peekskill;
attacked by English with twice his
force; burns his magazine, but with
Willett repulses an advance party, v.
560.

Macdougall, of New York, indicted for
treason in censuring assembly for vot-
ing supplies for troops ; refuses to give
ball, and is visited by thousands in
prison, iv. 185.

Macdowell, commander of North Caro-
lina militia, is routed by Ferguson; his
men seek refuge on the Watauga, and
receive sympathy and aid from the set-
tlers on that river, vi. 289.

Macginnes, of New Hampshire, attacks
a French force after battle of Crown
Point, and puts them to flight, bat ii
killed, iii. 140.

VOL. VI.

37

578

INDEX

MacKean, leading delegate for Delaware
for the continent, v. 39.

Maclean, Allan, sent to North Carolina
by the king to entice to royal standard
Highlanders of the old forty-seventh
regiment, iv. 512.

Maclean, a British officer in Canada,
plans a junction with Carleton ; hear-
ing of latter's discomfiture by Warner,
retires to Quebec, v. 121.

Macleland, lieutenant in Hendricks's
Pennsylvania company, in Arnold's
expedition, ill on the march, and is
borne by his comrades on a litter, v.
125, 126; dies at Sertigan, 126.

Macpherson, aide to Montgomery, v. 119;

foes with him to the front at Quebec,
34 ; falls dead with his general, 135

Madison, James, signs Orange county,
Va., letter, pronouncing attack on Mas-
sachusetts a blow at every colony, iv.
531; objects in convention to clause
about toleration in declaration of rights,
and it is amended, v. 259, 260 ; in con-
gress, votes, against his own judgment,
for Virginia's surrender of right of
navigation of the Mississippi, above the
81st degree of north latitude, vi. 351 ;
drafts a report, in conformity to advice
of Washington, as to power of congress
over states, 356, 356; never ceases his
efforts to strengthen congress, 356.

Magaw, Colonel, commander of Fort
Washington, v. 447 ; replies to Howe's
demand for surrender, that he will
hold it to the last, 450 ; on second de-
mand, asks delay, but finally yields,
453.

Mahometanism brought into intercourse,
as well as conflict, with Europe and
the Bast, ill. 6.

Maine, frontier of French dominions ex-
tended to heart of, ii 355: its coloniza-
tion delayed by distribution of its ter-
ritory, i. 262 : popular temper favorable
to royalty, 446; in land beyond Ken-
nebec, commissioners institute a gov-
ernment in name of Duke of York,
446, 447; Massachusetts, by buying
Gorges'* claim, becomes proprietary of,
470.

Maintenon, Mme. de. her career and her
policy, 1. 515, 516; her triumph appar-
ently complete, 517.

Maitland, hurries British troops from
Beaufort to rescue of Savannah, vi.
259; arrives in time to warrant Prevost
in refusing D'Estaing's summons, 260.

Malcolm, Daniel, of Boston, shuts his
house against marshal of court of ad-
miralty, who dares not use force, iv.
21.

Major-generals, American, elected by
continental congress, — Ward, Charles
Lee, Schuyler, and Putnam, v. 4 ; con-
tinent takes arms, with only one gen-
eral officer who inspires trust and love,
and not one below able to aid him effi-
ciently, or to succeed him, 6.

Malcolm, John, once aide to Governor

Tryon, now a customs-officer in Boston
having provoked populace, la tarred
and feathered, iv. 285.

Malesherbes, praises the American gov-
ernment, iv. 58; remonstrates with *
Louis XV., and is exiled, 238, 239; fiv-
vors peace, v. 222; resolves to retire,
230; says the right of self-administra-
tion belongs to every community, 245.

Malmedy, an incompetent French officer,
sent by Charles Lee to take command
in Rhode Island, v. 463.

Maltzan, Prussian minister in London,
writes to Frederic that " the smallest
attention will natter the ministry be-
yond expression," vi 118.

Manchester, Earl of. member of colonial
council, appointed by Charles II., i.
419; his services secured for Connect-
icut by Lord Say and Seal, 419, 420.

Manchester, Duke of, says that "the
violence of the times has wrested
America from the British crown, and
spurned the jewel because the setting
seemed uncouth," v. 103.

Manhattan, bought by director-general,
Minuit, ii. 40; prospers under free
trade, 53; the chosen abode of mer-
chants, 57 ; heterogeneous immigration
to, 58; first called New York on sur-
render of Dutch colony to England,
69 ; surrender of, to Dutch fleet under
Evertsen, 75.

Manigault, Judith, her letter describing
her escape to Carolina. 1. 519, 520 ; her
son gives his great wealth to his coun-
try in the revolution, 520. 521.

Mansfield, Lord, declares that an act of
parliament alone can compel a colo-
nial assembly, iii. 24 ; his opinion be-
comes corner-stone of British policy,
24; favors quartering troops on the
colonies, 151, 152 ; made lord chief jus-
tice, 162; impersonation of new tory-
ism, 564; says the American difficulty
was the gravest England had seen since
1688; that Americans must be reduced
to obedience before their grievances
are inquired into, iv. 103; gives judg-
ment that a negro slave becomes free
on touching English soil, 232; favors
altering charter of Massachusetts,
302 : denies having advised the tea- tax,
and condemns it as absurd, 468 ; praises
port act and regulating act, as wise,
politic, and equitable; bis views on
North's American bill, v. 108: ridicules
the idea of suspending hostilities, and
laughs at moderate counsels, 201.

Manteo, an Indian chief, baptized and
made baron, Lord of Roanoke, 1. 84.

Marblehead, votes an expression of dis-
esteem for the British parliament,
Ac, and appoints a committee of cor-
respondence, iv. 247 ; reproved by their
townsmen, 331.
March 1, 1781. a great day in our history;
Maryland, last of states, signs articles
of confederation, and the Union fe
complete, vi. 352.

INDEX.

579

Marest, Gabriel a Jesuit missionary,
establishes new mission among the Pe-
orias, ii. 361. 362.

"Margaretta, a king's cutter, convoys
two sloops to Machias, Me., and after
desperate fight is captured by patriots,
iv. 666.

Maria Theresa, empress (f Austria,
courts Pompadour, in aid .- f alliance
with France, ill. 182; desires restora-
tion of obedience and quiet in all Brit-
ish dominions, v. 269; writes to king
of Spain, hoping to hold him back
from war, and a like letter to Louis
XVI.. vi. 223, 224.

Marie Antoinette, dauphiness of France,
her amiable and volatile nature; ca-
lumniated by a faction, iv. 318, 319 ; her
sympathy popularizes the American
cause, vi. 64 ; thinks peace will be a
great good, but will be afflicted by a
humiliating one, 369.

Marion, Francis, at Gongaree, iii. 232;
commands one of the companies in
Fort Johnson, in Charleston harbor, v.
60; major of Colonel Moultrie's com-
mand, 277; loved and trusted by the
people, vi. 286; recaptures one hun-
dred and fifty prisoners and their
guard ; Cornwallis's testimony as to his
ability and influence, 287; surprises
part of a force sent to surprise him ;
will not suffer retaliation, 294, 296;
takes Fort Motte, 404.

Marine, British, doubts as to instruc-
tions to be given to, iii. 143; orders
issued to take all French vessels ; and
wholesale captures, of which the king's
share was £700,000, 144.

Maritime code, the, prepared by Cath-
arine of Russia, a surprise for Great
Britain, is welcomed in France and
Madrid, vi. 249.

Maritime powers of Europe, look on
England as their natural foe, and are
ready to form alliances with the col-
onies, v. 366.

Markham, agent of Penn, to govern
Pennsylvania in his absence, fl. 109:
invested with executive power, and
doubtful of his authority, dissolves the
assembly, 218.

Markham, archbishop of York, recom-
mends the reconstruction of colonial
governments on the' principle of full
subordination to Great Britain, v. 647.

Marlborough. Mass., votes that " death
is more eligible than slavery," and
that a free-born people may use their
power to recover and maintain their
laws and liberties, iv. 260.

Mariott, Sir James, judge of British
court of admiralty, his opinion in case
of Dutch merchant-men captured by
the English, vi. 367.

Marquette, James, accompanies Dablon,
to establish the mission of St. Mary's
In Michigan, ii. 326; his purpose of
discovering the Mississippi, 326; first
white man who trod soil of Iowa ; goes |

below the entrance of the Arkansas,
and ascends the Mississippi, 332; in
1675, returns to the Illinois tribe, and
takes possession of the land in the
name of Jesus Christ, 332.

Marquez, Pedro Melendez, nephew of
Melendez de Aviles. continues his
uncle's explorations, i. 62.

Marriage, in Virginia, permitted only in
accordance with the mbric in the
Book of Common Prayer, i. 633.

Marshall, commands a Virginia regiment
at Brandywine, which stands till one
half its officers and one third of its
men are killed or wounded, v. 597, 598.

Marshall, Christopher, a mystic of
Quaker origin, moves in provincial
convention of Pennsylvania that
members be required to declare their
faith in the Trinity and in divine in-
spiration of the Scriptures, v. 310.

Marshall, John, afterwards chief justice
of the United States, lieutenant in
company of minute men at Great
Bridge, v. 149.

Martin, governor of North Carolina,
thinks the rod of correction cannot be
spared in South Carolina, v. 51 ; ships
bis family to New York, and flees to
Fort Johnson; still a braggart; sends
for arms, &c, promising, with two regi-
ments, to recover every colony south
of Pennsylvania, 62 ; slinks away to the
"Cruiser," 54; prepares a proclama-
tion to call out loyalists, 188, 189.

Martinique, English fleet repulsed from,
iii. 211.

Mary, Queen, by her zeal for old religion
becomes chief agent in establishing the
new, i. 216.

Maryland, charter for, granted to Lord
Baltimore, i. 181; arrival of Lord
Baltimore's colony, 186; religious free-
dom, 186, 187; people of, Jealous of
their liberties, reject laws of proprie-
tary, and enact a code, 188; not in-
cluded in ordinance for reduction of
rebellious colonies, 196; condition of
changed by dissolution of Long Parlia-
ment, 198; compared with Virginia, its
policy does not favor spirit of popular
liberty, ii. 3; an asylum for tho
wronged, 4; mild intolerance of Qua-
kers, 4; popular discontent, causes
of, 7; proprietary government sub-
verted in issue with Protestantism as
a political sect, 7, 8; Coode's insurrec-
tion, 9. 10; government usurped by
" association for defence of Protestant
religion," 10; Lord Baltimore's depu-
ties are driven out, 210; constituted
a royal government by the king, 210.
211; Sir Lionel Copley, first royal

fovernor, 211; injustice to Catholics,
12; the policy of Lord Baltimore, iii.
89; curtails governor's power, 249:
exemptions from stamp-tax claimed
for, and denied, 444; assembly of,
treats Lord Hillsborough's letter with
contempt, iv. 96; elects delegates to

680

INDEX.

general congress, 445; convention of,
approves proceedings of congress, urges
all to unite in defence of their common
rights and liberties, and promises to
support Massachusetts, 426; advises
people to form in military companies,
453; confirmed in her decision by influ-
ence of Washington, 454 ; adheres to as-
sociation adopted by the general con-
gress, v. 39$ the lieutenant-governor,
Eden, maintains reserve, and is re-
garded as neutral, 41 ; institutes a tem-
porary government, 86 ; convention of
{)roprietary party votes to put province
n a state of defence, and forbids dele-
gates in congress to favor independence,
confederation, or foreign alliance, 162,
163 : tinges her pledges of support with
desire for reunion with Britain, 203;
renounces hope of reconciliation; a
convention held, which calls out militia
to active service, and directs a new
convention to create a government by
authority of the people. 310, 311 ; its
constitution framed, Aug. 14, 1776,
504; precisely limited by its charter,
alone arrests consummation of con-
federation, by demanding that public
lauds north-west of the Ohio shall be
common property of states, vi. 149

Mason and Dixon's line, drawn 1763-
1767, on boundary of Maryland on side
of Pennsylvania and Delaware, ii. 131.

Mason, George, his address on slavery,
iv. 234; takes part in conference that
declares Virginia's policy, 335, 336;
nominated delegate to general congress,
but declines, v. 43, 44; most influen-
tial member of convention of May, 1776 ;
active in framing constitution of Vir-
ginia, 303.

Mason, John, obtains grant of lands be-
tween Salem River and head of Merri-
mack ; receives patent for New Hamp-
shire, i. 257 ; his death, and the ruin
of his estate,' 258 ; in England, slan-
ders Massachusetts, 322.

Mason. John, commander of Connecti-
cut forces against Pequods. i. 314; his
troops kill six hundred Indians, 315.

Mason, Robert, unsuccessful in estab-
lishing his claims on New Hampshire,
i. 471 ; authorized to choose, and chooses
Edward Oranfleld governor for his do-
main, 471.

Mason. Thomson, an able lawyer of
Virginia, his advice to American as-
semblies, iv. 5.

Massachusetts, prohibits all intercourse
with Virginia, but repeals the order,
i. 162 ; suspected of intention to cast off
allegiance to England, and seek alli-
ance with Spain, 435; declaration of
natural and chartered rights published
by general court, 435, 436 ; growth of tol-
eration checked, and bigotry reawak-
ened, 438 ; arrival of fleet with hostile
commissioners, 439; commission pro-
nounced a violation of chartered rights,
440; resolves to nullify the commission,

440; commissioners attempt to hold
court to try colony, but general court
prevents, 445 ; rebuked by the king,
447 ; who orders Massachusetts to send
envoys to London; general court re-
fuses, 447, 448; bitter feeling against,
in England, 474; preparations for at-
tack on the charter, 475, 476: resolves
to resign Maine, but not one liberty or
charter privilege, 477; arraigned on
quo warranto, 477, 478: argument of
deputies against submission, 478-460;
a scire facias issued, and charter con-
ditionally adjudged forfeited, 480; ap-
pointment of Joseph Dudley to be gov-
ernor, ii: 154; its charter government
displaced; arrival of Andros, governor
of New England, 155; the ballot abol-
ished, &c, 155, 156; advisers of resist-
ance tried, fined, and imprisoned, 156,
157; condition of people little better
than slavery, 153 ; Andros deposed, 172;
the new charter an improvement on the
old, 252 ; Increase Mather nominates
Sir William Phips for governor. 254:
general court renews the institution of
towns, 268, 269; divided into little ter-
ritories, each practically a separate
government, iii. 96, 97 ; officers of cus-
toms demand of supreme court general
writs of assistance, but Chief Justice
Sewall doubts their legality, 252 ; sup-
plants Bollan, agent in England,
with Jasper Maud uit, 284; sends cir-
cular letter to other colonies, asking
their united assistance, 422 ; consents
to plead for liberties, not making claim
of right, 436; a copy of circular letter
sent to England, iv. 74 ; had denied, but
not resisted, the power of parliament,
84; receives Hillsborough's letter or-
dering rescission of resolutions, and
replies that the letter expressed the
sense of the house, 93, 94 ; nouse votes
not to rescind, ninety-two to seven-
teen, and is prorogued and dissolved by
the governor, 94; those who had voted
to rescind re-elected, 161: house passes
the three resolutions of Virginia, on
taxation, intercolonial correspondence,
and trial by jury of the vicinage, 162;
legislature about to meet, when Hutch-
inson prorogues it on orders from Hills-
borough, 183; the crisis of revolution,
237 ; Virginia resolutions sent to every
town, and all urge a congress, 260;
passes resolves, snowing meaning of
Hutchinson's letters, and asking the
king to remove Hutchinson and Oliver,
204; the general feeling as to resist-
ance, 293; English-born people regard
taxation without their consent as rob-
bing them of their birthright, 324; one
spirit pervades the rural districts, 372;
population and number of men capa-
ble of bearing arms, 373; the govern-
ment of, permanently constituted, v.
20 ; hope of accommodation still haunts
the moderate party, 102; a large ma*
jority of towns declare for indepen-

INDEX.

581

deuce unanimously, 304; tho first to
conduct a government independent of
the king, 502.

Massachusetts delegates to general con-
gress welcomed on their way ; encour-
aged by Soger Sherman, iv. 377.

Massachusetts Bay company, receives its
charter, i. 267 ; power of self-direction
conferred by charter, 268; its legis-
lative and executive authority, 269; in
1630, sends over not far from one thou-
sand souls, 277 ; character and motives
of emigrants, 279; sad condition of
colony at Salem, 280 ; served with writ
of quo warranto, 325 ; colony strength-
ened by persecution in England, 326;
return of patent demanded, 328; calls
itself a " perfect republic," 350.

Massacre at Boston, riotous behavior
of British soldiers, iv. 187-189; they
fire on the people, killing three, 190 ;
the firing party committed, 191; re-
moval of troops demanded, but
Hutchinson consents only to removal
of twenty-ninth regiment, 191, 192;
another demand made, and, on his
reply that the troops are not under his
control, he is told that he must do it at
his peril, 192 ; anniversary of celebra-
tion of, a public affront to Gage, 488.

Massacres by Indians in Virginia, in 1622 ;
its consequences, i. 143 ; a war of ex-
termination, 144 ; by the Mohawks, ii.
313-316; do not quench enthusiasm of
Jesuits, 315.

Massassoit, an Indian . chief, visits the
Pilgrims, and concludes peace, i. 247:
desires to stipulate that English should
not attempt to convert his tribe, 457.

Mather, Cotton, opposes restoration of
the charter, ii. 245 ; imposed on by a be-
witched girl, 249; his alarm at progress
of free inquiry, and views on witchcraft,
249, 250 ; nis " discourse," 250 ; procures
appointment of William Stoughton to
be lieutenant-governor, 255; his tri-
umph complete, 258; his " Wonders of
the Invisible World," 264; fabricates a
case of witchcraft in his own parish,
wh/ch is exposed by Robert Calef;
trie* to shield himself by calling his
adversaries enemies of religion, 266;
never repents, but is tempted to athe-
ism, 267.

Mather, Increase, at town-meeting urges
people of Massachusetts to stand by
their charter privileges, i. 430; quoted,
ii. 158 ; goes to England to seek redress
for Massachusetts, 161 ; favors new
charter, 252; nomination of officers in-
trusted to him, 254.

Mather, Richard, a minister of Dor-
chester, helps to translate Psalms from
Hebrew, i. 330.

Matthew, General, enters Hampton
Roads, burns every house in Suffolk
county, robs and murders, and returns
to New York with many prizes and
much tobacco, vi. 206, 207.

Matthews, a planter, tells Governor

Harvey that popular fury against liim
could not be appeased, i. 155.

Matthews, Samuel, commissioner to in-
vestigate affairs of Virginia, i. 147 ; gov-
ernor of Virginia, quarrels with as-
sembly, 172; his election annulled,
and himself re-elected by burgesses,
172.

Maverick, Samuel, occupies island now
known as East Boston, i. 266.

Maxwell, General-, surprises Elizabeth-
town, N.J., taking baggage and one
hundred prisoners, v. 496; opposes
Howe's advance toward Philadelphia,
at Iron Hill, 595 ; with Jersey brigade
at Connecticut Farms, vi. 316; retreats
to a point near Springfield, where he
repels several attacks of Colonel
Wurmb with a Hessian regiment, 316.

Mauduit, Jasper, succeeds Bollan as
agent of Massachusetts in England ; a
dissenter, but highly connected, iii.
284.

Maurepas, Count de, prime minister of
Louis XVI. ; exiled ; liberal, but jeal-
ous of superior talents; chiefly fit to
give lessons in etiquette, or enliven
business by pleasantry, iv. 363, 364;
favors peace with England, v. 222;
sees in Turgot a dangerous rival, 230;
persuades the king to dismiss Turgot,
246 ; drawn to favor Americans by de-
sire to maim the British, 521 ; pleased
at Necker's elevation, 527 ; his objec-
tions to alliance with America hardly
overcome, vi. 82, 83; most, of all cabi-
net, desires to avoid a conflict, but on
news of Burgoyne's surrender pre-

{>ares to yield, 126; at point of death,
earns with joy of surrender at York-
town, 430.

May, Cornells Jacobsen, ascends the
Delaware, and builds Fort Nassau;
first director of regular civil govern-
ment in New Netherland, ii. 39.

" Mayflower," the ship of Pilgrims from
Leyden, i. 241 ; sails from Plymouth,
242; anchors in the harbor of Cape
Cod, 243.

May hew, "the young New England
scholar," endeavors to convert the
natives in Plymouth colony, i. 455; lost
at sea, 455 ; his work continued by his
father, 455, 456.

Mayhew, Jonathan, pioneer in seeking
with active powers of man the right
of uncontrolled inquiry, iii. 40; de-
nounces divine right of kings, 40,
41 ; his sermon on repeal of stamp
act, 587, 588 ; his letter to Otis, urging
union of colonies, iv. 9.

Mecklenburg county, N.C., people of,
hold frequent political meetings at
Charlotte, and propose to abrogate de-
pendence on royal authority, iv. 577 ;
news of Lexington inflames their
zeal; result of their deliberations a
monument of wisdom and courage;
all public and county taxes, and quit-
rents to the crown, 'sequestered, 578;

582

INDEX.

separated from British empire . resolu-
tions sent to be printed, and forwarded
to king and to continental congress;
what the governor of North Carolina
thinks of them, 679.

Mecom, Benjamin, editor of "Con-
necticut Gazette," issues his paper
Nov. 1, 1765, filled with patriotic
appeals, ill. 520.

Medfield, people of, would have an end
put to slave-trade, iv. 253.

Meigs. Return, of Connecticut, finding
British transports loading at Sag
Harbor, crosses, burns ten loaded
transports, a vessel of six or eight

Suns and stores, kills five, and captures
tie rest ; a sword voted him by con-
gress, v. 562, 563.

Menomonies, dwell near Green Bay ;
their high antiquity proved by the sin-
gularity of their dialect, ii. 399

Mercer, commander at Fort Oswego,
killed at its capture, ill. 158.

Mercer, Hugh, of Virginia, writes to
Washington that this first public insult
(the seizure of powder by the gov-
ernor) is not to be submitted to, iv.
507: colonel of one of seven Virginia
regiments, v. 164; takes seventeen
prisoners at Richmond, 440, 441;
mortally wounded at Assanpink; his

* abilities and patriotism, 495.

Meredith, Sir William, offers a petition
in house of commons, on behalf of
Virginia, ill. 449; which is rejected, ill.
450.

Mermet, a missionary, Joins mission at
Kaskaskia; founds first French post
on the Ohio, ii. 361.

Merrill, Benjamin, an officer of " regu-
lators" in North Carolina, iv. 220;
executed by order of Tryon, 222.

Meserve, stamp officer for New Hamp-
shire, resigns, lit. 496.

Mesnard, Rene, sent to Green Bay and
Lake Superior, and to establish mis-
sion, ii. 321 ; his adventures and mys-
terious death, 321, 322.

Methodists of the United States, in 1780,
vote slave-keeping contrary to the laws
of God, man, and nature, vi. 314.

Mexico, Gulf of, it, and all countries
bordering on it, the property of Spain,
i. 62.

Miamis, inhabit region from Detroit to
head-waters of Scioto, to its mouth.,
down the Ohio to the Wabash, and
thence to Chicago, ii. 397; the most
powerful confederacy of the west, ill.
51,52.

Miantonomoh, chief of Narragansetts,
gives Rhode Island to Anne Hutch-
inson's friends, i 309; his life saved by
intercession of Gorton and others, 343;
murdered by Uncas, 343.

Michaelius, Jonas, establishes a church
at Manhattan, ii. 41.

Micmac Indians, occupy Nova Scotia and
adjacent islands, ii. 395; Cornwallls
offers rewards for their scalps, iii. 32.

Mifflin,

it

Bin. on news from Lexington, says,
Let us not be bold in declarations, and
cold in action," iv. 649 ; a member of
Washington's staff, brave and honest, v.
14 ; sent to congress to urge re-enforce-
ment of army, 456; sent by congress
through Pennsylvania to rouse its free-
men, 460; as quarter-master-general,
renders no service, 594; elected to
board of war, vi. 38; censured by
Washington for neglect of duty, 41;
denies the charge of conspiring against
Washington, 45.

" Mifflin, General," the, an American
privateer, takes seven British vessels in
Russian waters, vi. 231.

Milborne, son-in-law of Leister, con-
demned for high treason, ii. 229; and
executed, 230.

Milhet, John, envoy of Louisiana to
Paris, iv. 122.

Military authority, its supremacy estab-
lished in America, iii. 443, 444.

Military departments, the, colonies di-
vided by congress into two, v. 212.

Military power in America, having,
according to reports of Bernard and
Hutchinson, failed to intimidate, Wed-
derburn and Thurlow give opinions
that this authorizing power resides in
the governor, iv. 340.

Military situation, the, around Boston,
v. 15.

Militia, not to be trusted, says Washing-
ton, v. 412 ; its achievements during
the war, 414.

Militia of Massachusetts, number of
men capable of bearing arms ; military
exercises in every hamlet, iv. 373.

Militia of Worcester and Hampshire
counties, Mass., rise en incuse, and
march toward Boston, on hearing of
seizure of powder ; stopped by express
from Boston, iv. 347, 388.

Millar, John, professor of law in the
university of Glasgow, teaches his
)upils that the republican government
is by far the best, v. 109.

Miller, of Albemarle, collector of cus-
toms, i. 503, 504; imprisoned by insur-
?;ents, 505
lton, John, sympathizes with the In-
dependents, i. 386; defends revocable
nature of all conceded civil power, 390;
his scheme of government less favora-
ble to equal freedom and progress than
monarchy itself, 390.

Minden, battle of, repulse of French by
English and Hanoverians, but victory
lost through cowardice of Lord Sack-
ville, iii. 211, 212.

Mines, in America, English delusions
about, i. 69-71.

Ministers of Massachusetts, thank Gov-
ernor Phipps for his treatment of witch-
craft, ii. 259, 260 ; of New England, take
counsel together, anticipating remark-
able revolutions in polity and religion,
iv. 95 ; collections of sermons by, cfroa-
lated through the press, 435.

INDEX.

688

Ministry,™* British, tries to shape Amer-
ica at will, iii. 37; changes in hasten
conflict with colonies, 260; ignores
country beyond Alleghanies, 55; re-
solves to raise funds on American
affairs by stamp duty, 117 ; new minis-
try (Grenville's) weakened by its own
indiscretion. 372 ; never a united body,
458; Cumberland's ministry, its compo-
sition, 486; most members favor stamp
act, 490; settle resolutions to repeal
stamp act, 574 ; all elements of opposi-
tion combine against it, iv. 35, 36 ; left
with a majority of only three, 48 ; angry
comments on circular letter of Massa-
chusetts, 83; after Rochford's accession,
the weakest and worst administration
in England since the Revolution, 121:
repeal of tea-tax defeated by Lord
North, 157, 158; henceforward new tory
party rules cabinet. 182 ; majority of,
bent on instant employment of force
against America, 313; resolves to inter-
dict all commerce with Americans, to
protect the loyal, and declare all others
traitors and rebels, 442 ; declares Mas-
sachusetts in a state of rebellion, pledge
whole power of Great Britain to its
reduction, 466; undecided as to plan of
action toward America, but determined
to subdue the rebels, 562; American
department given to Lord George Sack-
ville (Germain), v. 103, 104; the new
ministry the weakest, least principled,
and most unpopular of the century,
105; Barrington announces that the
idea of taxing America is given up,
106; remonstrates with France about
supplying America, but threatens
Holland, 524; confirmed in power
by passage of North's conciliatory
bills, vi. 61; resigns hope of reducing
the north, but hopes to conquer all
states south of Susquehannan, 157;
willing to buy alliance of Russia by
cession of Minorca, and to propitiate
Joseph II. by opening the Scheldt,
374; the ministry (North's) the worst
known since parliament was supreme,
435; agrees to invite proposals from
Yergennes, to propose the indepen-
dence of America, in the first instance,
447.

Minuit, director-general of New Nether-
land, buys Manhattan from Indians,
ii. 40, 41; displaced, 54; commands
Swedish colony sent to Delaware, 57.

Mirabeau, protests against the traffic in
soldiers, vi. 54; writes fiery invective
against despotism; his longing to serve
in America, 84

Miralez, Juan de, a Spanish emissary,
appears in Philadelphia; looks on re-
public as natural enemy of Spain,
and tries to obstruct its development;
welcomed by congress, as representing
an intended ally, vi. 158.

Miruelo, Diego, a sea-captain, trades
with the natives on the coast of Florida,
in 1516, i. 25.

Missions, only means Ohamplain could
devise of confirming alliance with
Hurons In Canada, ii. 299.

Mississippi, commonwealth of, founded
by D'lberville: its gloomy prospects,
ii. 365.

Mississippi River, the first voyage of
Europeans on, by Spaniards, i. 52; the
guardian and pledge of the union of
the states of America; an apostrophe
of; Spain hopes, acting with Great
Britain, to shut the United States
from its magnificent future, vi. 183,
184.

Mississippi valley, missionary settle-
ments in, ii. 360; no flag but France's
floated in, iii. 78 ; Shelburne desires it
to be peopled by colonies with English
liberty ; but board of trade fears emi-
gration to a region so remote would
establish manufactures, iv. 22: the

f>oor man's refuge, 22 ; England holds
t in jealousy of France, but refuses to
settle it, 125. \

Mixam, sachem of Narragansetts, his
refusal to turn against the English,
ii. 54.

Mobile, surrendered by French, iii 403.

Mobilians, great family of Indians, pos-
sess whole country south, south-east,
and west of Gherokees, ii. 404.

" Model, the," a name applied to John
Locke s constitution of Carolina, i.
498; difficulty of introducing it in
North Carolina, 501.

Moffat, of Rhode Island, asks of its legis-
lature relief for his losses by a riot
against the stamp act, iv. 24.

Moffatt, captain of king's ship " Can-
ceaux," seized with two officers at
Portland; released on his promise to
return next day, but breaks his word,
iv. 556.

Mohawks, an Indian tribe, refuse to join
King Philip, i. 464-466; prepare to
descend on Montreal, ii. 174; exter-
minate Erie Indians, and approach
Miamis and Illinois, 349: invaded by
French, 355 ; many rescued by Schuyler,
of Albany, 356.

Mohegans, independent villages of, occu-
py country between the Connecticut
and Hudson, ii. 396.

Molineux, one of Boston committee sent
to call on consignees of tea. iv. 271,
272.

Monckton. Robert, commander under
Wolfe, iii. 216; governor of New York,
and conqueror of Martinique, 216.

Monhegan Island, Gilbert and Popham
land there, i. 205.

Monk, General (Duke of Albemarle), his
character, L 399, 400: his aims purely
selfish, 400.

Monmouth, battle of, Lee sent forwani
to attack the enemy's rear, vi. 138;
leaves most of his men to shift for
themselves; sends no orders, makes
no reports, 139; rebuked by Wash-
ington; his force chased by British,

584

INDEX.

when Washington stops its retreat;
Greene defeats an attack on his right;
Wayne repulses the enemy with great
■laughter; British retreat, and Ameri-
cans prepare to renew the tight next
day, but Clinton withdraws to heights
of Middleburg, and thenco to New
York, 141; all American generals, ex-
cept Lee, do well; seven hundred
blacks fight in this battle, 142.

Monmouth conspiracy, the, matured in
London, under pretence of favoring
emigration to America, i. 514

Monmouth, Duke of, intended beneficiary
of proprietary rights in Maine and
New Hampshire, revived, 1. 432.

Monmouth, N.J., writes to Boston, " Do
not give up; and, if you should want
any further supply of bread, let us
know," iv. 457.

Monopoly of the world's trade desired bv
Spain and Portugal, i. 163 ; commercial,
of Spain, invasion of, favored by Eng-
land, i. 523.

Monro, Lieutenant-colonel, commander
at Port William Henry, refuses to sur-
render, ill. 174; capitulates, 175.

Montbarey, Prince de, despises people
of United States as ambitious and
fanatical; warns Lafayette against
connection with them, and opposes
alliance of France with America;
thinks a victory over England value-
less, as an example of sustaining a
revolt, vi. 81, 82; superseded by Mar-
quis de Segur, 370.

Montgomery, Colonel, leads Highland-
ers and royal Americans against
Cherokees, in Keowee valley, iii. 235,
236; in parliament, acts against
America, 238.

Montgomery, Richard, distinguishes
himself at investment of Loulsburg,
iii. 194; brigadier-general of con-
tinental army, v. 7; delegate to pro-
vincial convention in New York; joins
Schuyler at Isle-aux-Noix ; takes com-
mand on Schuyler's return to Ticou-
deroga, 116, 117 ; after fall of St. Johns,
takes possession of Montreal unop-

Sosed; asks inhabitants to choose
elegates to continental congress;
resolves to attempt the capture of
Quebec, 122; and joins Arnold, 130;
December 5, leads his array before
Quebec, 130, 131; demands surrender
of the city, but his fiag of truce is
not admitted; leads three hundred
New Yorkers through the outer bar-
rier, and presses forward to carry the
opposing battery ; is met by a deadly
discbarge, and falls mortally wounded ;
Donald Campbell orders a retreat,
133-135 : belauded by Frederic of Prus-
sia, ana by members of British parlia-
ment, except North, who calls him a
rebel, 137, 138.

Montagu, brother of Lord Sandwich,
commands fleet sent to Boston, iv. 226.

Montagu, Lord Charles Qreville, gover-

nor of South Carolina, threatens to
convene assembly at Port Royal, un-
less a house is furnished for him at
Charleston, iv. 229.
Montcalm, Marquis de, captures Oswego
ami razes fort, iii 158; captures Fort
William Henry, 171-176; destroys Brit-
ish power within basin of St. Lawrence,
176; thinks Canada must be taken,
213; sends fire-ships against British
fleet, 217; his comments on Wolfe's
landing, 223 ; his army soon gives way,
224 ; his intelligence, energy, and forti-
tude, 225; mortally wounded, 225.
Montesquieu, in 1748, announces that a
great people is forming, by English
emigrants, in American forests; re-
vives faith in principles of political
liberty; fails to see that free com-
merce would benefit every nation, iii.
323.

Montmorin, Count, French ambassador
at Madrid ; desires to deal fairly with
the United States, vi. 159; reports that
Spain fears the prosperity of America,
and is likely to stipulate for such a
form of independence as will leave di-
visions between England and her colo-
nies, 176.

Montreal, possession taken of, by French,
ii. 304 ; attacked by Iroquois, and many
prisoners taken, 347 ; projected attack
on, by New England ana New York,
fails, 351 ; its surrender includes that

' of all Canada, iii. 241.

Moore, James, governor of South Caro-
lina, moves against St. Augustine, but
is forced by Spanish fleet to rosire, ii
371; reduces Indian towns near St.
Mark's, and defeats Spanish force, in-
sulating St. Augustine, 372. *

Moore, or North Carolina, encamps near
Wilmington, v. 189; summoned by
Macdonald to join the king's standard ;
begs Macdonald not to array his men
against defenders of liberty, 180; dis-
arms Highlanders and regulators, 193.

Moore, Major Willard, receives two
wounds at Bunker Hill, which he
thinks mortal; bids his friends take i
care of themselves, and dies, iv. 622.

Moore, successor to Colden as governor ol
New York ; his arrival and concessions,
iii. 522, 523.

Moranget, nephew to La Salle, and mem-
ber of latter's colony for Louisiana, ii.
338 ; murdered by his companions, 342.

Morell, an Episcopal clergyman, with
Robert Gorges's colony ; writes descrip- j
tion of New England in Latin verse, i.
256.

Moritvri te salntant might have been
the cry of Louis XVI. and Marie An-
toinette, when they resolved to aid
America, vi. 85

Morgan, Daniel, captain of a Virginia
rifle company, at Cambridge; shares
in Braddock's expedition ; thegreatest
of Virginia's officers, except Washing-
ton, v. 29, 30; in Arnold's expedition,

INDEX.

585

jum*. bis gallantry at Quebec, 136; his
exchange hastened and his promotion
favored by Washington, 408 ; is joined,
on bank of Pacolet, by two hundred
North, and South Carolinians, vi. 383;
Tarleton pursuing him, »and Corn-
wallis ready to intercept his retreat ;
marches for Broad River, and camps
at Cowpens; resolves to fight, 384; in
report of his victory at Cowpens, at-
tributes it to "justice of our cause and
gallantry of our troops," 386 ; congress
votes him a gold medal, 387 ; his mili-
tary career, 388; divines Cornwallis's
plan, and advises Greene to join their
forces, 389.

Morton, resident in what is now Quincy,
admonished by Governor Endecott, i.
266.

Morris, Gouverneur, favors yielding to
Spain the navigation of the Mississippi,
and sees need of a law limiting Ameri-
can dominion, vi. 177; earnest for the
freedom of the negro; gives informa-
tion to Gerard as to the relations of
Spain with North America, and char-
acteristics of northern and southern
states, 300; struggles hard to introduce
in constitution of New York measures
tending to abolish slavery, 305.

Morris, Major, of New Jersey, killed In
engagement at Edge Hill, vi 37.

Morris, Robert, a Welshman ; if liberties
of America cannot be otherwise se-
cured, ready to renounce connection
with Great Britain, v 218; resolves to
follow, if he cannot lead, and thence-
forward supports independence, 344;
signs declaration, which he sustains
h»pefully, 355; on New Year's Day,
1777, borrows money, and sends Wash-
ington fifty thousand dollars, with an
earnest message, 489; says that Wash-
ington is the greatest man on earth,
499; thinks no offers of settlement
should be entertained, unless preceded
by acknowledgment of independence,
vi. 71; minister of finance; obtains
from congress a charter for a national
bank, 462; tries to initiate a strong
government ; prepares a sharp circular
to states pecuniarily delinquent, which
Madison suppresses, 464, 465 ; welcomes
Hamilton as an advocate of greater
power in congress, 466; tells Greene
he must continue his exertions with
or without men, provisions, or pay,
469.

Moscoso, successor in command on the
death of De Soto, i. 51.

Mott, Captain Edward, of Preston,
Conn., goes forward to arrange for at-
tack on Ticonderoga, iv. 554.

Mott, captain of a New York company,
at Quebec, v. 134 ; eager to go forward
after death of the general, 135.

Motte, Lieutenant-colonel, commands
force which occupies Fort Johnson in
Charleston harbor, v. 50 ; Colonel Moul-
trie's second in command, 277.

Motte, Rebecca, expedites the surrender
of Fort Motte to Marion, vi. 404.

Moultrie, Fort, surrenders without firing
a gun, vi. 266.

Moultrie, William, Colonel, of South
Carolina, ordered to take possession of
Fort Johnson ; desired to devise a ban-
ner, v. 50; drives British from Beau-
fort, S.C , vi. 253; bears message of
South Carolina council to British gen-
eral, and, on his saying that garrison
must surrender as prisoners of war.
declares, " Then we will fight it out,'*
257

Mounds, west of Mississippi, explained
by geology, ii. 451, 452; do not war-
rant inference that they represent a
higher civilization, 452; may indicate
revolutions among Americans, but not
their origin, 453.

Mount Wollaston, a plantation begun
there, i. 264.

Moyne, James le, a painter, with Ri-
bault's Huguenot colony in Florida, i.
55; escapes massacre, 59; enabled by
Raleigh to finish his sketches of Flori-
da, 63.

Mud Island, target for four batteries of
British heavy artillery ; deemed unten-
able by its commander; Major Simeon
Thayer takes command; two ships of
war throw hand-grenades into; can-
nonaded by five other ships; Thayer
sends nearly all the garrison to Red-
bank, and follows later, vi. 23.

Mugford, James, of Marblehead, cap-
tures and brings to Boston the British
ship " Hope," laden with fifteen hun-
dred barrels of powder, the most val-
uable prize taken ; is attacked by thir-
teen boats from a man-of-war, beats
them off, but is mortally wounded, v.
253.

Muhlenberg, Peter, preacher to Ger-
mans, in the valley of the Blue Ridge ;
quickens their patriotism, v 147 ; colo-
nel of a regiment formed from his
own congregation, 164.

Munitions of war, states-general of Hol-
land enjoined by British envoy to for-
bid their subjects to transport military
stores to West Indies, beyond the wants
of their colonies, iv. 483.

Murray, an officer under Wolfe, at Que-
bec, sent to communicate with Am-
herst, iii. 220 ; commanding at Quebec,
attacks French army, and is compelled
to flee, 239.

Murray, of Rutland, required to resign
his seat in council ; his brother's warn-
ing to the patriots, and their reply, iv.
376.

Musgrove's Mills, a post of royal militia
and regulars at, attacked and captured
by Colonel James Williams, who kills
sixty of the British, vi. 287.

Mutiny bill, its rigors doubled at request
of Duke of Cumberland, and passed,
iii. Ill; Grenville's colleagues extend
it to America, 452; obnoxious clauses

586

INDEX.

of. renewed inadvertently by the Brit-
ish ministry, iv. 12.

Nansemund River, in Virginia, coun-
try on, settled in 1609, i. 486; abounds
in non-conformists, 487.

Nantes, edict of, its revocation, i. 517;
the terrible consequences. 517, 518.

Nantieokes, inhabiting eastern shore be-
yond the Delaware, melt into other
tribe*, ii. 396.

Naples, the king of, conforms his com-
mercial policy to that of Spain, vi. 91;
accedes to Russian declaration of prin-
ciples of neutrality, 360.

Narragansett Bay, attempt of Mas-
sachusetts to acquire land on, i. 388;
people of Warwick ask aid of Massa-
chusetts to suppress disturbances made
by Gorton and others, 338.

Narragansett Indians, the, cannot keep
peace with Mohegans, 342, 343; but
are forced to submit to peace, 343, 344;
declared enemies by Massachusetts,
461 ; attacked and routed, 462 ; at end
of war, hardly one hundred men sur-
vive, 464.

Narvaez, Pamnhilo de, contracts to ex-
plore and reduce the region from the
Atlantic to the river Patinas, i. 28: his
fleet driven into Tampa Bay, ana he
takes possession of Florida for Spain,
30; he scours the country in search
of gold, 30; sails along the coast,
passing the mouth of the Mississippi,
31; perishes with most of his force,
32.

Nash, Abner, described by Martin as
" the oracle of the committee of New-
born, and a principal promoter of
sedition," v. 56.

Nashville, Tenn., site of, reached by
" Long Hunters," in 1770, iv. 213.

Natchez, founded by D'Iberville, and
first called Rosalie, in honor of Coun-
tess of Pontchartrain, ii. 366.

Natchez, the, a distinct nation, living
on banks of Mississippi; their lan-
guage has no etymological affinity with
any other; the tradition as to their
Mexican origin not trustworthy, ii.
403,404.

National bank, chartered by congress;
its notes to be payable on demand,
receivable for duties and taxes, and
for dues from the states; doubt of
power of confederation to charter a
bank ; is forbidden to use any powers
in any state, in conflict with its laws
or constitution; this prohibition re-

Sarded by Madison as admission of
efect of power; buys its own promises
at a discount, vi. 463. .
National government, a, Washington
sees the need of, and appeals to states
to make sacrifices for the public good ;
writes to George Mason, declaring that
the liberties or the country were never
in such peril, and, urging a return to
first principles in government, calls on

the able men of the country to coma
forth, vi. 194-196.

Naval code of England, extended to all
persons employed in king's service, on
lakes and rivers of North America, iii.
153. *

Naval fight between Rodney and Be
Grasse; the fleets compared; victory
of the British; De Grasse's flag-ship
strikes when foundering; heavy losses
of the French, vi. 446, 447.

Naval stores, England asserts monopcly
of, ii. 287, 288.

Naval successes of British, Hi. 210, 211.

Navigation act, the British, its provisions
as to colonial commerce, L 414-416;
involves foreign policy in contradic-
tions, 416; spreads seeds of hostility,
and contains pledge of American in-
dependence, 417: to the colonists an
unmitigated evil, 417; easily executed
in Virginia, 532.

Navigation, liberty of, a convention for,
between states-general, Spain, and
France, proposed by latter; proposal
put aside by grand pensionary, vL 233,
234.

Navy, the American, the origin of, t.
67; congress votes to build thirteen
ships-of-war. thus founding a navy,
141 ; difficulties in the way of establish-
ing, want of guns, &c; officers of,
taken from merchants' ships; unfit-
ness of highest officer in, v. 410; all
its vessels, except two frigates, cap-
tured or destroyed, vi. 413.

Navy, the British, employed to enforce
navigation act in colonies ; a new corps
of revenue officers formed, iii. 399, 400 ;
their alertness and zeal for forfeitures,
and illegal acts, 400; preys on French
commerce, vi. 161 ; no great officer of,
will serve against the United States,
422.

Neck, the northern (the country between
the Rappahannock and the Potomac),
patent for, granted to Cavaliers, i. 538,
539; surrendered, and an oppressive
new one granted to Lord Culpepper,
539.

Necker, a Protestant banker of Paris;
the office of comptroller-general, the
incumbent of which must swear to
support the Catholic religion, abolished
in his favor; made director-general of
the finances; not fitted for a states-
man, v. 526, 527; favors neutrality
towards America, vi. 83 ; secretly pro-
poses a peace to Lord North on the
basis of a truce, in which each shall
keep his acquisitions; the offer re-
garded in England as a confession of
weakness, 369, 370 ; Vergennes's opin-
ion of him; cries,"Peace, peace 1" echo-
ing the opinion of all Paris, 370 ; tries
to become head of ministry; had re-
fused a minister's salary, but his
fortune doubled by his banking-house,
372.

Necotowance, Indian chief, successor to

INDEX

687

Opechancanough, concludes peace with
English, i. 160.

Negotiations for peace between France
and England ; Choiseul favors it, and
offers to negotiate separately with
England, iii. 260, 261; bis terms, 262 ;
France's proposition with regard to
German war, 263 ; Frederic's statement
of his position, 263, 264: Ghoiseul con-
sents to abandon Canada to England,
264; opinions of British ministry as to
peace, 266; threats of a Spanish war,
266 ; England's ultimatum refused by
Choiseul, 267 ; languish, Grimaldi hop-
ing that English expedition against
Havana would be defeated, 292 ; peace
signed, 298; its terms, 298, 299; com-
ments on treaty, 299; treaty accepted
by British parliament, and ratified,
300.

Negroes, in American colonies, their
distribution, iii. 84; of Virginia, not
roused by Dunmore's proclamation;
content with their lot, none combine
to join him, v. 148; treated by Virgini-
ans with moderation, 216 : in the con-
tinental army; excluded from new
army by commissioners of congress,
but restored by Washington, with an
appeal to congress; serve in army
through the war, 162, 163; in the
south, permanent power of British
depends on the treatment of, vi. 261;
those employed in American army
ordered to be sold by Germain, to-
gether with those who seek British
protection, 262.

Netherlands, the, divide with England
the glory of planting first colonies in
the United States, ii. 18; the union
of the provinces, 19, 20; nature of
republic, 20; their pursuits and re-
sources, 20, 21; their vast commerce
and maritime powers, 21 ; nautical ex-

{>loring expeditions, 22 ; leave to recruit
n, desired by George III. ; the house
of Orange willing, but the dignity and
policy of states-general forbid; this
the first attempt to interest the Nether-
lands in the American war, v. 91, 92;
the states-general Zealand and Utrecht
consent to a second appeal, and Hol-
land objects, 168 ; finally the brigade is
offered, never to be used out of Europe,
169; their grave prepared by the war
between England and the United
States; suffered and toiled most of all
Germanic nations for liberty of con-
science, commerce, and politics, vi. 93;
the qualities, labors, and burdens of its
people, 94 ; the government divided by
England, which wins over the party
of the stadholder; her people see a
repetition of their own history in the
American struggle, 96 ; become bankers
of all nations; defects In the constitu-
tion, 232 ; distracted by foreign in-
fluence, 233; weakness of, imposes
neutrality ; an effort to strengthen the
navy thwarted; the people brave and

provident, but betrayed by stadholder,
234 ; deny right of England to disre-

§ard one treaty, and claim the bene-
t of others. 241 ; in fear of England,
must submit to, or associate with,
Russia; wish to accede to confed-
eracy of the north, 360; states-gen-
eral condemn conduct of Amsterdam
in treating with a representative of
America, and resolve to give Great
Britain any reasonable satisfaction,
362; general confidence in peace, 366;
provinces favor reception of American
envoy, and states-general confirm the
decision, 433; the second power in
the world to recognise independence of
the United States, 433.

Neufville, Jan de, a merchant of Am-
sterdam, meets Wi' dam Lee, and they
concert terms for a commercial con-
vention between the two republics,
vi. 235; his project repudiated by
Amsterdam, 436.

Neutrals, the law of, iii. 164; Frederic,
king of Prussia, declares that free
ships make free goods; Lord Mans-
field, that the effects of an enemy can
be seized on the vessel of a friend,
164; the rights of; Dutch republic,
becomes champion of; confirmed by
France and England in peace of
Utrecht, vi. 230; declaration of prin-
ciples for governing, put forth by
Catharine of Russia, 248.

New Albion, name given by Francis
Drake to southern part of Oregon ter-
ritory, i. 72.

New Albion, on Delaware Bay, patent
for, obtained for Sir Edward Ploy den;
but exists only on parchment, ii. 66.

New Amsterdam, almost vies with Bos-
ton, in 1664, ii. 60; its action on arrival
of Duke of York's fleet, and final sur-
render, 68.

Newark, N.J., occupied by colony from
New Haven, ii. 72; committee of, ready
to risk lives and fortunes in support of
Massachusetts, iv. 649.

Newbern, N.C., news from Lexington
reaches, in twelve or thirteen days, and
" wrought a great change ; " governor
orders cannon there dismounted, iv.
661 ; capital of North Carolina, founded
by Swiss emigrants, volunteers of,
openly form independent companies,
v. 62.

Newburyport, inhabitants of, and of
neighboring towns, in great meeting
agree to aid Boston at hazard of their
lives, iv. 277; merchants of, first to
agree to suspend all commerce with
Great Britain, 324.

Newcastle, Duke of, intrusted with seals
for southern department and the
colonies, iii. 14; his ignorance and
inefficiency, 14, 15; gives high colonial
offices to worthless men, 15; takes
seals for northern department, 16;
eager to get rid of Bedford, 47 ; resigns,
163; dares not attempt to form a new

588

INDEX.

ministry, 178 ; holds first seat at treas-
ury board under Pitt, 180; plots on
accession of George 111. to subvert
Pitt's system, 255; talks of resigning,
but remains to conspire against Pitt,
259 : discontented, complains of Bute's
coolness, and resigns, 289; weeps at
futility of conference of whig lords, iv.
54.

New England, its settlement the result
of the Reformation, i. 203 ; named by
John Smith, 207; population of, 452;
gloomy forebodings overspread, 481;
influence of, through emigration, on
New Netherland, ii. 61; colonies of,
persistent in extending their bounds
westward; their evasive policy to-
ward the Dutch, 65; ministers preach
sedition under Andros, 160 ; its people
compared with the Jews; skepticism
appears, 246 ; belief in witchcraft ; the
ministers, their influence, 247; essen-
tial character of, to be sought in West-
ern Massachusetts, and Connecticut,
267; an aggregate of municipal de-
mocracies, 269; becomes mistress of
the coast to eastern end of Nova Sco-
tia, 351; its institution of towns its
glory and strength, iii. 96 ; its political
character in eighteenth century to
be learned from constitution of its
towns, congregations, schools, and
militia, 97 ; people of, treated by British
government like swine, ready to sell
themselves, 117; triumphs in capture
of Louisburg, 195; how its people set-
tled the wilderness, 402; patriots of,
are unwilling to admit that parliament
has power to tax them, iv. 25, 26 ; its
moral, political, and industrial condi-
tion, 239; people of, increase their
frugality, and the poorest will not
work for British army, 400; an "un-
happy jealousy of," breaks out in con-
tinental congress ; vigorously rebuked
by Gadsden, of South Carolina, v. 64 ;
to be spared the least in ministry's
proposed devastation of colonies, 201 ;
true to Washington, and responsive to
his calls, 204; liberation of, cost less
than two hundred lives in battle, 204:
peace and good government restored
In, 204, 205 ; its choice of independence
spontaneous, 304; militia of, according
to General Howe, in action " the most
persevering of any in North America,"
and Washington's chief reliance, 553.

Newfoundland, reserved to the United
States in first draft of their treaty
with France, vi. 56.

New France, European population and
military strength of, in 1679; at-
tempted destruction of, by Five Na-
tions, ii. 148 ; seems to have firm hold
on Western New York, 153; has lit-
tle in its early days to give it vital-
ity, except religious enthusiasm, ii.
298; vain attempts to educate natives,
304 ; too feeble to defend itself against I
Iroquois, 372 ; receives officers from the |

king, — Tracy commander of royal
troops, Couxcelle8 as governor, and
Talon as intendant, 322; population
of, in 1688, 345; its treatment by
mother country, held in vassalage and
ignorance, iii. 303.

New Hampshire, people of, left to take
care of themselves after John Mason's
death, i. 258 ; in 1642, annexed to Mas-
sachusetts, 337 ; people express content
with government of Massachusetts, 170;
organized as a royal province; the
first royal government in New Eng-
land, 470; assembly sends thanks to
Massachusetts, and asks for help, 471;
declares no ordinance, act, &c, valid,
unless made by assembly, and ap-
proved by people, 471 ; its code disap-
proved in England, 471; Samuel
Allen's right to soil, bought of Mason,
recognised by English government,
and Allen commissioned to govern, ii*
253; new government organized by
Usher; a long season of litigation;
heirs of Allen, the proprietary, aban-
don their claims; dismembered by
king, and country north of Massachu-
setts, and west of Connecticut River,
annexed to New York ; grants of royal
governor of New Hampshire annulled,
iii. 431 ; assembly seems to favor con-
gress of delegates, but does not accept
the invitation to it, 481 ; its assembly
approves action of congress and colo-
nies, 523; elects committee of corre-
spondence, iv. 262 ; April 23, two thou-
sand New Hampshire men at Boston,
"not to return before the work was
done," 536; without a government;
Oct. 18, 1775, her delegates ask con-
gress to sanction her institution of a
government, but the answer is de-
layed ; members still dreaming of con-
ciliation, v. 68 ; convention of, disavows
intention of separating from the
mother country; the first colony to
form a government of its own, 162;
council and assembly vote in favor of
declaring the thirteen colonies a free
and independent state, 304; forms a
government in January, 1776, with
tew changes from colonial forms, and
in June, 1783, a more perfect instru-
ment, 503; legislature of, resolves to
co-operate with troops of the new
state, Vermont, and orders Stark with
a brigade of militia to stop progress of
enemy on the western frontier, 588.

New Haven, colony formed there in
1638, the religious spirit predominant
in its government, i. 320 ; asks Inger-
soll, stamp-officer, to resign, iii. 497.

New Ireland, a province constituted by
British government, and including the
part of Massachusetts between the Saco
and the St. Croix ; the form of govern-
ment provided for it, vi. 313, 314.

New Jersey) named in honor of Sir
George Carteret; how its moral char-
acter was moulded, ii. 69; in 1664, not

INDEX

589

a hamlet in West Jersey, 70; a con-
stituent assembly displaces Philip Car-
teret from governorship, and installs
James, a natural son of Sir George, 72 ;
people of, acquiesce in restoration of
Dutch power, 76; Carteret reinstated
as governor, on restoration of province
to .England, 77 ; half of, sold to Qua-
kers, 101; legislature of, repulses An-
dros; Sir George Carteret's trustees
sell their property to association of
Quakers, 141 ; the province is annexed
to New Y ork, 145 ; in 1688, proprietors
of East New Jersey surrender their
rights of government, and West New
Jersey surrenders "all records relat-
ing to government," the whole prov-
ince thus falling under government
of Andros, 223; two Jerseys united
under Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury ;
with a separate legislature, remains
thirty years under governors of New
York, 225; its form of- government.
225, 226; diminution of liberties, and
consequent growth of spirit of inde-
pendence, 226 ; quarrels with Lord Corn-
bury, 236; a "growing rebellion" re-
ported in, iii. 28 ; declines the invitation
of Massachusetts to a congress of dele-
gates, 481; desires to correspond and
unite with other colonies, iv. 86; de-
clares for suspension of trade and a
general congress, 334; committee of
correspondence instructed by With-
erspoon, president of Princeton Col-
lege, and William Livingston, that tea
should not be paid for, 358; congress
oi, directs a general association, as-
sumes regulation of militia, apportions
a levy of ten thousand pounds, excuses
Quakers from bearing arms; new pro-
vincial congress, meeting in October,
prays for restoration of harmony with
Great Britain, yet offers to raise four
thousand minute men, and to enroll
two regiments for continental service,
v. 36 ; letters of royal governor inter-
cepted, and so malignant that Lord
Stirling puts him under arrest, 164;
votes to re-enforce the army at New
York with 3,300 militia ; arrests royal
governor, Franklin; elects live delegates
to congress, friendly to independence ;
provisions of the constitution, 307, 308;
congress of, publishes at the same time
the declaration, and their own new
constitution, 336; president of body
wiiich frames new constitution, opposes
independence, and leans to reunion
with Great Britain; strong sentiment
in the state hostile to declaration,
438; nearly free, the British holding
only Brunswick and Amboy and Pau-
lus Hook, 497 ; perfects its new charter
in July, 1776; demands for United
States the regulation of trade, and
ownership of all not granted north-
western domain, but finally accepts
articles of confederation unamended,
ri. 148; requisitions of Washington on

magistrates and people of, promptly
filled, 215.

New London, Conn., resolutions of a
mass meeting at, iii. 524; plundered
and burnt by Arnold, vi. 412.

" New Netherland," a ship which carried
out thirty families of Protestant Wal-
loons to New Netherland, ii. 39.

New Netherland, the north and the south
united by acquisition of, ii. 17; name
given by states-general to region be-
tween New France and Virginia, 34:
colonization retarded by political
events in United Provinces, 37 ; Dutch
possessions undisputed by English in
1622; era of continuous civil govern-
ment in, 39; colony nearly annihi-
lated by Algonkin Indians, 49 ; solemn
treaty of peace, 52 ; policy of Governor
Stuy vesant, 52, 53 ; popular desire for
municipal liberties, 53; controversies
with New England colonies, 65 ; feeble,
because it had no popular freedom, and
thus no public spirit; condition con-
trasted with that of New England, 66;
rumors of English invasion, and no
means of defence, 66. 67 ; the articles
of surrender to English squadron, 68,
69; liberal concessions offered by new
proprietors, 69, 70; settlements in. on
Delaware, retained as part of New
York ; finally transferred to England
in 1674, 77.

New Orleans, people of, again' petition
France; apply to English, but gover-
nor of Pensacola declines their ad-
vances; resolve to form a republic;
Sropose, if Louisiana were given up to
pain, to burn New Orleans, iv. 164;
despair on O'Reilly's arrival, who re-
ceives a committee politely, and dis-
misses them, assured of amnesty, 165;
inhabitants take oath of allegiance to
kins of Spain, 166 ; estates of prisoners
confiscated, and some hanged, some
imprisoned, 166; citizens, and families
of those who had not shared in revolu-
tion, appeal in vain for mercy, 166 ; pop-
ulation of; kept depressed, that It
might not attract England's cupidity,
167.

Newport, commander of Gorges and
Popham fleet, 1. 98; sails for England,
99; makes second voyage to Virginia,
102; admiral of Lord Delaware's ex-
pedition. 106.

Newport, in harbor of, a vessel rescued
from revenue officers, and their ship
captured, iv. 163; arrival of French
fleet at; British forced to destroy ten
or more armed vessels, vi. 150.

New. Salem, Mass., opines that Divine
Providence and the necessity may call
on us, and all the colonies, to make our
last appeal, iv. 257.

Newton, Bishop, in house of lords argues
that rebellion is the sin of witchcraft,
and New England's must be due to
diabolical infatuation, iv. 478, 479.

New York, the bond of New England

500

INDEX.

and Virginia, II. 17; establishment of
English jurisdiction not followed by
desired concessions ; all political power
In governor and council. 83; remon-
strances of colonists, and demand for
annual assemblies; taxation for de-
fence attempted and rejected by towns
of Long Island, 74 ; once more a prov-
ince of the Netherlands, 75; trade
becomes free; general assembly of
free-holders establishes self-govern-
ment and religious toleration; pro-
claims William king, 183,184; politi-
cal and religious differences in, 226,
827; committee of safety appoint
Leisler to command of fort, 227;
Leister constituted temporary gov-
ernor; magistrates at Albany re-
solve to ignore his authority ; Albany
yields to Mii borne, Leisler 's son-in-
law, 228 ; arrival of Governor Slough-
ter, 229; all parties favor colonial
freedom ; rebellions under government
of Fletcher, 231: robbed of revenues
by Lord Cornbury, the assembly
asserts "the rights of the house/'
235; third assembly under Cornbury
forces him to submit, 236; assembly
claims an " inherent right " to legis-
late, 239; would extend her bounds
over part of Connecticut, but that
colony demurs, 241; Governor Shir-
ley's appeal, and the assembly's reply,
ill. 35, 36; conflict between royal gov-
ernor and colonial assembly violent;
laws of trade provoke discontent,
95; land-holders, lawyers, merchants,
join heartily to resist English encroach-
ments, 96; assembly of, objects to
stamp duty, but not to moderate im-
post on West India products, 117, 118;
general opposition to appointment of
Pratt to be cliief justice, at the king's
pleasure, 282; assembly threatens
to withhold salaries from the new
judges, 283; spirit of resistance no-
where so strong, 432; assembly re-
fuses supplies for troops under act of
parliament, 524; judges restrained
from holding their terms by threat of
dismissal, 532; congress of, produces its
plan of accommodation, vi. 9, 10 ; con-
vention of, attributes discontent to at-
tempts to execute oppressive acts of
parliament; rejects thought of a sepa-
rate declaration, confirms deliberative
powers of continental congress, and es-
tablishes a committee of safety with
full executive powers within the colony,
140; election ordered of deputies to
form a new government to last till
peace with Britain, 304, 305 ; royalists
sure that junction of British troops in
New York and Canada may be made,
and the colony crushed, 336. 337 ; con-
vention approves independence, and
by its action completes the union of
thirteen colonies, 337; almost alone
has no religious test for office, 512;
lots of Ticonderoga alarms patriots,

and fixes Indians as enemies; fivt
counties held by enemy, three others
in a state of anarchy ; threatened on
ail sides, becomes battle-field of the
republic, 587 .

New York, legislature of, founds claims
to western territory; authorizes con-
gress to restrict its boundaries on the
west, vi. 337.

New York, city oft incorporated, 11. 83;
the centre of political interest, ill. 94;
its vast commerce, 398; receipt of news
of stamp act, 420 ; stamp-officer forced
to resign, 496 : merchants of, bind them-
selves to order no goods, to counter-
mand orders issued, and to receive no
goods on commission, unless the stamp
act were repealed, 519; riotous pro-
ceedings, 521; Moore, the new gov-
ernor, dismantles the fort, and sus-
pends his power to execute the stamp
act, 522, 6g3; validity of navigation
acts more » vigorously impugned; a
cargo of stamps destroyed, 534; as-
sembly votes to raise equestrian statue
of George III., and a statue of Pitt;
merchants of, petition for changes in
acts of trade, 34; makes grant of
money, without specifications, under
billeting act, which Shelburne accepts,
53; merchants meet to join Boston in
non-importation agreement: council
decides that meetings were legal, 87;
asserts its legislative rights distinctly,
and appoints committee of intercolo-
nial correspondence, 140; the governor
wishes repeal of revenue acts. 173 ; car-
dinal policy of, to develop colonial lib-
erty through an American constitution
and a general congress, the connection
with Great Britain continuing, 200;
assembly invites each colony to elect
representatives to a body which should
legislate for all. 201; people resolved
that tea should not be landed, and
consignees resign, 272; anticipates
the prayer of Boston, and resents the
port-bill, 326; the Livingstons, in-
clined to republicanism, exercise pre-
dominant influence, 353; the nomi-
nees for congress give proof of zeal
for liberty, 358; influences of church
and college brought against the con-

Sess; the timid alarmed by rumors
at savages would be let loose on
them, &c.,454, 455; assembly had long
since ceased to represent the people.
456; the people compelled to proceed
by revolutionary methods, 458; still
desires a constitutional union of
Great Britain and America, but re-
solves to make common cause with
the continent, 461 ; friends of British
system in colony not many, 486; in no
colony has England less sympathy
from the people, 485, 486 ; the assembly
refusing to choose delegates to second
• congress, the city votes in favor of
such choice, 513; assembly rejected by
parliament, because it questioned that

INDEX.

591

body's right to tax America, 515; news
of Lexington received, and the people
throw off restraints ; they shut the cus-
tom-house ; military stores of city se-
cured, and volunteers take up arms ; a
new general committee for city and
county chosen, who resolve to " stand
or fall with the liberty of the country,"
546, 547 ; Washington and Tryon, the
royal governor, approaching ; brilliant
reception of Washington ; Tryon lands
after night-fall, finding himself almost
alone, suspected, and liable to arrest ;
is undeceived as to political sentiments
of the colony: amazed and dejected,
masks his designs, v. 8, 9 ; the popular
movement irresistible in, but many
rich merchants oppose separation, 183;
strength of the British to be concen-
trated there. 241; a mob, partly com-
posed of soldiers, throws down statue
of George III., 338 ; winter gayety of
English officers, 477.

New World, influence of, on Old, a prize
question at Paris, ii. 186.

Niagara, peace ratified at, between colo-
nies and Senecas, ill. 429.

Nicholas, George, captain of guard which
defends Hampton, Va., against Dun-
more; his gun the first fired against
the Britishln Virginia, v. 145.

Nicholson, Francis, first lieutenant-gov-
ernor of Virginia, under King Wil-
liam; Andrors deputy in government
of northern colonies, under James II. ;
College of William and Mary estab-
lished by him, ii. 206; commands expe-
dition which captures Acadia, 378.

Nicola, an old officer of American army,
writes to Washington on monarchy,
suggesting that the general should be
king, vi. 464, 465.

Nicolls, Richard, conducts English
squadron to take New Netherland for
Duke of York, ii. 67; demands ac-
knowledgment of English sovereignty ;
receives capitulation, 68; protests
against division of his province by
creation of New Jersey, 71.

Nipisings, a great chief of, killed at Fort
William Henry, ill. 173: his funeral,
174.

Ninety-Six, possession of fort at, dis-
puted, v. 47, 48 ; siege of, begun by
Greene, who, hearing of Rawdon's ap-
proach, orders an assault, which fails,
and, raising the siege, he retires to
Enoree, vi. 405; evacuated by Cruger,
406.

Nobility, in Germany, strictly a caste;
proud, but venal, iii. 315.

Noddle's Island (now East Boston) and
Hog Island, covered with cattle, horses,
sheep, and hogs: a party from Chelsea
drives them off; pursued by British
marines, they fire on the latter's vessel
till she is deserted, and set her on
Are; General Putnam in command,
and Warren present, iv. 573.

Non-conformists, after Revolution of

1688, excluded from high office, U.
191.
Non-importation agreement ; in Boston,
only four merchants hold out against
it ; their names inscribed on town jour*
nals as infamous, iv. 174; the last dis-
sentients in Boston yield, 176; broken
by Hutchinson's sons, who secretly
sell tea, 183; he engages to deposit
price of tea sold, and to return the
rest, 184 ; Canada, Georgia, Carolina,
Maryland, and Virginia increase ini-

{)ortations, 204; New York alone bo-
ng true to its engagement, 204, 205;
Franklin advises Philadelphia mer-
chants to adhere to agreement, 205;
merchants of New York vote to import
all goods save tea ; trade between Eng-
land and America open in every thing
but tea, 205; joy at the news in Lon-
don, 206.

Nook Hill, commanding Boston Neck,
fortification of, begun by Americans,
interrupted by British fire, but prose •
cuted, v. 199, 200; possession of, taken
by Washington, and with it power of
opening highway from Roxbury to
Boston; at sight of his works, British
retreat hurriedly, and in six hours are
on board transports, 201.

Norfolk, chief port of Virginia, sends
warm greetings to Boston, iv. 339; the
refuge of Scotch factors of Glasgow
merchants, embodied as loyal militia;
the patriots resolve to take it, v. 148 ;
taken by Robert Howe, of North Caro-
lina; arrival of three thousand stand
of arms, with which Dunmore pro-
poses to equip negroes and Indians, 150 ;
Jan. 1, 1776, the saddest day in its
history ; bombarded by sixty guns from
the ships-of-war, and four fifths of it
laid in ashes, 151, 152; the association?
with its name, 152; its remaining
houses demolished by order of conven-
tion, 164.

North, Lord, enters public life under fa-
vorable auspices, ill. 106; accepts place
in ministry, but soon resigns it, iv. 4 ;
opposed to every popular measure:
leader in American affairs, 59; will
never consent to repeal revenue act
till America is prostrate, 130; gives, at
king's request, casting-vote against re-
peal of duty on tea, 158 ; accepts ap-
pointment of first lord of treasury,
182; says tea is of all commodities the
properest for taxation, 196; proposes
to check American manufactures, 197 ;
inclined to make concessions in view
of resumption of trade with America,
206; settles dispute with Spain about
Falkland Islands, amicably and hon-
orably, 216; refuses to discuss right of
parliament to tax America, 261 ; opens
first branch of his American plan by
measures for punishing Boston, 296;
introduces Boston port-bill, and prom-
ises to use force, if necessary, to exe-
cute it, 296, 297; proposes to Bend out

592

INDEX.

a commission of inquiry, 431: rejects
propositions of congress, which in-
clude repeal of act regulating Massa-
chusetts, but is ready to negotiate with
Americans as to the right to tax them-
selves, 438 ; throws off responsibility of
tax on tea, 468; proposes to restrain
commerce of New England, and ex-
clude its fishermen from the banks,
478 ; seeks to learn from Franklin the
least amount of concession that would
be accepted, 480 ; offers a new plan, that
parliament, if colonies would tax them-
selves to its satisfaction, would impose
on them no duties save for regulation
of commerce, 480, 481 ; his system and
Chatham's compared, 481 ; proposes to
arm Indians, turn British soldiers on
free quarters among the Americans,
remodel charters of the latter, and
take away their political privileges,
493 ; really wishes to concede and con-
ciliate, but cannot cone to an agree-
ment, even with himself, 614, 515;
happy in family and fortune, tender-
hearted, alone of the ministers suscep-
tible to remorse ; is disheartened, and
wishes to resign, but the king will not
release him, or relent toward Ameri-
cans, 561 ; retains confidence of land-
holders by a sacrifice of his opinions
and of America, v. 106 ; says he never
will cease to pursue the legislative
claims of parliament as long as Amer-
icans dispute oux power, 418, 419;
thinks Cornwallis will sweep American
army before him, and end the war in
the spring, 477; proposes to restore
America to the condition of 1763; an
attempt made to eject him from the
cabinet, 539 ; agitated by news of loss
of Burgoyne's army, vi. 55 ; reproaches
himself for staying in the ministry,
when convinced that peace should be
made with America, 56; avows that
he has never had a policy of bis own,
60; despondent, and desires to make
way for Chatham, 62 ; hints to the king
that the game in America is not worth
the candle, 224; repeatedly offers his
resignation, 225; on hearing of York-
town, says, "It is all over," 430: an-
nounces in commons the end of his
administration ; posterity more lenient
and less just to him than Johnson;
gives America independence by his
mismanagement, 435 ; in England, his
scholarship and good temper and

E raises from great men give him a
etter fame than he deserves, 436.

North America, two European powers
sole sovereigns of, iv. 122.

Northampton county, Va., committee of,
offer premium for the manufacture of
gunpowder, iv. 454.

North Britain, most intelligent philoso-
phers of, reluctantly acquiesce in meas-
ures of ministry, or openly rebuke
them, v. 109.

North Carolina, origin of fixed settle-

ments in, 1. 488; authentic record of
history of, begins in 1669, when colo-
nists of Albemarle frame a few laws,
498, 499 ; alarmed by conduct of pro-
prietaries' agents, people assume the
government, 502 ; proprietaries restore
the simple government of the young
colony, 502; runaways from Virginia
flee to North Carolina, 503 : tem-
porary government organized, 50(5;
Governor Sothel exiled, 507 ; tranquil-
lity restored, 508; the paradise or the
Quakers, 508; naval stores chief pro-
duct of; proprietors- resolve to establish
church of England, ii. 202: prescrip-
tive laws cannot be enforced; anarchy
prevails; Thomas Cary appointed dep-
uty governor by governor of South
Carolina; displaced by proprietaries,
who permit their deputies to elect Wil-
liam Glover; colony rent with divi-
sions, 203; a bloodless insurrection;
increase of population and trade, 205;
legislature of, issues its first bills of
credit, 435; the people of. pay the
crown's servants scantily, lii. 26; its

{>roducts, habits of its people, spirit of
ndependence, 86; assembly of, claims
right of imposing its own taxes, 436:
people of, would not permit use of
stamps, or sutler its ports to be closed,
523; first blood of "rebels" shed:
injustice and severity of tax-laws, and
extortions of Fanning and collecting
officers ; associations of " regulators
formed; shots fired into Fanning'*
house, and three of rioters arrested, iv.
104, 105; the governor empowers Fan-
ning to call out militia in nine coun-
ties, and suppress insurrection by
force; the petition of regulators of
Orange county to assembly Fanning
calls insurrection, and orders arrest of
Husbands and William Butler, 106,
107; the governor demands their in-
stant submission, 108 ; every new law
on judiciary system — the law estab-
lishing courts having expired — nega-
tived by governor, and no courts in
the province, 292; first provincial con-
gress meets in defiance of governor ; it
approves general congress, and elects
delegates thereto, 360 ; the convention
adheres to congress, and gives instruc-
tions to delegates; measures of, look
to peace, 504 ; governor alarmed by
excitement at Newborn, ships his wife
to New York, and flees to Fort John-
son, 551 ; in the low country, all classes
devoted to liberty, v. 51 ; the spirit of
resistance spreads, strengthened along
Albemarle Sound by the writings of
James Iredell, Joseph Hewes, and the
wisdom of Samuel Johnston, 53; a
convention at Hillsborough, moderate,

J ret zealous ; pronounces Martin's proo-
aination a libel, and orders it burnt
by the common hangman; professes
allegiance to the king, but sternly re-
sists parliamentary taxation ; resolves

INDEX.

69a

that people of the province are bound
by acts of congress, because repre-
sented therein, 54; the Highlanders
urged to join in defence of their natu-
ral rights, 66; adoption of Franklin's
plan of a confederacy prevented by
Johnston, 66 ; in less than two weeks,
over nine thousand men rise against
the enemy, and the coining of Clinton
causes no terroi 193 ; receives offers of
aid, but has men enough of her own
to protect herself, 193; its delegates
In congress authorized to concur in
foreign alliances; the first colony to
vote an explicit sanction to indepen-
dence, 238; its constitution ratified by
congress, which framed it, Dec. 18,
1776, 604 ; signs articles of confedera-
tion, vi. 148; legislature calls out two
thousand men to serve five months
under Ashe and Rutherford, 263.

Northern campaign of 1779, two objects
of, — capture of Fort Niagara and
Detroit, and recovery of New York
city. vi. 193 ; main result of, favorable
to Americans, 214; Stony Point and
Rhode Island evacuated by British,
and no enemy in New England, west
of Penobscot, 214.

Northern department, the rivalry of
Schuyler and Gates, v. 656; the latter
ordered by congress to take command
of it, 666; replaced by Schuyler, 658;
watched with peculiar care by Wash-
ington, 681; he orders thither Arnold
and Lincoln, and Glover's brigade;
urges New England militia to march
for Saratoga, 682.

Northington, chancellor in the Cumber-
land administration, argues that de-
Sendence of colonics had been fully
eclared in reign of William III., and
affirms that America must submit, ill.
631 ; but votes for repeal of stamp act,
682 ; opposes the making Roman Cath-
olic Canadians eligible as justices and
judges, iv. 12.

Norton, John, sent envoy by Massachu-
setts to England, i. 437.

Nova Scotia, territory granted by Henry
IV. of France, and occupied by French,
afterwards granted by James I. to Sir
William Alexander, i. 260; futile at-
tempts at Scottish settlement of, 260;
news of occupation of isthmus, and
warlike acts by the French, sent to
England, and Massachusetts and New
Hampshire invited to aid in punishing
them, iii. 46; Shelburne proposes to
extend it to Penobscot, or Kennebec,
or Saco, to make a province for loyal-
ist refugees, vi. 477.

Noyau, a patriot of New Orleans, con-
demned to death by O'Reilly, might
have escaped, but shares the doom
of his associates, iv. 166.

Nugent, in house of commons, insists
that honor and dignity of the king-
dom obliged them to execute the stamp
set, unless the right was admitted,

and the repeal solicited as a favor, til.
638.
Nurse, Rebecca, her trial for witchcraft,
ii. 260.

O'Brien, Captain Jeremiah, captures
British cutter " Margaretta," iv. 656.

Oconostata, chief of Cherokees in South
Carolina, urges peace, iii. 231; ar-
rested, 232, 233; and exchanged, 233;
resolves to rescue hostages at Fort
Prince George, 234.

Officers of crown, in America, designs of
English government confided to, iii.
408; disappointed that taxes levied
were to be applied to military pur-
poses, 408, 409.

Ogden, an officer of Sullivan's command,
crosses to Staten Island, and captures
eighty prisoners, v. 592.

Ogden, or New Jersey, in congress argues
in favor of supremacy of parliament,
iii 515; does not sign the proceedings,
515 ; disavowed by his constituents, and
burned in effigy, 523.

Oglethorpe, in England, distributes
pamphlets in favor of America, iv.
86.

Ohio, to secure it to the English world,
a colony proposed by Lawrence ana
Augustus Washington, of Virginia,
iii 29.

Ohio company, of Virginia, discovers
path by Will's Creek to Ohio, iii. 60;
forming a settlement among the moun-
tains, 60.

Ohio Indians propose to Virginia to
build a fort on Ohio, and promise aid
against French; make like proposi-
tion to Pennsylvania, which is evaded,
iii. 66.

Ohio River, region drained by: what
race shall people it? iii. 49; Thomas
Walker explores the Cumberland re-
gion, 49; threatened invasion of, by
French; vainly protested against by
Indians, 68, 69.

Ohio valley, mutual propositions of Eng-
land and France to abandon, ill. 1H,
115.

Olden, Barneveldt, with Grotius, claims
sovereignty exclusively for provincial
assemblies of United Provinces, and
opposes colonization in America; is
arrested and executed, ii. 36. 37.

Oldham, John, claims ownership of mueh
land on Boston Bay, through title from
Robert Gorges, i. 271; murdered by
Indians, 313.

Oliver, Andrew, delegate to convention
at Albany, iii. 20; his character, 20;
appointed stamp distributor, and re-
elected councillor by a small majority,
470; hanged in effigy in Boston, 492;'
promises not to serve as stamp-officer,
493 ; lieutenant-governor of Massachu-
setts, alarmed by assemblage excited
by seizure of powder, hurries to warn
General Gage; his resignation de-
manded by three or four thousand

VOL. VI.

38

594

INDEX.

men surrounding his home; refuses
to submit, but yields to all their de-
mands, iv. 364.

Oneidas, care taken to retain their friend-
ship, vi. 61.

Onondagas, a tribe of Five Nations, wel-
oome Ghaamonot and Dablon, mis-
sionaries; their land part of empire
of France, ii. 317; though converted,
their savage nature unchanged, 318;
continue their barbarities, 318, 319;
French abandon valley of Oswego, 319;
their great village burned on approach
of Frontenac ; heroic conduct or an old
man, 356, 357; Roman Catholic, and
friendly to French; sneer at parsimony
of New York, in refusing to aid the
Six Nations, Hi. 49; settlements of,
destroyed by party under Van Schaick
and Wlllett, vi. 212.

Opechancanough, Indian chief in Vir-
ginia, captures John Smith, i. 101;
capture and death of, 160.

Orange, William of, his noble answer to
counsel to yield to England, ii. 76; as-
cends throne of England, 171; pro-
claimed in America with hearty re-
joicings, 174; his character could
mould England's policy, not its consti-
tution ; centre of opposition to France ;
his absorbing passion, 190 ; meaning of
his election, 192; desires to unite colo-
nies to help him against France, 273;
his death, 281.

Orangeburg, S.O., held by the British,
surrenders to Sumter, vi. 404.

Ordination, Episcopal, after Restoration,
first made indispensable to church
preferment; the reformed churches in
England, and on the continent, ex-
cluded from fellowship with Anglican
church, i. 412.

Oregon, visited in 1505 by Juan Rodri-
guez Gabrlllo, 1 72.

O'Reilly, Alexander, ordered by king of
Spain to suppress spirit of indepen-
dence in New Orleans, tv. 152 ; arrives
at the Bailee; receives deputies of
colony; takes possession of town, and
arrests principal patriots by strategy,
164-166; his conduct approved by the
king, 166, 167 ; in charge of war depart-
ment of Spain; his arrogance and
harshness, v. 535.

Orloff, Alexis, an officer in Russian court,
efficient in raisins Catharine II. to the
throne; his good-will counted on by
the British minister ; his influence on
the wane, v. 62.

Ornithology of Virginia, i. 176.

Osborne, Sir Danvers, appointed gover-
nor of New York, iii. 65; welcomed
there, but thwarted and discouraged
by firmness of assembly, 66; hangs
himself, 66.

Oswald, Richard, of Scotland, Shel-
burne's agent to treat with American
commissioners ; had passed many years
in America, and agreed on questions
of commerce with Adam Smith, vi.

439; goes to Paris, 440; fees Franklin,

442; instructed by Shelburne, that if
America Is to be independent, she mast
have no secret connection with France:
that Canada cannot be ceded, and
loyalists must be restored to their
rights, 443; his commission conforms
to " enabling act," 456; authorised to
treat with American commissioners
under any titles, and to exchange with
them plenipotentiary powers, 457 ; re-
ceives a new commission to make
peace or truce with the states, 473;
authorized to sign a treaty with ap-
proval of Fitzherbert and Strachey,

Oswego, threatened by French force, ill.
156; captured by Montcalm, 168.

Otis, James, bis speech against writs of
assistance, iii. 274, 275; the "great
incendiary " of .New England, 275; his
characteristics, 277; elected represen-
tative in assembly, 278; points out
danger of uniting executive and legis-
lative powers in one person, 285;
claims right of originating all taxes,
as the most darling privilege of the
representatives, 295: charged with
treason. 295, 296: maintains the rights
of a colonial assembly to be equal to
those of house of commons, 296, 297 ;
urges necessity of acquiescence in
stamp act. 467 ; denounced by patriots
and royalists, 468; advises the calling
of an American congress, and is elected
to represent Massachusetts at New
York. 471; his vacillation increases
with bis infirmities ; ceases to be of pub-
lic importance, 618; declares that, if a
king lets the affairs of a state run into
disorder, his conduct is a real abdica-
tion, 533, 534; says that there is no dis-
tinction between inland taxes and port
duties. 587 ; thanks Hawley in general
court for affirming that parliament had
no right to legislate for Massachusetts,
iv. 24 ; attributes taxing of America
to Bernard's advice, 26; and advises
Boston to make no opposition to the
new duties, 60; becomes rhapsodical,
and shrinks from thought of indepen-
dence. 69, 70; almost irresponsible,
provokes an affray with customs-offi-
cer, in which he Is hurt, 174 ; impedes
the public cause, 224; is chosen to re-
port for committee of correspondence;
his intellect a ruin, 243; his sudden
death, 244; fears that colonies, if sep-
arated from England, will fall Into
bloody dissensions, 378.

Otis, James, the younger, resigns office
of advocate-general, and eloquently
opposes the royalists, iii. 253.

Ottawas. friendly to the French, iii. SO;
reception of their delegates at Pioqua,
62,53.

Ouessant, scene of insignificant action
between French and English fleets.
vi. 162.

Oxenstiern, minister to Gustavo* Adol-

INDEX.

695

phus of Sweden, carries out coloniz-
ing design* of bis master, ii. 47.

Oxford, University of, on day of Russell's
execution, declares absolute obedience
to be the character of church of Eng-
land, ii. 166; its franchises invaded
by James II., 170; addresses the king
against Americans, as " a people who
had forfeited their lives and fortunes to
the justice of the state." v. 102.

Oyster River, village of, in New Hamp-
shire, dxtroyed by Abenakis, ii. 363.

Pacts, Robert Treat, delegate from Mas-
sachusetts to general congress, iv. 344.

Paine, Thomas, "'rejects the hardened,
sullen-tempered Pharaoh of the Brit-
ish throne for ever," iv. 549 ; writes an
appeal in favor of Independence, called
" Common Sense," v. 86 ; his origin and
training; extracts from the essay, 156-
161 ; its publication timely, on account
of burning of Norfolk, 161.

Paine, Timothy, forced by mob, at Wor-
cester, to march through their ranks,
bare-headed, and to read resignation
of his seat in council, iv. 375.

Palatines, settle in Carolina ; attacked by
Tuscaroras, ii. 384.

Palmer, Eliakim, protests, for Connecti-
cut, against Walpole's bill to overrule
all charters, ill. 33.

Panin, first minister of Catharine II. of
Russia, not corrupt, and the fittest
man for his office; always declines al-
liance of England ; won to the interest
of Frederic of Prussia, v. 62; replies to
French minister that it " is physically
impossible, nor is it consistent with the
dignity of England, to employ foreign
troops against its own subjects," 97;

gves his word to French minister that
ussia has no engagement with Eng-
land, vi. 238; advises empress to stand
out before the world as champion of
rights of neutrals, 248; regards Ameri-
can independence as advantageous to
all nations, and thinks England will be
forced to recognise it, 361.

Paoli, general of Corsican insurgents,
informs England that, if supplied, he
can hold out eighteen months; sup-
plies furnished by ministry, but Paoli
obliged to retire, iv. 100.

Paper money, first issue of, in Connecti-
cut, iv. 413.

Paris, wits and philosophers of, warmly
sympathetic toward America, arguing
that, having no representatives in par-
liament, she owes no obedience to Brit-
ish laws, iv. 566 ; in transports of joy
on news of Burgoyne's surrender, vi.
66; the centre of gay society of Eu-
rope, 86; clamorous for peace, 475.

Parker, John, captain of minute men, in
Lexington, iv. 519: renews the fight
on return of British from Concord,
629.

Parker, Jonas, of Lexington, had prom-
ised never to run from British troops;

Is brought to his knees in the Lexing-
ton fight, but loads his gun, when he is
killed by a bayonet, iv. 520.

Parker, Moses, of Chelmsford, wounded
and captured at Bunker Hill ; dies in
Boston jail, iv. 622.

Parker, Sir Peter, commands naval force
sent against the southern colonies, dif-
fers in opinion from Sir Henry Clinton,
v. 271 ; opens fire, 278; stands alone on
deck of " Bristol," swept by fire of the
fort. 281 ; withdraws his fleet, 283, 284 ;
his losses, 284; tries to sail up the bay-
to attack New York, but is blown off,

. 376; convoys Clinton's command to
Newport, R.I., 458.

Parliament, the Long, Massachusetts
declines to ask favors of, i. 331 ; asserts
its power over colonies, 368; invites
Massachusetts to receive new patent ;
the offer refused, 368.

Parliament, the first under Charles II.,
devoted to monarchy and prelacy, i.
411.

Parliament, the twelfth, assembled; its
members too busy with elections to
touch American affairs, iv. 63 ; exceeds
all former parliaments in profligacy,
80; colonists now knew it to be their
worst enemy, 81; the thirteenth re-
turned, 85; the fourteenth opens with
king's speech, calling attention to dis-
obedience of Massachusetts, 430.

Parliament, British, its power over col-
onies discussed in congress, iv. 397;
the ministry aided by bribery, 428;
of Paris, refuses to register Turgot's
decrees for relief of peasants and me-
chanics, and registry carried only by
extreme exercise of king's prerogative,
v. 225; power of, to tax colonies, al-
ready given up by members, at decla-
ration of independence; never abdi-
cated its power over charters, 364;
after capture of Charleston and rout of
Gates, grants all demands of ministry
for men and money, vi. 369; in No-
vember, 1782, prorogued, in hope of
signing of treaty with America, 480.

Parliamentary reform, first seriously
considered in Rockingham's adminis-
tration; feebly supported by Fox, and
opposed, by Burke, and favored by
Shelburne's friends; yet question lost,
by a majority of twenty, vi. 449: goes
hand in hand with triumph of liberty
in America, 450.

Parny, a French writer, asks cynically,
Why should Americans be free more
than the French? vi. 84.

Parris, Samuel, minister at Salem Vil-
lage, whips Tituba, his Indian servant,
till she confesses herself a witch, ii.
256; "the beginner and procurer of
sore afflictions," 257; driven from Sa-
lem Village, 267.

Parsons, a brigadier of Connecticut, com-
mands a regiment at battle of Long
Island, v. 375; in heat of the fight,
thinks it time to retreat, leaves his

696

index:

men, hides in a swamp, and returns to
camp next day, 378.

Parties, in Great Britain; whig aristoc-
racy passing out of power, and prefer
the gratification of their passions to all
considerations of wisdom and expedi-
ency, iv. 34; the two, which were to
spread through the country, begin in
New York ; the policy of each, 356, 367.

Patcrson, Howe's adjutant-general, en-
ters American camp to negotiate as to
prisoners, and asks to have his visit re-
garded as the first advance from com-
missioners; Washington answers that
"they have power only to grant par-
don: having committed no fault, we
need no pardon," v. 343.

Patriotism of American people ready to
show itself in every dangerous crisis,
vi. 215.

Patronage of the crown, amount of, iv.
55.

Paulding, John, head of a partisan corps
in New York ; intercepts Major Andrd,
and delivers him to commander at
North Castle, vi. 326, 327.

Paul us Hook (now Jersey City) captured,
with one hundred and fifty-nine pris-
oners, by Major Henry Lee, vi. 211,
212.

Pavonia, name given to his estate in
New Jersey and Staten Island by
Michael Pauw, ii. 43.

Pax ton, Charles, lends money to George
Townshend, to secure his favor, iii. 27;
sent over to England as the friend of
Oliver and Hutchinson, iv. 21 ; opines
that ships-of-war and a regiment are
needed to insure tranquillity in the
colonies, 59.

Payson, of Chelsea, captures two wagons
sent out to British retreating from
Concord, iv. 530.

Peace, negotiations for, beginning of, vi.
438, 439: suspended by refusal of Jay
to treat with Oswald, 458: acknowl-
edgment of independence the first ar-
ticle; British creditors and refugees
concentrate their opposition, 473; the
articles of; compensation of loyal refu-
gees, and the restoration of tneir civil
rights defeated, 474, 475 ; great features
ox treaty, not changed by English min-
istry, which accepts free navigation of
the Mississippi, but reserves reciprocity
in commerce and navigation, 476;
Franklin's objections to recognition of
validity of debts contracted before the
war, 478; Americans make an accepta-
ble proposition as to loyalists ; an agree-
ment reached as to fisheries : Franklin
prevents a reference to the British
government, 482; treaty not to be con-
cluded until terms of peace have been
agreed on between Great Britain and
France; treaty of peace between the
United States of America and Great
Britain signed and sealed by commis-
sioners of both countries, 483.

Peace, terms of, referred by congress to

a committee of five ; report of commit-
tee on boundaries and fisheries partly
adopted, vL 199, 200; motion of Morris,
that acknowledgment of independence
be the sole condition of peace, declared
out of order, 201 ; an article binding
the United States not to extend do-
minion beyond limits to be fixed by the
treaty, set aside; the struggle on con-
ditions ends in favor of "Galilean"
party; a committee appointed to pre-
pare a commission for American nego-
tiator of peace, 202: John Adams and
Jay candidates for tne post, and Adams
elected contrary to wishes of French
court, 205.

" Peggy Stewart," owner of, pays duties
on her cargo of tea at Annapolis; the
people indignant; watch the tea, to
prevent its landing, and hold publio
meetings, and compel owners to offer
to burn it, iv. 404.

Pemaquid, captured by Penobscot In-
dians, ii. 349: rebuilt by English, 353;
taken by D'lberville and Castin, 355.

Pembroke, Mass., declares that, if parlia-
ment persists, it will soon break the
union between England and the colo-
nies, iv. 248.

Pendleton, Edmund, chairman of Vir-
ginia committee of safety; desires re-
dress of grievances, not a revolution,
v. 44; thinks stamp act void for want
of constitutional authority, 567.

Penn, John, succeeds Caswell as dele-
gate to general congress from North
Carolina, v. 55.

Penn, Bichard, proprietary and recently
governor of Pennsylvania, carries
second petition to the king, v. 13; the
king will not see him, 79; presents
petition to Dartmouth; told that, as it
was not received on the throne, there
would be no answer, 81; at bar of
house of lords, testifies to desire of
congress for conciliation, 103.

Penn, William, charter to, granted by
Charles II., i. 432; quoted, ii. 81, 86-
89, 92. 98, 108, 110, 111, 113-116.
126, 127 ; buys, with eleven others, East
New Jersey of the heirs of Car*
teret, 106; receives charter of Pennsyl-
vania, 107; his proclamation, 108, 109;
his pledges redeemed; discourages
monopoly, 109, 110; his thoughts on

fovernment, 110; obtains release of
hike of York's claim on Delaware,
and holds the territory, with his fam-
ily, 111, 112; lands at Newcastle, 112;
his conversion and imprisonment;
arraigned for speaking at a Quaker
meeting; turns his attention to the
New World, 118 ; his ideas of govern-
ment compared with Locke's, 119-121:
his treaty with Indians, 122; lays out
Philadelphia, 125; leaves people free
to alter frame of government, 128;
sketch of his life, 162 ; his mission accom-
plished. 179; devotes himself to secure
impartial liberty of conscience; de-

INDEX.

597

lights in doing good, 131; pleads for
Roman Catholics, 132; triumphs over
all calumny, 133; impoverished, and
in jail for debt, 133, 134; regains his
rights after Revolution of 1688, 217;
goes into retirement, and writes a plea
for peace; his innocence established,
218; once more strives to remove jeal-
ousy in England of his provinces. 219;
urges the perfecting of new frame
of government, 270: his fundamental
law in harmony with reason, and true
to ancient liberties of the people;
matures a plan of permanent union of
colonies, 277.

Penn, the family, ceases to be the object
of animosities, and recovers popular
respect; their apostasy from the
Friends forgiven, v. 38; has ties of
loyalty it would not break, and swayed
by perronal motives to oppose inde-
pendence, 38.

Penacook (or Pawtucket), Indians' sa-
chemship of, comprises forests beyond
the Saco, and in New Hampshire, ii.
395.

Penitent royalists resign, confess, and
ask forgiveness, iv. 380, 381.

Penry, John, hanged for dissent, i. 226.

Pensacola, surrendered to Spaniards;
the garrison bound not to serve against
Spain or her allies during the war,
but may serve against the United
States, vi. 375.

Pennsylvania, boundaries of territory,
ii. 107, 108; the people to be taxed
only by parliament or provincial as-
sembly; a representative assembly
held, and preparatory legislation fin-
ished ; a code dictated by the Inward
Voice, 124 ; charter received favorably
by assembly, 127 ; great influx of emi-
grants, 128; internal disputes, and
division of the council, 214 ; lower
counties set off to form Delaware ; as-
sembly opposes union, relying on
Penn's charter, 216; a purely demo-
cratic government established, 219;
popular character of the government;
rapid increase in wealth and popula-
tion, 223; letters to England re-
ported that people of " pretended not
to be accountable " to the king or his
government, ill 27; contributes no
money for defence against French in the
west, 73; royalists of, said redress must
come from king and parliament,
114 ; professes loyalty, ana points out
dangers from proprietary instructions,
but its address rejected, 117; form
of government, iii. 91 ; laws of, gave
complete enfranchisement in thought,
91 ; Quakers swayed legislation, 91, 92 ;
measures of defence impeded by pro-
prietaries, 147 ; alarming reports of its
condition In England, 148, 149 ; pro-
vincial laws granted £55,000, and pro-
prietaries £5,000: militia law of, re-
pealed by the king, and troops dis-
banded, 153; appoints Franklin its

agent In England, 168 ; leads the van
of democracy ; obtains right to assess
proprietaries, and deprives governor
of influence over judiciary, 248, 249:
appeal of proprietaries to the king, and
favorable decision of board of trade,
249, 250; six of seventeen acts com-
plained of, negatived by the king, but
act to assess proprietaries confirmed,
250 ; reprimanded by the king for evad-
ing obedience to his requisitions, 291 ;
assembly votes that the attempt to tax
them was cruel and unjust, 434 ; elects
Benjamin Franklin agent in England,
434; roused to sense of patriotic duty
by Virginia's action, iv. 160; conven-
tion of, opposes suspension of trade,
and advises a firm and decent claim
for redress; disowns and abhors the
idea of independence, 357; legislature
of, approves proceedings of general
congress, and elects seven delegates,
457 ; first convention of, in June, 1774,
refers choice of delegates to congress
to house of representatives, which is
notoriously loyal; second convention
leaves every thing to the legislature, v.
37 ; the house appoints a committee of
safety, with Dickinson at its head, 39;
new legislature organized October 16,
all members signing declaration of alle-
giance to the king; Quakers present
address; under Dickinson's lead, the
legislature goes with the Quakers, 68;
assembly elects nine delegates to con-

Sess, of whom only Franklin is the
lend of independence, 85 ; its assembly
in effect opposes the principle of con-
gress that the people are the source of
power, 86; on meeting of assembly,
new members not required to take
oath of allegiance to the king, 265;
new instructions for delegates m con-
gress reported, conceding that revolu-
tionists are right, and neither advising
nor forbidding a declaration of inde-
pendence, 266; provincial conference
supersedes the proprietary govern-
ment, 308, 309; conference votes to
concur in a vote of congress, declaring
colonies free and independent states,
310; her vote in congress against dec-
laration of independence, 319; adopts
its constitution, Sept. 28. 1776, 504;
will not rise to fight for freedom, vi.
19; council and assembly of, ask con-
gress that British troops be driven
away, and Philadelphia recovered,
43.

Pennsylvania line, revolt of, vi. 348;
emissaries sent to them by Clinton,
given up by the mutineers, and hanged
as spies ; Reed, president of Pennsyl-
vania, without authority discharges
those who had served their term, and
the rest are paid and clothed by the
state, 349.

Pepperell, Mass., its resentment against
the invaders of its natural rights:
Captain William Prescott appointed

598

INDEX

chief of committee of correspondence.
Iv. 254.

Pequods, the, left to contend alone
against whites in Connecticut, 1. 314;
massacre of, by English, 315, 316; the
survivors are enslaved, 316.

Percy, George, a projector of expedition
to Virginia, under second charter, i.
105; succeeds Smith as governor, 106;
succeeds Lord Delaware, 108.

Percy, Lord, a British officer at Boston,
iv. 516; calumniates the countrymen
who chased him, and says they scalped
and cut off the ears of wounded Brit-
ish, 538, 539; lets his regiment go to
Bunker Hill without him, 608 ; ordered
to attack Americans on Dorchester
Heights, but has no heart for an enter-
prise which Howe pronounces hazard-
ous, v. 198 ; commands a division at
capture of Fort Washington, 452.

Persecution, causes which checked it in
Elizabeth's reign, i. 227; difficult to
sustain doctrine of, against public
sentiment in Massachusetts, 363.

Perth Amboy, N.J., favors a provincial
congress, iv. 549.

Perrot, Nicholas, invites congress of
Indians, ii. 326; attempts discovery of
copper mines near Lake Superior, 327.

Peter the Great, his comment on Quaker
principles, ii. 128.

Peter ill., czar of Russia, friendly to
Frederic; the British minister has
bribes for his court, and instructed to
turn him against Frederic, iii. 287 ; his
treatment of Bute's proposition; re-
stores to Frederic all his conquests,
and becomes Frederic's ally, 288.

Peter, Hugh, pastor of English exiles in
Rotterdam, comes to Boston in 1636, i.
303; one of three Massachusetts men
sent to England to give advice about
church discipline, 332 ; his address to
house of commons, under process of
"purging," 388; executed at Restora-
tion, 405; his character and fortitude,
405.

Petersham, Mass., invites Boston to find
an asylum in her own limits, in case of
need, iv. 250; the reply of Boston, 250,
251

Petition to the king, the second, by con-
gress, puts forward Dickinson's pro-
posal for a negotiation, to be preceded
by a truce; the colonies, refusing to
treat separately, announce their union,
which thus precedes their indepen-
dence; Dickinson would have only one
word in it altered, — "congress:"
" That," said Harrison, of Virginia, " is
the only word I should wish to re-
main," 12.

Petition of New York merchants for
changes in acts of trade, regarded by
Grenville as fresh evidence that the
colonies would be satisfied with noth-
ing short of a repeal of all restrictions
on trade, and freedom from all sub-
ordination, iv. 34.

Philadelphia, Cornells Hendricksen, ■_
etrates near site of; his employers
claim discovery of; states-general re-
fuse to grant them a monopoly of
trade, ii. 35; laid out, 125; the birth-
place of American independence, and
pledge of union, 126; merchants of,
adopt the non-importation agreement,
iv. 155; its people meet, ana deny the
right of parliament to tax America;
specially condemn the duty on tea,
269; approve the Boston tea-party,
281; Quakers support the opposition,
281, 282 ; resolves that Boston is suffer-
ing in the common cause, and appoints
committee of correspondence, 830;
thirty companies, of fifty to one hun-
dred men each, daily practise the man-
ual, 550; spirit of temporizing mors
clearly shown; the election or addi-
tional burgesses in May, ▼. 240; July 8,
1776, the declaration is read, and
emblems of royalty removed from
court-house, ana burned, 335, 336;
many would negotiate with the Howes,
had their powers been larger, and
some favor absolute and unconditional
submission, 437, 438 ; toryism rampant,
a clergyman publicly reading prayers
for the king, 568, 569; nearness of
danger warms patriotism, 569 ; its pos-
session of no military importance, tL
15; disasters and faint-heartedness
along the river, militia holding back,
and desertions frequent, 15, 16; evacu-
ation of, in progress, 135; desolate
condition of refugees, 137.

Philip, son of Massassoit, chief of the
Pokanokets, i 456; drawn into rebel-
lion. 457, 458: returns to his native
land, and is killed by an Indian, 464.

Philips, maior-general under Burgoyne,
v. 572 ; takes command in Virginia, vi.
410; dies of fever, 411.

Philosophy, state of. in Europe, in 1637,
ii. 80; of the eighteenth century, v.
248.

Phips, Sir William, appointed royal

Sovernor of Massachusetts, at Increase
lather's suggestion, ii. 254; captures
Port Royal, 351; commands expedition
by sea against Quebec, which fails, and
his fleet is scattered by storms, 358.

Pickens, Andrew, of South Carolina, first
heard of as captain in arms; a Puritan
and a patriot, v. 48 ; pursues plunderers
sent to excite a rising in South Caro-
lina, and routs them, vi. 253, 254; re-
duced to inactivity after capture of
Charleston, 267; joins Morgan, 383;
brings in one hundred and fifty militia,
385.

Picqua, chief village of Miamls, when
Indians meet Gist, iiL 52 ; articles of

gjace signed between Miamls and
ennsylvania, 52; captured by Frenct
and Indians, 61.
Picquet, Abbe Francis, establishes a

mission at site of Ogdensbure, iiL 23.
Pickering, Timothy, drafts address si

INDEX.

099

Salem citizens, disavowing the thought
of diverting trade from Boston, iv.
346; had he come up with his regiment
from Salem, British troops must have
surrendered April 19, 632; methodical
business man, succeeds Greene as
quartermaster-general, vi. 342.
Pilgrims, their discontent in Holland, i
236; make request for a patent, and

Setition the King for liberty of re-
gion, 238; obtain a patent, which
is of no use, 240; form partnership
with London merchants, 240, 241 ; form
a body politic before landing in
America, 243: land at Plymouth, 246;
their institutions perfected, 246; their
harvests and trade, 249; damaging
effects of their partnership with Eng-
lish merchants, 260; extension of ter-
ritory, 250.

" Pillars, Seven," the, of the New Haven
colony, i. 320.

Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, com-
mands one of the three companies
which occupy Fort Johnson; his an-
swer to Governor Campbell, v. 50.

Pinckney, Thomas, aide to General
Gates, vi. 296.

Piracy, increased by maritime laws;
action of parliament touching, ii. 286.

Piratical expeditions by the English
against Dutch possessions in Guinea,
il. 67.

Pitcairn, major of marines, commands
advance party of British troops at
Lexington, iv. 519; orders patriots to
disperse ; discharges a pistol, and cries,
" Fire! " 525; on retreat from Concord,
loses his horse and pistols, 529.

Pitt, William, attacks king and ministry,
and is dismissed from office, iii. 145;
commissioned to form a ministry.
163; pursues generous policy toward
colonies, 164; refuses to impose stamp
act on them, 164; discarded by the
king, 165; first named by popular in-
fluence for prime minister, 177 ; forms
a ministry, taking seals of southern
department and conduct of war, 179;
leads England against Catholic Eu-
rope, 181; plana conquest of French
colonies, consulting Franklin. 191;
extends operation of writ of habeas
corpus, 192; strong in his purpose to
conquer Canada, 210; desires to retain
Canada and Guadaloupe, but holds
to Canada, 246; never consented to
threaten any restriction of freedom
of people of colonies, 251 ; unfit to con-
duct reconciliation; too ambitious for
England, 262; declines king's offer
of secretaryship of state, unless his
friends could go with him, 390; de-
clares against American taxation, and
finally undertakes to form an admin-
istration ; resigns his trust, and retires
to Somersetshire, 485; his speech in
the house on American affairs, 538-542 ;
pursues his career alone, 549; favors
receiving petitions of colonies, 551;

nation desires to see him In the
ministry, 586 ; summoned by the king
to form an independent ministry, iv.
13; announces his purpose of entering
house of lords as Earl Chatham. 16 ; his
popularity lost, 17; gives his con-
fidence to Shelburne, and proposes dis-
missal of Townshend, 28; wishes to
keep favor of the colonies, and enjoins
commander in chief in America to
make their burden light, 32; resigns
his cares, and retires, 36, 37: his re-
turn to power required by the interests
of England; says to Americans that
colonies hold out fair and just opening
fqr restoring harmony, 440; receives
Franklin, and tells him that congress
is the most honorable assembly of
statesmen since the best times of
Greece and Borne; moves to address
the king for immediate orders to re-
move forces from Boston, 444 448;
declares that Americans derive from
God, nature, and the British consti-
tution, their right to exemption from
taxation without their consent, 449;
presents his plan for true reconcile-
ment and accord, founded in the main
on proposal of American congress;
claims the plan as his own, andcom-
pliments Franklin as an honor not only
to the English nation, but to human
nature, 464, 465.

Pitt, William, rejoices that he is not the
eldest born, but can serve in the com-
mons, like his father, iii. 576; says of
his father's speech on American ques-
tion in house of lords, "It was the
most forcible that can be imagined,"
iv. 449; Earl of Chatham, disapproving
the war, desires to remove his son from
the service; Carleton bad already sent
him home as bearer of despatches,
v. 123, 124; explains to house of com-
mons his father's policy on American
affairs, and pronounces the war cruel
and unnatural, vi. 399; is made chan-
cellor of the exchequer, 452.

Pitt's cabinet (in 1766), the most liberal
ever formed in England, iv. 15; its
incapacity early apparent, 16.

Pittsburg, the rallying point of western
emigration and Indian trade, iv. 418.

Plymouth colony, government of, i. 251 ;
introduction of representative system,
251 ; refuses demands of royal commis-
sioners, 444, 445.

Plymouth company, the, i. 208; gives
patentees all land in America between
Atlantic and Pacific, and between 40°
and 48* of north latitude, 208, 209;
its pretensions questioned in parlia-
ment, 254; opposition paralyzes its
enterprise, 256; its territory divided
by lot, 324; surrenders general patent
to the king, 324, 325; complaints of, to
council, against Dutch intruders, ii. 38.

Plymouth, the " Mayflower " moored at,
i. 246; named for English city where
Pilgrims had been kindly treated, 248;

600

INDEX.

Hidden and effectual revolt of against
Andres, ii. 172, 173; appoints com-
mittee of correspondence ; " ninety
to one to fight Great Britain," iv.
247.

Ployden, Sir Edward, palatine of New-
Albion, enters the Chesapeake, and
becomes absorbed with his company in
Virginia, ii. 85.

Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan,
Indian chief in Virginia, i. 102; is
made prisoner by Argal, 112; baptized,
and married to John Rolfe, 114; sails
for Europe, 115; her reception in Lon-
don, 115, 116; her death, 116.

Pocoske, commands fleet sent against
Havana, ill. 292.

Political rights of colonists in Virginia,
i. 116.

Pombal, Marquis de, closes ports of Por-
tugal against vessels of the United
States, vi. 88; retires on accession of
Maria I. to throne of Portugal, 89.

Pomeroy, Seth, in the battle of Crown
Point, ili. 140, 141 ; appointed brigadier-

feneral of Massachusetts militia, iv.
70; roused by fire at Bunker Hill,
rides to the Neck, and joins the line
at the rail fence, 611 ; on the retreat,
walks backward, facing the enemy,
and brandishing his gun, which is
struck by a ball, 621 ; elected brigadier-

Seneral of continental army; noting
istrust of his competency, retires from
camp uncommissioned, v. 7.

Pontiac, chief of Ottawas, his meeting
with Rogers, iii. 241, 242; determined
to recover land of the Senecas and
west of it, by Indian confederacy,
376 ; treacherously visits English fort
at Detroit, but is foiled, 377, 378; noti-
fies Gladwin, commander at Detroit,
that he accepts peace, 402; assassi-
nated by an Illinois Indian, iv 167.

"Poor Kichard," the, Paul Jones's, flag-
ship, engages British frigate "Ser-
apis," and forces her to strike her
flag, vi. 242.

Pope, the, takes no thought of a people
about to form a thoroughly Protestant
republic, vi. 91.

Popnam. George, commander of "The
Gift of God," in Plymouth company's
expedition, i. 204 ; president of colony
at St. George, 205; death of, 206.

Popham. Sir John, joins with Sir Fer-
uinando Gorges in an expedition to New
England, i. 94; sends Martin Prin*
on a voyage to explore New England
coast, 204.

Popish plot, the, supported by Danby and
Shaftesbury, ii. 163, 164.

Popular party, the, in Massachusetts, its
conflict with government, i. 352.

Population of American colonies, sources
of, ii. 176; white, at William's acces-
sion, and at Anne's, 281; at time of
proposed union, iii. 83.

Port Royal, captured by Sir William
Phips, ii. 351; recaptured by French,

353; Massachusetts attempts its con-
quest, but fails, 178.

Portents, announcing Indian war, i. 458,
459.

Porter, John, burgeas for Lower Nor-
folk, Va , expelled from assembly for
being " well affected to Quakers,"
i. 534.

Porterfield, Charles, sergeant of Daniel
Morgan's company, v. 30.

Porterfield, Lieutenant-colonel, of Vir-
ginia, joins Gates's army, vi. 276;
checks retreat of Americans, but is
mortally wounded at Camden, 278, 279.

Portland, Duke of, set up by Fox against
Shelburne for the treasury, vi. 451.

Portland, Me., Mowatt, a naval officer,
held prisoner a few hours at ; with four
vessels, enters that harbor October 16;
bombards the town, and destroys throe
fourths of it, v. 67.

Portsmouth, Duchess of, reported by
Shaftesbury as a "common nuisance/'
ii. 165

Portsmouth, NH., men of, pillage fort
in harbor of one hundred barrels of
the province's powder; a party dis-
mantles the fort, and removes the small
arms, iv. 434; Sullivan sent to fortify
it, v. 67 ; disavows intention of sepa-
rating from the mother country, 162.

Portugal, her maritime achievements, ii.
293; the decay of her commerce, 293,
294; seems bound to become the ally
of Britain ; her harbors closed against
vessels of the United States, vi. 88;
accedes to Russian declarathm of prin-
ciples of neutrality, 360.

Pory, John, speaker of first Virginia
legislature, i. 119.

Post-office, American, self-supporting;
neglected or opposed as an unjust tax
by colonies, ii. 287.

Potemkin, a favorite of Catharine II. of
Russia ; his great ambition, and influ-
ence over the empress, v. 62; seizes
opportunity of American war to annex
the Crimea; his inaccessibility, vi. 239,
240.

Pott, Francis, reads petition, complain-
ing of Governor Harvey's unjust ad- ^
ministration, i. 154, 155; arrested with
the sheriff of York and another, but
released, 155.

Pott, John, a famous physician, elected
governor of Virginia, in West's ab-
sence, i. 153.

Pottawottomies, crowd Miamis from
their home at Chicago; a branch ol
Chippewas, ii 398.

Poutrincourt, a leader in De Monts's ex-
pedition, founds Port Royal, i. 18; hie
possessions confirmed by Henry IV.,
19.

Powder, provincial, seizure of, by British
troops, arouses the people, and draws
thousands in arms to Cambridge;
Phipps, high sheriff, promises not to
execute any precept under the now act
of parliament, iv. 383, 384 ; a\arm in

INDEX.

601

tile British, camp in Boston; Timors
in England of the cowardice of the
troops, 385 ; scarcity of, in Massachu-
setts; other colonies equally destitute ;
in New York, not more than one hun-
dred pounds for sale, iv. 541, 542.

Powell. Thomas, publisher of South
Carolina " Gazette," arrested for con-
tempt of council ; released on habecis
corpus, iv. 270.

Powhatan, chief of Indian tribe, gives
audience to Smith, i. 101; frees his
English captives, 113; his death, 142.

Pownall, Thomas, secretary of Governor
Osborne, of New York, iii. 65 ; governor
of Massachusetts, complains that state
infringed prerogative, and predicted its
independence, 195; urges parliament to
repeal revenue act, and give peace to
the two countries, iv. 155, 156; having
defended the stamp act, urges recog-
nition of the colonies, vi. 147 ; knowing
the country thoroughly, publishes me-
morial descriptive and prophetic of
America to sovereigns of Europe, 215-
219.

Poyning's act, principle of, applied to

Eirticular branches of American legis-
tion, iii. 290.

Pratt, a Boston lawyer, appointed chief
justice of New York, at the king's
pleasure; meets with such indignity
as is believed to have shortened his
life, 282, 283.

Pratt, Charles, raised to peerage as Lord
Camden, iii. 489; affirms that the legis-
lature had no right to make a law giv-
ing it absolute power of taxing Amer-
ica, 552, 553; reiterates his opinion that
{>arl lament has no right to tax Amer-
ca, 580, 581 ; his speech finds audience
in America, but coldly received in Eng-
land, 581.

Prayer, Book of Common, revived by
Restoration, i. 411 ; every minister who
failed to assent to it all, to be deprived
of his benefice, 412.

Prelacy, Puritan strife with, renewed;
the conflict in Massachusetts, iii. 284.

Pres-de-Ville, near Quebec, thirteen
bodies found there, after the assault on
the city, v. 137.

President-general, institution of a, to be
appointed by the king, proposed by
Galloway, with a grand council to be
chosen by the colonial assemblies; the
proposal stricken from record of con-
gress, iv. 402, 403.

Presbyterianism, the ruling power in
English parliament, i. 354

Presbyterians, one of the two great par-
ties in England, under Long Parlia-
ment, i. 384; the crisis of struggle
between them and Independents, 387 :
attempt to dispense with army, and
vote to make peace with the king, 388 ;
removed from parliament, 388; re-
moved from municipal offices at Resto-
ration, 411; Scottish persecution of,
ii. 142-144; hurry to East New Jer-

sey, 144; of Philadelphia, hold it right
to war against tyranny, iv. 329; of
Baltimore, support **the good old
cause," 454 ; or South Carolina, sup-
port the cause of independence, vi.
271.

Prescott, a British brigadier, surrenders
a flotilla, a hundred troops, stores, &o.,
to American troops under Easton, on
the St. Lawrence, v. 129; in Rhode Is-
land, is captured by a party led by
Colonel William Barton ; exchanged for
Lee, 569.

Prescott, Captain William, hastens to-
ward Concord with five companies, iv.
530; assigned to duty of fortifying
Bunker Hill; considers how he can
best continue his line of defence, 605;
attempts to extend his line, but the
fire or the enemy balks him; orders
Connecticut troops under Knowlton to
oppose the British, 608; after repulse
of British light infantry, says, " If we
drive them back once more, they can-
not rally again/' 618; gives order to
retreat, 620.

Press, the colonial, begins its work in
1639. i. 369 ; censorship of, expires, li.
195; renewed in reign of William III. ;
but press as free in colonies as any-
where, 279; American, on the stamp
act, iii. 501 ; of New York, begins to
doubt authority of parliament over
America altogether, 507 ; of New Eng-
land, avows, more and more distinctly,
the expectation that Amerioa will soon
be a republic of united colonies, v. 144.

Preston, of the British army, officer of
day at Boston massacre, and orders
troops to fire, iv. 190; arrested, 191;
indulgence shown him on his trial ; his
acquittal acquiesced in by the public,
209.

Prevost, General, commander of British
troops in the south, expected to march
in triumph from East Florida across
lower Georgia, vi. 157 ; marches to Sa-
vannah, capturing Sunbury, 252 ; routs
Ashe, and proclaims a sort of civil gov-
ernment in Georgia, 255: drives Moul-
trie from Perrysburg; hopes to seize
Charleston, but is two days too late,
255: his invasion of South Carolina
a plundering raid, 258.

Price, Richard, writes a pamphlet on Lib-
erty, which is a masterly plea for Amer-
ica; raises a cry for reform in parlia-
ment, and influences English opinion to
the side of America, for the sake of lib-
erty, v. 245; devises a scheme for pay-
ment of British debt : invited by United
States to regulate their finances, but
declines, though looking on the republic
as the hope, and soon to be the refuge,
of mankind, vi. 169.

Pride, Colonel, commander of troops
who " purged" the house of commons,
i.388.

Prideaux, commands expedition against
Niagara, ill. 213; his death, 213, 214.

602

INDEX

Priests, protectors in decline of Roman
empire; grow to be usurpers, ii. 178.

Prince George (afterward George III.);
his character, Hi 63, 64; sends assur-
ances of support to Pitt, 164; tries to
discourage free thought in America,
169, 170.

Prince Henry, plantation of Henrico
named for him, i. 110.

Prince Maurice, favors colonisation in
America, ii. 96.

Prince of Prussia, conducts retreat in
shameful manner, and is censured by
his father, ill. 186.

Princeton, N. J. , advises a provincial con-
gress, iv. 649.

Pnng, Martin, commander of Bristol
expedition to New England, 1. 89; dis-
covers many harbors of Maine; puts
into Martha's Vineyard, 90: command-
er of Sir John Popham's ship ; explores
harbors on New England coast, 204.

Prisoners, British, tenderly treated by
Americans, who ask Gage to send out
British surgeons to care for them, lv.
638

Prisoners; in December, 1776, Washing-
ton hints a desire for a cartel, but Howe
evades proposal; congress empowers
its officers to exchange prisoners of
war; on the part of the Americans, a
public act or authority, but only an
exercise of British general's good-will,
846, 346.

Privateers, authorised by congress, on
receipt of act of parliament prohibit-
ing all trade with the colonies, v. 214;
their captures in 1776, 410, 411; ad-
mitted to French harbors, in cases of
urgency, 628; American, activity of;
one takes fort of New Providence, a
British sixteen gun ship, and recap-
tures five American vessels, vi. 61, 62.

Privy council, hears complaint of Mas-
sachusetts against Hutchinson and
Oliver, iv. 286; cheers Wedderburn's
attack on Franklin, 288; report of,
embodies insinuations of Wedderburn,
and dismisses petition of Massachu-
setts, as "groundless, vexatious, and
scandalous/' 290.

Prize courts, Washington asks congress
to establish, and legislature of Massa-
chusetts institutes them, v. 83.

Proclamation, the king's, a contemptu-
ous defiance of parties of Chatham and
Rockingham, as instigators and ac-
complices of American rebels, v. 89.

Progress of mankind, the, continuous,
ill. 7; by recognising it, history wins
power to move the soul, 8.

Prophesying, liberty of, refused, save on
conditions, 1. 863.

Proprietaries of Carolina, list of. 1. 484;
oner compromise to people of North
Carolina, after Albemarle insurrection,
606; instructions to temporary govern-
ment of Carolina, 606.

M Protection ; " congress instructs Frank-
lin " to assure the king of France they

hoped protection from his power and
magnanimity ; " *' protection" objected
to. but received by eight states, Rhode
Island and Maryland standing out, vi.
169.

Protest, the Bedford, against repeal of
stamp act, — the manifesto or party
which was soon to rule England: sub-
stitutes obedience to the legislature for
obedience to the king, ill. 684.

Protestantism, ascendency of, at acces-
sion of Edward, in 1647, marks first
promise of England's maritime superi-
ority, i. 66, 66; the, of Luther and Cal-
vin, defined, 212, 213; its victorious
struggle the forerunner of a new civil-
ization, ill. 177; the successes of the
seven years' war, its triumphs, 309;
breaks the religious unity of society,
310; its rise attended by the triumph
of absolute monarchy, 311; the thir-
teen colonies Protestant, only one
eighth in Maryland being Catholic*;
signs of Protestant bigotry in congress,
iv. 416, 417; Calvinlstic, four great
teachers of different nations rise from,
— Edwards, field, Kant, and Rousseau,
vl. 73.

Protestants, government offices in Mary-
land ordered to be filled by, ii. 28;
Irish, driven by persecution to Ameri-
ca, where they form best class of citi-
zens, 273; in France, disfranchisement
of, begins to be modified, v. 626; pre-
ferred for employment, by British, in
army and other departments, 642.

Providence, B.I., people o£ vote to pro-
mote "a congress of the representa-
tives of all the North American colo-
nies," iv. 327.

Provincial conj
dissolves itsel
iv. 19.

Prussia, subsidy to, promised by Eng-
land, but it must be used to secure
peace, not to make war, ill. 288; the
child of the Reformation, sets reason
free ; produces and welcomes thinkers
and advocates of freedom of thought.
311.

Prynne. a Puritan, maimed for a pub-
lication; bis words at the scaffold, 1.
326.

Public meetings in England, first held
in 1769, under lead of Yorkshire, iv.
177.

Pulaski, Casimlr, a noble Pole, follows
Lafayette to America; his debts paid,
and himself recommended to Franklin
by Vergennes ; furnished an introduc-
tion to congress by Franklin ; called an
assassin by Stormont, v. 627, 628 ; shows
daring of an adventurer at Brandy-
wine, and created brigadier of cavalry,
v. 699 : arrives with troops at Charles-
ton, vi. 256: mortally wounded at Sa-
vannah, 260, 261.

Pulteney, Earl of, urges the importance
of retention of Canada, for commercial
ends, iii. 242.

tigress of Massachusetts,
ill for ever, July 19, 1776,

INDEX.

608

Puritanism, ceases to sway the destinies
of England, i. 410.

Puritans, Virginia a refuge for, i. 124 :
not tolerated in Virginia, 109; invited
to Maryland, 190; a division among, in
England, 221, 222; English Protes-
tantism due to them, 224; "the de-
positaries of the sacred fire of liberty,"
232, 233; persecution of, by English
ecclesiastics, 326; emancipate them-
selves from many prejudices and su-
perstitions, 373, 374; parents of one-
third of white population of the United
States, up to 1834, 375; what they ac-
complished for mankind, 376 ; the de-
cline of their rule, 376, 377 ; from New
England, permitted to settle on the
Raritan and Minisink, and sale rati-
fied by English commander; tract
known as " Elizabethtown purchase."
«. 71.

Puritan ministers, three hundred si-
lenced, imprisoned, or exiled in 1604, i
232.

Putnam, Israel, lieutenant in Johnson's
army, ill. 139 ; a major at Tlconderoga.
196; captured by Indians, and saved
from death by Marin, a French officer,
201; drives to Boston 130 sheep, a gift
from Brooklyn, iv. 373; with thousands
of militia, starts for Boston ; is stopped
by express, 387, 388 ; on news of Lexing-
ton, rouses militia, and lead hundreds
to Boston, 537 ; second brigadier of
Connecticut troops at Cambridge, 543;
thinks intrenchments should be made
on Bunker Hill; obtains intrenching
tools of Prescott, but is unable to carry
out his plan, 607 ; in the retreat, rallies
some fugitives, and takes possession of
Prospect Hill, 621: fourth major-gen-
eral of continental army; famous for
personal prowess and firm patriotism,
y. 6; undertakes to obstruct channel
of Hudson River, 370; takes command
on Long Island, 373; ordered by con-
gress to fortify Philadelphia, 460; on
the Hudson, deceived by Clinton, re-
tires to rear of Peekskill, vi. 8; orders
troops away from Forts Clinton and
Montgomery, 9.

Putnam, Rums, engineer of Washing-
ton's army, reports that the British,
commanding the water, can land in
New York at any point between the
bay and Throg's Neck, v. 392.

Quakers, the, dreaded in Massachu-
setts, i. 363; their rise a remarkable
result of Protestant revolution, 364;
banished by the government, 365;
hanging of, 367, 368: mildly perse-
cuted In Maryland, u. 4: fined and
imprisoned for refusing military duty,
6 ; their doctrine, 86, 87 ; their method
coincides with that of Depcartes, 87,
88; believe that the world began in
innocency, 89; what the Inner Light
was to them, 92 ; believe firmly in the
progress of society, 97, 98; deem all

men equal, and know no castes, 99;
half of New Jersey sold to them, 100 ;
a schism among, 215; law against, in
Connecticut, declared null by Queen
Anne, 244; sway legislation in Penn-
sylvania, ill. 92 ; take a position against
negro slavery, 94; of Pennsylvania,
publish declaration that they would
observe the rule not to fight, and with
those of New Jersey testify " against
every usurpation of power and author-
ity in opposition to the laws of gov-
ernment, iv. 456; exempted from bear-
ing arms by provincial congress of
New Jersey, y. 36; of Philadelphia,
long for old connection with England,
and refuse to join in carrying on war,
468; pleased with law for emancipat-
ing slaves, vi. 307.

Quartermaster's department of Ameri-
can army. Greene at head of; his
division of emoluments, vi. 48; can
not be efficiently managed ; reform of,
wrought by congress; Greene resigns,
and is succeeded by Timothy Picker-
ing, 342.

Quebec, surrendered by French to Sir
David Kirk, i. 261; restored to the
French with all Canada, Cape Breton,
and Acadia, by treaty, 262; capture of,
by Wolfe, iii. 222, 224; besieged by
French under De Levi, but holds out,
240; boundaries of, extended to Ohio
and Mississippi, and over area of Ohio,
Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Wis-
consin, in violation of charters and
rights of Massachusetts, Connecticut,
New York, and Virginia, iv. 307; the
bill establishing new houndaries leaves
people of vast territory without writ
of habeas corpus, and without a share
in any branch of government, 307, 308;
during Arnold's delay at Point Levi,
rapidly gains strength by arrival of
Highlanders, two ships-of-war, &c:
refuses to receive Arnold's flag and
demand for surrender, v. 128; its sur-
render demanded by Montgomery, 131;
his assault repulsed, 133-135; Arnold's
men get a footing within, but are
driven out, 136, 137.

Queen of Virginia, title bestowed on
Queen Elizabeth by Spenser, i. 121.

Queen Mary, her intolerance cannot
check maritime enterprise, i. 67.

Queen's county, N.Y., peopled by those
of Dutch descent, churchmen and Qua-
kers, refuses to send delegates to pro-
vincial congress, v. 183 ; all who voted
against sending disarmed by Jersey
minute men and Lord Stirling's bat-
talion, 184, 185.

Quesnal, the French political economist,
the school that illustrates his teach-
ings, iii. 324.

Questions, two great : for America, Shall
it be colonized under Protestant or
Roman Catholic auspices? for Europe,
Shall a Protestant kingdom like Prus-
sia be suffered to grow strong? or

604

INDEX.

shall the revolution succeed In its

firotest against the middle ages? ill
81.

Quincy, the younger, errs in citing the
scriptural precedent of prayers, tears,
and a dagger; his words at once re-
ported to the kii.g, iv. 240; writes from
England, "Prepare for the worst,"
433.

Quit-rents for America, suggested by
British officers, iii. 248.

Quotas of militia, northern colonies agree
to raise four thousand men, iii. 167.

Quo warranto, writ of, issued against
Massachusetts, i. 477.

Races, the three, — Caucasian, Ethio-
pian, and American, — all present on
our soil, ii. 185; isolation of Ethiopians,
185, 186.

Raleigh, Walter, learns art of war under
Coligny, i. 63; joins Gilbert in an ex-
pedition to America, 74; its disastrous
fate, 74, 75; obtains new patent for
settlement in Florida, 75 ; knighted in
reward for his discoveries, 78; sends
new expedition to Roanoke, 79; his
character and services, 86, 87; a city
named for him, 87.

Raleigh, N.G., city of, established, i. 83.

Rail, colonel of Hessians, commands a
brigade at Fort Washington, v. 451;
summons fort to surrender, 452; in
command at Trenton, 469; says, on
rumors of Washington's approach,
" Let them come : we will at them with
the bayonet," 469, 470; scoffs at the
idea of an attack by Americans, 476.

Randolph, Edmund, agent of English
ministry to report on condition of
affairs in Massachusetts, i. 467; also
agent for Mason's New Hampshire
property, 468; recognised only as
Mason's agent, 468; makes extrava-
gant reports of the prosperity of the
colony, 468; collector of his majesty's
customs in New England, 475.

Randolph, Peyton, the assembly of Vir-
ginia being prorogued, directs the
choice of deputies to a colony con-
vention, iv. 454 ; speaker of burgesses,
returns from congress with great pomp,
that elevates the public idea of the
continental power, 586.

Raritans, an Indian tribe in New Jersey,
outlawed, ii. 49.

Ratcliffe, successor of Wingfleld as gov-
ernor of Gorges and Popham colony;
conspires to desert, i. 100.

Raymbault, Charles, a missionary to
Algonkins, ii. 306; leads expedition
to Chippewas, at Sault Ste. Marie;
invited to dwell with Chippewas, 308.

Raynal, Abbe\ his History of the Two
Indies a tirade against priestcraft,
monarchical power, and negro slavery,
and a eulogy of American institu-
tions; a minatory indictment being
drawn against him by Segur, he leaves
his book to be burnt by the hangman,

and flees to Holland; the popularity
of the book, and its influence, vi. 37.

Rayneval, confidential aide of Vergennes,
tries in vain to persuade Jay to resign
for the United States all pretensions
to eastern valley of the Mississippi, and
navigation of that river ; and goes to
form a good understanding with Shel-
burne, vi. 470.

Rawdon. Lord, commanding on the San-
tee ; his orders to Rugely about strag-
glers, vi. 271, 272 ; calls on all the people
around Camden to join him in arm6,
and shuts up those who refuse, 273;
forces Greene to retreat at Hobkirk's
Hill, 403; refuses Greene's offer of
battle, 405; goes to Charleston, and
sails for England, 406 ; his last act of
cruelty, 406 ; his excuse for murder of
Havne, and attempt to charge it on
Balfour; captured by the French at
sea, 407.

Reading, Pa., a company formed there,
who wear crape for a cockade, in token
of mourning for their brethren slain,
iv. 549.

Recreant patriots: men of New Jersey
respond to the Howes' proclamation,
moved by wavering of their chief jus-
tice and example of Samuel Tucker;
in Philadelphia, Joseph Galloway goes
over to Howe, and Andrew Allen and
his brothers, v. 457; Dickinson dis-
credits continental paper, and refuses
appointment of Delaware to congress ;
convention of Maryland declares will-
ingness to renounce declaration of July
4,458.

Recruits for British army and navy,
every effort made to gain; American
sailors beset with threats and promises,
v. 539.

Red-bank, a fort on the Delaware, vi
20; besieged by Colonel Donop, whe
attacks, and is repulsed with great
loss; two British vessels of war get
aground, and are burnt by Ameri-
cans; evacuated by Americans, and
levelled by Cornwallis, 24.

Reed, Joseph, president of popular con-
vention of Pennsylvania ; opposes steps
towards arming the people; also rec-
ommends domestic manufactures, iv.
457; wishes to be known to British
ministry as one who had such powei
as to make him a desirable friend to
Britain, v. 37 ; his influence enhanced
by confidence of Washington; would
delay an irrevocable decision, 218,
219; becomes adjutant-general, 309;
thinks Lord Howe's overture ought
not to be rejected, 341; account of

- retreat from Long Island in biog-
raphy of; the errors therein, and the
feeble authority thereof, 388, note; sent
by Washington to legislature of New
Jersey, to urge re-enforcement of the
army, 456 ; shrinks from his duty, and
sends back his commission: rebuked
by Washington, he withdraws bis

INDEX.

605

resignation, 457 ; sends Lee a fulsome
letter, flattering him at Washington's
expense, 461, 462 ; deserts the army on
eve of attack at Trenton, and rides
within the enemy's lines to confer
with Donop, 478 and note; by false-
hood, he recovers Washington's regard,
653; when president of executive coun-
cil, recommends abolition of slavery,
vi. 306, 307.

Reform, legislative, in Massachusetts;
separate chambers established, i. 349.

Eeform, striving after, in Europe, iii.
182; Luther's and Descartes' systems
of, compared, vi. 72, 73.

Reformation, the, in Germany, i. 210;
its superficial operation in England.
210, 211; colonizes New England and
New York, ii. 18; an expression of the
right of human intellect to freedom,
iii. 183; its spirit active in France,
where monarchy is losing its sanc-
tity, 183.

"Refugees, loyal associated," a body
eager to organize under Tryon and
William Franklin: urges more energy
in crushing rebellion; the use of sav-
ages, &c, vi. 206.

Regicides, the, some of, saved from exe-
cution by clemency of Charles II., i.
404; three escape to America, 406;
three to Netherlands, but surrender,
and are executed, 407 ; corpses of some
disinterred, and hanged by order of
parliament, 406.

Regular troops, British, Americans un-
deceived as to their prowess, by Brad-
dock's defeat, iii. 126.

Regulation, British, of the colonies, first
form of, ii. 275 ; second form of, 276.

" Regulators," in North Carolina, over-
awe the courts, iv. 214; resolve on
rescue of Husbands, 218 ; attacked by
Tryon ; six executed by order of Tryon ;
six thousand brought to submission,
220, 222; escape to the Watauga val-
ley, and extend their settlements, 222,
223.

Re-enforcements sent from England and
Ireland to America, "less to act hos-
tilely against America, than to encour-
age the friends of government," iv.
462.

Religion, can have no dangerous ene-
mies, where the mind is left free, i.
360; the real dangers to, 361 ; motive
of French colonization of Canada, and
of that of New England, ii. 299, 300.

Religious divisions in Massachusetts, i.
305; distinguishing characteristics of
two parties, 305, 306.

Religious party, a, in England, its de-
mands, ii. 80.

Renegades in South Carolina; Charles
Pinckney renews his allegiance; Raw-
lins Lowndes, late president of the
state, excuses his aberration, and re-
turns to loyalty; Henry Middleton,
president of first American congress,
though partial to independence, prom-

isee to demean himself as a faithful
subject, vi. 286.

Representation, right of, in England,
could never be separated from right of
taxation: adopted by colonies as bul-
wark of liberties, ii. 272; principle of,
violated in England, iv. 156; Ameri-
can, in house of commons, plans for,
revived, but not. carried out, 201.

" Reprisal," the ship, brings Franklin to
France, and captures two prizes, v.
620; Stormont demands their sur-
render, but is told by Vergennes that
he is too late: caught in midsummer
by the British; Stormont's constant
remonstrances; English ministry too
busy to risk rupture with France, 628,
629.

Rescript, the, announces that United
States are in full possession of in-
dependence; that they and France
had signed treaties of friendship and
commerce; the king will protect the
lawful commerce of his subjects, and
has concerted measures with the
United States, vi. 61, 62; assumes, as a
principle of law. that a nationality
may speak itself into being, 129.

Restoration, the causes which hastened
it, i. 399; demanded by all classes,
400 ; general joy at its accomplishment,
401; its effects saddened by revenge,
404, 405.

Restrictions on colonial commerce,
manufactures, &c, iii. 463, 464.

Retirement from New York of American
army, erroneously attributed to Lee,
V 440 7iot€

Retreat of Howe from New Jersey;
General Heister's rear much cut up
by Americans; patrols of Cornwallis
driven back by Morgan's riflemen,
who kill many, v. 567.

Revenge of British troops; angry about
celebration of anniversary of Boston
massacre, sell an old musket to a
countryman, who is arrested for violat-
ing act of parliament against trading
with soldiers, the next day tarred and
feathered, and placarded "American
liberty, or a specimen of democracy,"
and carted through the town, iv. 480.

Revenue officers, how they got rich, iii.
227; design of raising by parliament
no longer concealed, and punishment
prepared for Maryland and Pennsyl-
vania, refractory provinces, iii. 291.

Revere, Paul, of Boston, carries news of
destruction of tea to New York and
Philadelphia, iv. 281; sent to give
alarm at Lexington, 516; with Dawen
and Samuel Prescott, rides forward,
giving alarm ; arrested by British
officers, Prescott alone escaping, 516.

Revolutions of government in England,
i. 393.

Revolution, New England, the, its object
Protestant liberty, ii. 174.

Revolution, the English, origin of, and
ill-success, i. 378.

606

INDEX.

Bcvolution, thsEnsilMh of I486, initiated
on the banks of the Ashley; due quite
as much to dissenters as to whig aris-
tocracy, il. 168; establishes sovereignty
of parliament and the supremacy of
law, 188 ; purpose of its promoters, 189 ;
accepts doctrine of the right of resist-
ance to tyranny, 192; political theory
developed by absolute monarchy not a
form of civil government, 194; its bene-
fits to England, 196 ; loves not liberty,
bat privilege. 263; American, the hour
of, oonie. — a divinely ordered change,
for which its enemies wrought; tradi-
tions of liberty peculiar inheritance of
Americans, who specially respect in-
dividual conscience and thought; the
resources of the country, and the
virtues of its people, iv. 811 ; did not
proceed from precarious intentions,
but grew out of the soul of the people,
526; the war of, Americans gain vigor
in, vl. 145; the American Soulier com-
pared with the British, 145, 146; the
mind of Americans changed, the
consciousness of a national lite having
dissolved loyalty to England, 146:
grew by necessity out of the hundred
years' contest with the crown for the
bulwark of English freedom, 147 ; the
causes of: Americans begin war with
the idea that their relations of affinity
with Britain are suspended, not sun-
dered, and do not look on the ministry
as a type of the parent country, v. 73;
Grenville, charged with the execution
of George 111/s new policy, believes
in absolute power of parliament, but
opposes wilful abrogation of charters,
74, 75; the question of parliament's
absolute power over the colonies, 75.
76; Townshend's tax system, its fatal
element draining colonies for the
benefit of office-holders; the sting to
the colonies in preamble of tea-tax,
which affirms absolute power of parlia-
ment; parliament changes the charter
of Massachusetts, which province re-
sists; a congress of colonies approves
her course, and parliament stands by
the king; after change in charter,
colonies could have been pacified by
the repeal of obnoxious acts; in 1775,
after Lexington, security for the future
needed, 70, 76; all schools of English
statesmen, except Chatham, affirm
power of parliament to tax America ;
America denies it: the arguments, 78.

Rhode Island, the offspring of Massachu-
setts, i. 302; owes its existence as
a political state to Long Parliament
and Sir Henry Vane, 345; petition
of, to Charles II., and granting of the
charter. 427, 428; oath of allegiance
demanded by royal commissioners,
but general assembly would yield only
an engagement of fidelity, 431, 432;
ravages In, by Indians, 463; people
of, resume privileges of their charter;
difficulty of reorganizing solved by

Henry Bull, who restored the charter,
it 173; under Stephen Hopkins, gov-
ernor, denies right of parliament to
enact even laws of trade for colonies,
and proposes measures for colonial
union, iif. 433; people refuse obedience
to stamp act, and compel the stamp-
officer to resign, 495; Joint congress of
delegates, 505; governor of, alone
among royal governors in refusal to
■wear to execute the stamp act, 519:
after Lexington, raises fifteen hundred
men, 537: issues twenty thousand
pounds in bills, from forty shillings to
sixpence, 543; assembly of. May 4,
1776, discharges the people from alle-
giance to the king, v. 240; every able-
bodied slave in, permitted to enlist for
the war : on passing muster, becomes
free, and on a level with other soldiers;
the masters compensated by congress,
vi. 48; refuses to agree to a five per
cent tax on imports, and will not yield
till congress declares equal rights of
states to public domain, 468.

Ribault, John, of Dieppe, commander
of Coligny's expedition to establish
Protestantism in Florida, i. 53; arrives
from France to command Laudonni-
ere's colony, 56; his whole fleet
wrecked, 59.

Bice, culture of, in South Carolina, 11.
201 ; favor shown to South Carolina in
sale of, iii. 412.

Richmond county, N.Y., delays long to
elect delegates to provincial congress,
v. 183.

Richmond, Duke of, takes place in min-
istry vacated by Grafton, Iv. 4; op-
poses Boston port-bill, 300 ; wishes that
Americans may resist and conquer,
328; proposes to accept the petition of
congress to the king, as a ground for
conciliation, and is supported by Shel-
burne; but his motion is defeated by
two* to one, v. 103; argues for " a peace
on the terms of independence, and an
alliance or federal union," vi. 55 : pro-
poses in house of lords a radical cnange
of measures in America and Ireland,
224.

Richmond, Va., Its defenceless condition ;
is burned by Arnold, vi. 410.

Riedesel, commander of Brunswick
troops, hired by George III., v. 172:
with Carleton at Crown Point, ana
arses him to take Ticonderoga, 427;
thinks campaign of 1777 will end the
war, 570 ; his fears for colonies, if In-
dians are sent against them, 570; ma-
"or-general under Burgoyne, 572.
gby, proposes an address to the king,
pledging parliament to coercion of the
colonies, iv. 7; vice-treasurer of Ire-
land, 64; says he would not alter the
American tax, while Massachusetts
continues in its present state, 130; says
of Lord North's conciliatory plan for
colonies, that it should have been signed
by Hancock and Otis, 481 ; favors king's

Rigt

INDEX

<$0T

address, because it sanctifies coercive
measures, and says America must be
crushed, v. 102.

Bights of American colonists, their ex-
tent not precisely ascertained; their
constitution a copy of the English, iii.
12,13.

Bights of colonies, referred to nature
by Lee, of Virginia, and Jay, of New
York; by John Rutledge, of South
Carolina, to British constitution ; Sher-
man, of Connecticut, deduces allegiance
from consent; Duane founds govern-
ment on property in land, 397.

Roanoke, island of, Raleigh's fleet wel-
comed there in 1584, i. 77 ; fate of the
colony there unknown, 86.

Robertson, a British general, sent to
confer with Washington as to case of
Andre1; proposes release of Andr6 by
exchange, and delivers an open letter
from Arnold to Washington, tilled with
threats of retaliation for Andre's death,
vi.330.

Robertson. James, a pioneer on the Wa-
tauga; the greatest benefactor of early
settlers of Tennessee, iv. 213; repulses
Cherokees from Fort Watauga, v. 430 ;
with a band of hunters, takes posses-
sion of fertile country on the Cumber-
land River, vi. 191.

Robertson, William, the historian, for-
gets what he had written when stamp
act was repealed, and writes that Brit-
ish leaders should exercise British pow-
er in its full force ; is certain that the
Americans had been aiming all the
time at independence, v. 109.

Robinson, John, pastor of church at
Scrooby, 1. 234; goes with emigrants to
Holland ; disposed to emigrate to coun-
try on the Hudson, under Dutch pro-
tection ; but Dutch government refuses,
240; detained at Leyden, 241; his fare-
well address, 241: his death, 250, 251:
Eroposal by Dutch merchants to send
im. with his congregation, to New
Netherland, ii. 37.

Robinson. John, of Westford, a volun-
teer, without command, at Concord,
iv. 527.

Robinson, Sir Thomas, assigned to south-
ern department and management of
house of commons, iii. 105; his answer
to American agents, 117.

Robinson, William, arraigned and
hanged for Quakerism, i. 367.

Rochambeau, Count de, commands the
French troops for America; his assur-
ances to general assembly of Rhode
Island, vi. 318: meets Washington, and
settles preliminaries of the campaign,
414.

Roche, Marquis de la, makes settlement
at Isle of Sable, which is abandoned, i.
17.

Rochford, Earl of, enters British minis-
try, iv. 121 ; says it will be.easy to sow
dissensions among delegates to conti-
nental congress, 437; remarks to De

Ouinet that many think the way to
stop the war in America is to declare
war against France, v. 58, 59 ; says to
Spanish minister, that, in case of a war
with France and Spain, America, fear-
ing the recovery of Canada by the
French, would side with England, 69;
says of king's proclamation, that be-
fore the end of winter heads will fall
on the block, 89.

Rock Fort, chosen by La Salle as the
centre of his colony; fortified by Tonti,
who is driven away by the Iroquois, ii
337.

Rockingham, Marquis of, resigns his
office in royal household, iii. 294 ; head
of treasury in Cumberland's ministry.
486, 487; ready to repeal a hundred
stamp acts, rather than risk the en-
forcement of one, 527 ; fights against the
king and people, and tries to cement
fragments of the old whig aristocracy,
iv. 52; confesses to king that he can-
not form an administration, 54; loses
patience with Americans, 98; firmly
opposes Boston port-bill, 300; is con-
vinced of the impossibility of going on
with the war, vi. 147 ; denounces man-
ifesto of house of lords, saying that,
since the coming of Christ, war had
not been conducted on such inhuman
ideas; never will serve with a man
who will consent to independence of
America, 154; before accepting the
treasury, makes stipulation that there
shall be "no veto to the independence
of America; " composes his ministry
of both factions of the liberals, 438.

Rockingham's administration ; its policy,
on the whole, creditable; wins increas-
ing confidence of the nation, iv. 16; his
second administration; his own con-
nection represented by himself, Fox,
Cavendish, Keppel, and Richmond;
Thurlow, who hates Shelburne, re-
mains chancellor; Shelburne takes in
Camden; Dunning, the great lawyer,
enters as Lord Ashburton, vi. 438.

Rodney, Sir George, a British naval of-
ficer, thinks the war against America
just, vi. 321 ; put in command of expedi-
tion to relieve Gibraltar, and rule the
West Indian seas; his victories; re-
lieves Minorca and Gibraltar, and sails
for West Indies ; fights French fleet of
Admiral Guichen twice or thrice with
success; sends frigates to destroy all
American vessels at St. Eustatius:
checked by junction of French and
Spanish squadrons, 322; anchors off
Sandy Hook, and takes command of
the station; efficiently aids Clinton,
823; captures St. Eustatius, 365: in-
volved in pecuniary perils at St. Eus-
tatius, and censurable for inactivity;
returns to England, sending Sir Sam-
uel Hood with a fleet into Chesapeake
Bay, 423 ; joins Hood at Antigua ; wins
a great victory over De Grasse, 446.

Rogers, leads party from Montreal to

608

INDEX.

carry English banner to upper ports;
meet* Pontiac, who, after delay, per-
mits him to pass, iii. 241, 242; takes
possession of Detroit, 242.

Rolfe, John, moved to convert Pocahon-
tas, i. 113; he succeeds, and makes her
his wife, 114.

Roman Catholic Church, the, assumes to
control the state, ill. 329, 330.

Roman Catholicism, on the St. Lawrence,
sanctioned by British government, iv.
307 ; effectually established in Canada,
415 ; its principle of the unity, univer-
sality, and unchangeableness of truth
demands, rather than opposes, univer-
sal emancipation and brotherhood, 416.

Roman Catholics, disfranchised in Mary-
land, ii. 8; men like Carroll, in Amer-
ica, support cause of independence,
but the masses, influenced by Jesuits.
distrust tendencies of revolution, and
hate France ; a regiment of, formed by
Howe in Philadelphia, vi. 171.

"Romney," a British war vessel sta-
tioned at Boston, impresses sailors, iv.
90.

Ross, of Pennsylvania, in continental
congress, moves to leave Massachu-
setts to her own discretion, but motion
fails, iv. 405, 406.

Rotch, a Quaker, owner of the tea-ship.
" Dartmouth ; " on inquiry why he had
not taken tea back to London in twenty
days, says that it was out of his power,
277; compelled by a popular meeting
to apply for clearance for " Dart-
mouth ; " clearance refused till its tea
was discharged, 278; told by great
meeting of people to protest against
custom-house, and ask the governor
for a pass for his ship; the pass re-
fused, 280.

Rouille, his characterization of British
captures of French vessels, iii. 144.

Rousseau, foretells the coming of revolu-
tions, iii. 289 ; and declares, in the face
of scorn and persecution, that there is
a people, 326; argues that the right
to exercise sovereignty belongs exclu-
sively to the people, but ignores indi-
vidual freedom of the mind, 326, 327 ;
a pension of one hundred guineas of-
fered him by George III.; compared
with Mansfield, 560, 561.

Royalists, American, agents of, indefati-
gable, iii. 38 ; advised by Murray how
to get influence over the ministry, 39 ;
the wealthy of New England, believ-
ing resistance would soon be crushed,
are silent, or flee to Boston for safety,
iv. 388.
Royal governments, how their officers
were appointed, courts constituted,
legislatures elected, &c, iii. 86, 87.
Royal officers in America, insolence of,

provokes resistance, iii. 480.
Roxbury, Mass., urges a correspondence
between the legislature of that prov-
ince and those of other colonies, iv. 161.
Ruggles, Timothy, alone in Massachu-

setts house of representatives opposes
vote to discourage use of superfluities,
iv. 76 ; warned not to return to Hard-
wick, because he had accepted a seat
in the council, 375.

Rush, Benjamin, a writer (supposed to
be), writes articles in the " New Jersey
Gazette," setting forth the glory of
Gates, vi. 42; in letter to Patrick
Henry anonymously, says the army
has no general at its head, and thinks
a Gates, a Lee, or a Conway, would
soon render it irresistible, 43.

RuKsia and Austria divide Italy and the
Orient between them, knowing that,
while the war lasts, neither France
nor England can Interfere, vi. 374.

" Russia, discovery of," Chancellor's ar-
rival at Archangel, i. 66 ; trade with, be-
comes lucrative, 67; England's treaty
with, to paralyze the only consider-
able Protestant power, Prussia, iii.
145 ; passed from one camp to another,
in seven years' war, 181 ; its political
unity lay in the strength of its mon-
archy, 213 ; George ILL'S plan to se-
cure troops from her held up in terror
to Americans, iv. 563; Gunning, Brit
ish ambassador, deceived into belief
that empress will furnish troops to
England, sends despatch to that ef-
fect, v. 63; King George's proposal
debated in council, and opposed for
various reasons, 95; most important of
northern powers to the United States;
empress of,' refuses to take an active
part in the contest, and favors its
settlement by the concession of inde-
pendence; desires to shut American
cruisers from the Baltic, but would like
to see the colonies achieve indepen-
dence, vi. 91 ; loves people of England,
but despises its king and ministry;
esteems vergennes, but loves not tne
French people, 92 ; council of state on
mediation for England resolves not to
change its foreign policy, 240.

Russian ships seized by Spain ; anger of
Catharine, who adopts a general meas-
ure for protection of Russian com-
merce, and orders ships made ready
for service, vi 245, 246.

Rutherford, of North Carolina, joins
Williamson with two thousand men,
and punishes the Cherokees, v. 431.

Rutledge, Edward, of South Carolina,
moves to discharge all negroes from
the army, v. 65; fears that Dickinson's
plan of confederation will make south-
ern colonies subject to eastern ; holds
arms of latter cheap, but dreads their
influence in council, 348, 349; favors
receipt of Lord Howe's offer through
Sullivan, as a measure of procrastina-
tion, 394; despairs of confederation,
unless the states shall appoint a con-
vention of delegates specially chosen.
408,409. •

Rutledge, John, chosen president of
South Carolina, ▼. 235; his vigorous ad-

INDEX.

609

ministration, 239; sends Moultrie five
hundred pounds of powder, telling him
to be cool and do mischief, 282; re-
called to be governor by legislature of
South Carolina, vi 253; persifaded by
American officers to withdraw from
Charleston, 266; in 1780, reports that
negroes in South Carolina pray for
success of England, hoping she would
give them freedom, 307.
Byswick, peace of, occasions a suspen-
sion of nostilities; a victory of the
spirit of reform, ii. 357; territorial
changes caused by it, 357, 358.

Sack en, Count, minister of Frederic
Augustus of Saxony, refuses overtures
for troops from England, on the ground
of his sovereign's paternal tenderness
for his subjects, vi. 115.

Sackville, Lord George, charges troubles
in American colonies on defects in their
constitutions, and would have »' one
power" established there, ill. 149; de-
feuds Loudoun in house of commons,
191; invited to take command in
America, but declines, 193; his cow-
ardly conduct at battle of Minden, 211,
212 ; dismissed from all offices, and dis-
graced, 212; restored to council by
Rockingham, 489; desires to enforce
the stamp act, 531.

Saco, the first court duly organized in
Maine held there, i. 263.

St. Ange, commander at Fort Chartres;
surrenders left bank of the Mississippi
to the English, iii. 511.

St. Clair, best of brigadiers in the north,
reaches Ticonderoga, v. 571; is confi-
dent of his ability to repulse the Brit-
ish, 575; seeing preparations of Bur-
goyne, retreats, 575, 576 ; and marches
with two thousand good troops to Fort
Edward, 578; assumes responsibility
of evacuating Ticonderoga, 580.

St. Contest, French minister of foreign
affairs, aims at a federative maritime
system against England, iii. 58.

St. Croix, region east of, secured to Eng-
land by Captain Bous's expedition,
iii. 130.

St. Eustatius, the fort of, salutes Amer-
ican brig, and its governor is far from
betraying any partiality between Great
Britain and her colonies, v. 525; pro-
nounced by Yorke, British minister to
the Hague, " the golden mine of the
moment," vi. 363; its surrender de-
manded by British West India fleet and
army, and granted, 365; its amazing
wealth ; the .Dutch flag kept flying, and
decoys seventeen vessels into port;
confiscation general, 366; captured by
French fleet, and restored to United
Provinces, 445.

St. Francis, priests of, chosen by Cham-
plain for his companions, but, these
being excluded from New World, Jes-
uits selected, ii. 298.

St. Genevieve, on the Mississippi, a

.French settlement of flve-and-twenty
families, iii. 511.

St. George, fort at mouth of Kennebec,
built by Popham colony, i. 205.

St. Ignatius, massacre of its inhabitants,
ii. 314.

St. John (afterwards Viscount Boling-
broke), secretary of state; his char-
acteristics brilliant, but selfish and
faithless; forms design of conquering
Canada, ii. 379, 380.

St. John's, a fort in Canada, invested
by Montgomery, v. 117 ; after siege of
fifty days, surrenders, 121, 122.

St. Joseph, a Canadian village, massacre
at.ii. 313.

St. Leger, chosen to lead expedition to
capture Fort Stanwix and the Mohawk
valley, v. 546; his force increased by
over eight hundred Indians, 583, 584;
at carrying-place between St. Law-
rence and Hudson, finds a strong fort
under Lieutenant-colonel Gansevoort;
Brant's sister brings word of Herki-
mer's approach for relief of fort ; lays
a plan to ambush them, 584; the van
of militia enters ambuscade, and is
attacked by Sir John Johnson, while
Indians assail its flanks; after a fight
of one hour and a half, the patriots
repulse the foe, 585; the Indians load
themselves with plunder, and vanish:
hurries after them, leaving most of
his stores, 586.

St. Louis, colony founded by La Salle on
Bay of Matagorda ; its beginning and
advantages, ii. 340, 341.

St. Louis, Mo., dates from 1754, the lead-
ing settlement west of the Mississippi,
iii. 511; fast becoming centre of fur-
trade, iv. 125.

St. Luc La Come, French superintend-
ent of Indians in Canada, intelligent
and cruel, stirs up northern tribes
to harass American settlers, 575; ar-
rested by Woo8ter, and sent out of
the province, v. 289; released, and
eager for vengeance, and ready to lead
Indians to neighborhood of Albany,
545.

St. Louis, village of, attacked by Mo-
hawks, who massacre inhabitants,
and, having tortured, kill Brebeuf and
Lallemand, ii. 314, 315.

St. Lucia, island of, D'Estaing comes in
sight of, as its flag is lowered to a
British force, vi. 258.

St. Lusson, chosen by Talon to hold con-
gress of Indians, ii. 326.

St. Mary, bay of, Spanish name of Ches-
apeake, i. 53.

St. Mary's, mission established by Dab-
Ion and Marquette, oldest settlement
by Europeans in limits of present
Michigan, ii. 325.

St. Matheo, Spanish name of the St.
John Biver, i . 53.

St. Simon, Marquis of, commands French
troops of De Grasse's expedition;
though senior in years and military

VOL. VI.

39

610

INDEX.

services, puts himself under Lafay-
ette's orders, vi. 42.

Salaries of civil officials, in England and
America, iii. 15.

Salem, on the Delaware, in New Jersey,
site of Fenwiek's Quaker settlement,
11. 101.

Salem, Mass., indicated as future capital
of Massachusetts, iv 101 ; condemns its
representatives who vote to rescind,
and sends in their places two Sons of
Liberty, 181: votes to stop trade with
Great Britain and West Indies, 324;
legislature adjourned to, 332; forty-
eight persons in, willing to entreat of
Gage his '• patronage for trade of
that place; but one hundred and
twenty-live citizens repel the idea of
diverting trade from Boston, 346.

Salem. N.C , a Moravian settlement, an
ideal community, vi 391.

Salem colony, formed by John Endecott,
Thomas Southcoat, and others, i. 265 ;
its founders, 265; Endecott, governor,
266; the people elect a pastor and
teacher, Skeltou and Higginson, 271,
272; the church of, sell-constituted,
272.

Salisbury, Mass., advises formation of
an American union, iv. 249.

Saloue, a young Cherokee warrior, advo-
cates war against English, lii. 279.

Samoset, an Indian, welcomes the Pil-

5 rims, i. 247.
tonstall, Richard, protests against the
{>roposal to establish hereditary nobil-
ty, 1. 305; writes from England, de-
nouncing severity of Massachusetts,
361.
Sandwich, Lord, head of the British

E)st-offlce ; most malignant of the min-
ters against America, iv. 64 ; on cap-
ture of the " Gaspee," resolves never
to cease pursuing Rhode Island till her
charter Is taken away, 235 ; sure that
low establishment proposed will be
fully sufficient to reduce undisciplined
Americans, 433; thinks Chatham's
plan deserves only contempt, and is of
American origin, 464 ; calls the colon-
ists raw and cowardly, abuses them for
not paying their debts, 495; most ac-
tive at cabinet meeting, June 14, 1775;
able, greedy, and bent on coercion,
562 ; regrets that administration is
cramped in its colonial policy by the
cry of liberty, v 243 ; after Howe^s re-
tirement, gives naval command at
New York to incapable officers, vi. 422,
423.

Sandys, George, resident treasurer of
the London company in Virginia, i.
121.

Sandys, Sir Edwin, member of London
company, elected governor and treas-
urer, i. 118; determined to reform
abuses in colony, 121; secures pro
tection for Virginian staple against
foreign tobacco, 149; favors applica-
tion of Pilgrims for a patent, 237;

elected president of London company,
240.

Saratoga, convention of, broken by Brit-
ish at surrender, by concealment of
public chest; Burgoyne complains of
its violation by Americans seeking to
evade its obligation ; congress suspends
the embarkation of his troops, and de-
mands list of all persons included in
surrender, which is refused; British
commissioners try to intervene: con-
gress votes to detain captives, till re-
ceipt of ratification of the convention
by the highest authority in Great Brit-
ain, vi. 136.

Sartine, French minister of marine, sus-
tains opinions of Vergennes on the
American question, v. 222; his advice
to the king. 230, 231 ; charged with fit-
ting out expedition for invasion of Eng-
land, vi. 226; superseded in French
ministry by Marquis de Castries, 370.

Sassafras root, cargo of, taken to Eng-
land by Gosnold, i. 89.

Sauvolle, brother of D'lberville, dies of
fever, while seeking gold in Missouri,
ii. 367.

Savages, employment of, against col-
onists, threatened in Try on 's march
against the " regulators " in North
Carolina ; first adopted in practice by
Gage, iv. 385; no English precedents
for the act ; intention of employing,
ostentatiously proclaimed, 387; the

{>resident of Columbia College, an Eng-
ishman, writes that, failing submis-
sion to parliament, the Indians would
be let loose on the border, 387; in
British army, to supply deficiency of
whites ; Germain takes deep interest in
this work, and the king gives partic-
ular directions for disposition of the
force in Canada, v. 544.
Savannah, news of Lexington reaches,
May 10, and adds Georgia to the
union; her frontier threatened by
eight thousand Indians, iv. 553; the
king's magazine robbed of over five
hundred pounds of powder; sends
sixty-three barrels of rice and £122 in

ising

Carolina recruiting officer, a crowd
breaks open the jaiL and frees the pris-
oner, who beats up for men at the door
of the chief justice and near the house
of the governor, v. 45; captured by
Lieutenant-colonel Campbell, with
much spoil, vi. 251, 252; landing of
French troops at ; fortified by British
commander by the aid of negroes, 259 ;
D'Estaing summons Prevost to sur-
render, 259; Prevost, re-enforced, re-
fuses; Lincoln joins the French; an
attack resolved on in two columns;
Dillon's command, entangled in a
swamp, is exposed to British batteries;
D'Estaing' s column advances to hud-
dle under a heavy British fire; Hume

INDEX.

611

and Bash, lieutenants of South Caro-
lina second regiment, plant American
standard on the ramparts, and both
fall; Sergeant Jasper mortally wound-
ed, yet brings off the flag; assailants
retreat after a fight of fifty-live min-
utes ; the losses, 260 ; the French sail
for France, and the patriots of Geor-
gia take to the backwoods, 261 ; evac-
uated by loyalists and British troops,
461.

Bay and Seal, Lord, a friend to Puritans,
contemplates removal to Massachu-
setts, but insists on recognition of his
hereditary dignity, i. 304; member of
colonial council appointed by Charles
II., 419.

Savannah River, in the, a few British
ships take stamped clearances, iii. 632.

Saville, Sir George, M.P. for Yorkshire,
declares that the greatest evil that can
befall England Is invasion of the
people's rights by parliament, and that
thehouse has betrayed its constituents,
iv. 178, 179; asks that Franklin may
be heard at bar of house, 463; says
that, if rebellion is resistance to govern-
ment, it must sometimes be justifiable,
478.

Sawbridge, in house of commons, says
bill for transferring capital offenders is
meant to enslave America, iv. 307.

Saxe-Gotha, duke of, his little army
coveted in vain by the British, v. 543.

Schenectady, expedition of French and
Indians against; inhabitants mas-
sacred or put to night, ii. 349, 350.

Sayle, William, commissioned governor
of Carolina, i. 497 ; constituted a pro-
prietary governor of region from Cape
Carteret to bounds or Spanish pos-
sessions, 509, 510.

Sayre, Stephen, an American, sent to

. the Tower of London, v. 89.

Schiller, the poet, escapes being assist-
ant surgeon in W&rtemberg regiment,
vi. 54.

Schoolmasters, after the Restoration,
forced to subscribe to all contents of
Prayer Book, i. 412.

Schuyler, Peter, his letter to De Vau-
dreuil, protesting against Indian mas-
sacres, A. 377.

Schuyler, Philip, chosen by New York
as her candidate for major-general of
the continental army; the vote for him
not unanimous; directed to repair to
Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and
authorized to take possession of any
part of Canada, v. 10; has only twelve
hundred men, 114; joins Montgomery
at Isle-aux-Noix, 116; attempts an
attack on the fort at St. John's ; sends
out a small force, which returns in
disgrace; returns to Ticonderoga,
leaving the command to Montgomery,
217; moves on loyal Highlanders in
the Mohawk valley, and overpowers
theni under Sir John Johnson, whom
fee jaroles; loves his country more

than rank or fortune, but is unwilllrg
to be supplanted by Gates, an intriguer,
of lower rank, 556 ; takes his seat in
congress, and complains of curtailment
of his department ; announces inten-
tion to resign; but, repenting, apolo-
gizes for offensive words, and is in-
vested with sole command of Albany,
Ticonderoga, Fort Stanwix, and their
dependencies, 557, 558; visits Ticon-
deroga; public opinion rising against
him for loss of Ticonderoga, 580 ; per-
mits half of New England troops to
fo home, 580 ; retreats to a point below
'ort Edward, and vapors about his
"exposure;" promises to dispute
every inch of ground, and in less than
a week retreats to Saratoga, 581 ;
writes despondingly to Washington,
anticipating an increase in British
force, 583; relieved from command;
his removal bitterly resented by a few
New Yorkers, vi. 4.

Scot, of Pitlochie, favors emigration
from Scotland to America, ii. 142.

Scotch-Irish, a colony of, welcomed in
South Carolina, i. 514.

Scotland, strongly Presbyterian, regards
with horror the triumph of Indepen-
dents in England, i. 391.

Scotland, the mind of, at variance with
its representatives in parliament;
Adam Smith, Reid, and Robertson
educating the youth of, to love of
freedom, iii. 576.

Scottish exiles, scheme to establish
colony of, in South Carolina ; its partial
execution under Lord Cardross ; their
settlement at Port Royal laid waste by
Spaniards, i. 514.

Scriven, a gallant American officer,
killed while a prisoner in hands of
British in Florida, vi. 251.

Scrooby, the home of William Brewster,
i. 227 ; people of, choose John Robinson
to be their pastor, Brewster being their
ruling elder, 234; resolve to emigrate
to Holland, 234; their first attempt
thwarted, 234, 235 ; a second and suc-
cessful attempt, 235.

Sea, South, the, exploring expedition
toward, sent by governor of Virginia,
i. 538.

Servants, indented, long employed in
Maryland and Virginia, i. 512 ; eman-
cipated in Virginia, at end of term ;
insurrection ofj due to impatience of
oppression; white servants humanely
treated, 528.

Servitude, conditional, exists in Virginia
from the first, i. 138.

Seven articles, the, submitted by Eng-
lish church in Leyden to London com-
pany, i 237.

Shakespeare, William, shares the pride
and nope of his countrymen in the
Virginia colony, i. 112.

Seal of the United States; significance
of its emblems, vi. 468.

Sears, Isaac, leader of anti-stamp act

612

INDEX.

riot in New York city. ill. 521 ; moves
that every man provide himself with
four-and-twenty rounds: is arrested,
and refuses to give bail ; is rescued by
his friends, and borne with cheering
to a meeting in the Fields, iv. 512;
brings mounted men from Connecticut
to New York city, and sacks the
printing-house of the tory, Rivington.
&c ; goes to camp at Cambridge, and
finds a patron in Lee, v. 184 ; appointed
assistant adjutant-general to Lee, 185.

Secrecy of debates in parliament comes
to an end, in consequence of ministers
exciting public mind about America,
iv.307.

Segur, Marquis de, succeeds Montbarey
in French cabinet, vi. 370.

Seminary at Quebec, founded in 1635, ii.
303.

Senecas, the, begin hostilities in Virginia,
L 544; build a fort in Maryland; be-
sieged, and escape, ravaging the coun-
try, 544, 545 ; slaughter " three hundred
Christian persons," 545; treaty with, by
Maryland, Virginia, and New York,
ii. 17; keep fresh the memory of the
chief who fell at Oriskany, vi 143 ; lured
by Colonel John Butler to cross border
or Pennsylvania under the British
flag; attack men of Wyoming, taking
two hundred and twenty-live scalps;
the forts capitulate, and with all the
dwellings are burned ; spread destruc-
tion over the country, 144; their
prowess and humanity extolled by
Germain, who resolves to send other
like expeditions to older settlements,
144, 145; in Western New York, have

flfts, but no protection, from British,
14.

Sequoah, a Cherokee, analyzes the
syllables of his language, and makes
symbols to express them, Ii. 409.

"Serapis," the, British frigate, cap-
tured by Paul Jones, v. 241,' 242.

Seven years' war, an encounter of re-
form with the unreformed, ill. 181 ; its
devastating effects, 301.

Seventeen acts of Pennsylvania com-
plained of to king by proprietary of that
province, iii. 249; the king's decision,
250 ; Pitt and Burke prominent in this
case. 250, 251.

Sewall, Jonathan, member of Boston
bar, is assured of Great Britain's de-
termination and ample power; his
parting with John Adams, iv. 344,
345.

Sewall, Stephen, chief Justice of Mas-
sachusetts, refuses writs of assistance
demanded by customs-officers, because
he doubts their legality; his death, iii.
252.

Shaftesbury, Lord Chancellor, in full
maturity of his genius; his character,
i. 490-493; detects the genius of John
Locke, 493; the type of the Revolu-
tion of 1688, 497; his policy, 11. 162:
favors toleration and the commercial

interest; the declaration of indulgence
his act; on its failure, courts a popular
party, and falls; at head of popish
plot, 163; appointed lord president of
the council; displaced, 164: his volun-
tary exile, 166; first named by parlia-
mentary influence for prime minister,
iii. 177.

Sharp, Granville, an officer in British
ordnance department, declines to
send stores to America, and resigns
his office, iv. 559.

Sharpe, governor of Maryland, and
commander in chief of British troops
in America, vainly solicits aid from
colonies, iii. 114; proposes a poll-tax on
the taxable inhabitants of colonies,
203.

Shawnees, Inhabit basin of Cumberland
River, but move to South Carolina,
Alabama, and Pennsylvania, ii. 397;
visited by Christopher Gist, adheres to
English, iii. 51 ; prowl from Alleghany
River to Sullivan county, Tennessee,
iv. 422: fiercest of all western Indians,
423 ; with Mingoes and Dela wares, pre-
pare to attack army of South-western
Virginia; fight nearly all day; retreat
across the river; the battle the most
bloody and best contested in the an-
nals of forest warfare, 424.

Shawnee town, meeting at, of Indians,
to devise revenge for capture of Picqua
by French and French Indians, ill. 61;
sentiments of Delawares, Miamis,
Shawnees, and Weas, 61.

Shelburne, Earl of, head of board of
trade, iii. 374; inclined to limit legis-
lative authority over colonies, 387;
does not share plans for taxing
America, 388; withdraws from office,
391; refuses presidency of board of
trade under Cumberland, 489; argues
in favor of repeal of stamp act, 529 ;
has care of American colonies in Pitt's
last administration, iv. 15; tries to
regain their affections by winning
their confidence; his assurance to
Massachusetts, and injunctions to

Sovernors to be moderate ; masters all
imerican questions, chief of which is
the formation of an American fund:
reprobates the political dependence of
American judges; confirms grants of
lands in Vermont under the seal of
New Hampshire: disapproves prin-
ciple of the billeting act; favors
changes in Canada by assimilation of
French and English laws, and render-
ing Catholics eligible to assembly and
council, 33, 34 ; the greater his interest
in American affairs, the more is he
spoken of by the court as an enemy,
34 ; quiets controversy with America as
to billeting act, 531; colonies taken
from him, 64: says the trouble in
colonies is much exaggerated, 99; dis-
missed from office, 120 ; had planned,
in concert with France, to rescue
Poland, 153; his comments on Jeffer-

INDEX.

613

ion's reply to Governor Dnnmore, 688,
589 ; favors petition, of congress as the
fairest ground for accommodation with
the colonies, and testifies to Franklin's
desire for conciliation on the old terms,
v. 102; says Lord Chatham most be
dictator, vi. 62 ; thinks no arrangement
could succeed without Chatham, 63;
condemns the Russian declaration on
rights of neutrals, 359 ; reconciles
George III. to lessons of Adam Smith,
and commends them to the younger
Pitt, from whom Sir Robert Peel had
them ; sincere in his loyalty, 436; re-
fuses to take the administration, 437 ;
chooses the home department, includ-
ing America ; instructs Sir Guy Carle-
ton to go to New York, and will not
permit Arnold to return, 439; his
political opinions, 451 ; accepts ultima-
tum of Franklin in full, only as to
drying fish on Newfoundland, 455 ; the
credit due him for closing the war,
456; distrusted in America on account
of his early speeches against indepen-
dence, 468; owns the necessity of
granting indeoendence to the United
States, but will have no reservation,
471 ; wishes to establish peace and cor-
diality between England and France,
and thus stop all revolutions in Eu-
rope, 472 ; hates monopoly in commerce
thoughpeculiarly English, 473.

Shelby, Evan, put in command of a
thousand men by Virginia and North
Carolina, to repel Indians; surprises
savages, burns their towns, and drives
away their cattle, vi. 191

Shelby, Isaac, colonel of a regiment
raised on the Watauga, vi. 289 ; his
dauntless courage at Cowpens, 292.

Sheldon, Colonel, commanding American
lines, where Arnold arranges for an
interview with British agent, vi. 320.

Shenandoah, emigrants on the banks of,
devote themselves to the cause of
liberty, iv. 352; in convention at
Staunton, commend Virginia dele-
gates to congress to applause of suc-
ceeding ages, 486.

Sherburne, Major Henry, sent by Arnold
to relieve the fort at the Cedars ; igno-
rant of its surrender, is attacked by
Indians, and many of his men captured
and scalped, v. 295, 296.

Sherlock, Mshop of London, urges the
king to establish an American episco-
pate, ill. 27; thinks that Virginia
"had nothing more at heart than to
lessen the influence of the crown," 27 ;
his complaint about Virginia, 247.

Buerman, Roger, chosen representative
to the legislature from New Haven,
Conn., iii. 497 ; says no assembly will
ever admit right of parliament to tax
the colonies, iv. 94; encourages the
Massachusetts delegates to general
congress, and declares that parlia-
ment can rightfully make laws for
Amerioa in no case whatever, 377.

Shirley, Mass., will not sit down easy,
till its liberties are restored, iv. 253.

Shirley, William, delegate to convention
at Albany, iii. 19; develops his system
for government of colonies, 35 ; goes to
England, to appeal to ministry against
contumacy of New York assembly, 36 ;
his threat against Massachusetts, 39,
40 ; claims for English all land east of
Penobscot and south of St. Lawrence,
as being ancient Acadia, 47 ; submits
new scheme of union to Franklin, 112 ;
proposes to allow colonies representa-
tion in parliament, 113; renews his
arguments for union, and warns
against Franklin's Albany plan, 113,
114; urges taxation as well as union
of colonies, 114 ; his letter on popula-
tion of colonies, and their desire for
independence, 141, 142; placed at head
of American forces, 146; his advice
to board of trade, that parliament
should levy and collect an American
revenue, 147; superseded by Earl of
Loudoun, and ordered to England,
151; compliments Washington, 155,
156.

Shute, of Hingham, in sermon before
Massachusetts legislature, denies su-
preme authority of parliament, iv. 88.

Silk-weavers, a bill for benefit of, favored
by Grenville, opposed by Bedford, and
defeated; petition the king for re-
dress; beset house of parliament; re-
spect the king, but stone Bedford's
carriage, and surround his house, iii.
458.

Sioux, the, inhabit prairies east of Mis-
sissippi; a hereditary warfare between
them and the Chippewas: visited by
French traders and missionaries, U.
399.

Six Nations, French eager to retain
friendship of, iii. 22; ask protection
of New York for their friends north of
Ohio, against French, 49; priests sent
among, to proselyte, by French, 58:
at Albany congress, urge union and
action, 79; send delegates to meet
Nipisings, Ottawas, Algonkins, at
Montreal, 161 ; attend congress at Fort
Stanwix, and make large concessions
of land, iv. 127, 128; the king relies on
their attachment, and sends emissary
to induce them to take up arms against
the rebels, 564 ; send message to gov-
ernor of Canada, complaining of Brit-
ish neglect, vi. 213 ; inclined, by inabil-
ity of English to protect them, toward
neutrality, 213, 214.

Sixty-second regiment (British), leaves
Canada five hundred strong, and comes
out of battle of Behmus's Heights
with less than sixty men, v. 7.

Skelton, Rev. Samuel, brought over bj
Massachusetts Bay company, i. 269.

Skene, a dangerous British agent, cap*
tured by a party of expedition against
Ticonderoga, iv. 555.

Skepticism, v. 248, 249.

614

INDEX

Skinner, Cortland, of New Jersey, en-
lists more than five hundred men for
British army, v. 544.

Skirmishes, in July, 1775, party of Amer-
icans drive in British line, and capture
several muskets; two days later, three
hundred volunteers secure seventy
sheep, fifteen cattle, and sixteen pris-
oners, on Long Island, Boston harbor;
another party burns the hay stacked
there for the British cavalry; com-
panies from Hinghani and Weymouth
reap and bring off the grain from Nan-
tasket, v. 19; party sent by British to
repair Boston light-house attacked by
Major T upper and men from Squan-
tum and Dorchester, who kill the
lieutenant, and capture fifty-three pris-
oners; the patriots' conduct praised
by Washington, 20; a party of riflemen
get behind the British guard advanced
on the side of Charlestown, kill two
men, and take five prisoners, 31 ; en-
counters of hostile forces near New
York, 373.

Slavery, in Virginia, its introduction, i.
126; historical sketch of, 126-129; traf-
fic pursued by Europeans fifty years
before the discovery of America, 131;
how introduced into Europe, 132; in
North America, 133; in Hispaniola,
134; in Rhode Island, public sentiment
opposed to it, 138; in Maryland, recog-
nised in 1639, and slaves exempted
trom declaration of rights, 189; fa-
vored by royal instructions, 330 ; coeval
with first settlement on Ashley River,
512; brought to Manhattan by Dutch
West India company, ii. 60; not
enough of, in New England, to
affect character of the people, ex-
cept in Newport, iii. 98; no hope of
its abolition by congress ; in no state
is it established in the organic law
as a permanent social relation ; in no
constitution, save that of Delaware,
are the words " slave " and " slavery : "
limited bv natural causes in the north ;
thrifty in the south, vi. 302-304; in Vir-
ginia, many of her statesmen confess its
inequity and inexpediency; colonial
legislature demands its abolition;
George Mason foretells the blight that
will avenge it; declaration of rights
sets forth that all men are by nature
free; Virginia, in 1778, prohibits intro-
duction of slaves, and orders emanci-
pation of those brought from abroad,
303; the statute drafted by Jeffer-
son to define Virginia citizenship con-
fines the right to white men ; emanci-
pation, 304; sentiment in Delaware
as to it; in New York; in Vermont,
305; in New Jersey; in Pennsylvania,
306; which leads the way toward intro-
ducing freedom for all, 307 ; in South
Carolina, 307; in Massachusetts, 307,
308 ; its existence in the United States
not recognised in peace convention till
near its close, when, on demand of

Laurens, a clause is inserted, prohibit
ing, on British evacuation, "the car-
rying away any negroes or other prop-
erty of the inhabitants," 843.
Slaves, negro, first imported into New
England, in Salem snip " Desire,'* i.
137; first imported by Dutch men-of-
war, in 1619, 139; proportion of, in
South Carolina, 22 to 12, 512; num-
ber of, in Virginia, in 1671, 528; stat-
utes concerning, 529, 530; double the
whites in number, and gain every
year, iv. 231; importation of, opposed
by Maryland, New Jersey, North
Carolina, Pennsylvania, and New
York, 232; Massachusetts had de-
nounced slavery, as well as sale of
slaves, 232 ; the king makes no reply
to prayer of Virginia, and remains
protector of slave-trade, 232; his ser-
vants in colonies ordered to maintain
It, 232, 233; colonial laws checking
slave-trade carefully examined by the
king, 260, 261; people of Providence
would prohibit importation of, and set
free all born in colony, 327.
Slave-trade, the, unites the three races,
the excuse for, il. 286; liberty to
conduct, given to all subjects of Eng-
land, iii. 42: abhorred by Virginia,
\ which establishes a prohibitory duty
on it, 278, 279; South Carolina strives
to restrain it by her own laws, 279;
f encouraged by British government,
y 464; cannot be forbidden in American
I colonies, while their legislation is sub-
j ject to the king's veto; an association
\ " wholly to discontinue" it formed
4 by first congress; Jefferson's denuncia-
tion of, in nis draft of declaration of
independence, rejected by congress ; a
member from South Carolina says,
" If property in slaves is questioned,
there must be an end of confedera-
tion," vi. 298, 299; congress refuses to
insert, as an article in the treaty of
peace, a renunciation of the power to
engage in, 301.
Sloughter, governor of New York, ar-
rests Leisler and his council, ii. 229.
Smith, Abigail (Mrs. John Adams), liv-
ing in her humble home, toiling indus-
triously, and learning, ill and unaided,
writes to her husband, on hearing of
the king's proclamation : " I could not
join to-day in the petitions of our
worthy pastor for reconciliation. . . .
Let us separate: they are unworthy
to be our brethren;" her voice the
voice of New England, v. 82, 83.
Smith, Adam, the peer and teacher of
statesmen, gives best expression of the
mind of Scotland ; applies to American
questions those principles which made
Scotland efficient in promoting human
liberties; would have the colonies
either fairly represented in parliament
or independent, v. 110, 111.
Smith, Arnold's messenger to Andrt;
the two have an interview in his house.

INDEX.

615

vi. 324; attends Andr6 part of his way
to New York, 326, 326.

Smith, John, coadjutor of Gosnold in
promoting colonization, i. 94; his su-
perior capacity excites jealousy in the
Gorges expedition, 98; excluded from
its council, but is restored, 98 ; govern-
ment of colony falls to him, 100 ; his
life, 100 ; is captured by Indians, 101 ;
represses attempt at desertion, 102;
explores Bay of Chesapeake and its
rivers, 103; made president of the
council; enforces industry in the col-
ony, 104; leaves Virginia, 106; his
character, 106 ; his voyage to New Eng-
land in 1614, 206, 207; attempts to
establish a colony with sixteen men,
but fails; captured, on a second at-
tempt by French pirates, and escapes,
207.

Smith, Lieutenant-colonel, leads eight
hundred British troops to Concord, iv.
515 ; warned by guns and bells, sends for
re~enforcements,516 ; writes that Amer-
icans "did not make one gallant at-
tempt during so long an action,"
538.

Smith, Lieutenant-colonel Samuel, of
Maryland, in command of fort at Mud
Island, vi. 20; thinks it not defensible;
slightly wounded; resigns command,
23

Smith, provost of college of Philadelphia,
delivers before congress a eulogy on
Montgomery ; a vote of thanks to him
opposed in congress, because he had
said that body was in favor of con-
tinued dependence, v. 211.

Smith, Thomas, appointed governor of
South Carolina by proprietaries, fail-
ing to enforce order, proposes that one
of proprietaries should visit South
Carolina, with powers of inquiry and
redress ii 198

Smith, William, historian of New York,
urges an American union, with an
American parliament, ill. 153 ; signally
rebuked by members of the provincial
congress for proposing a separate pe-
tition by that colony, v. 140.

Smyth, Chief Justice, of New Jersey,
member of "Gaspee" commission,
throws blame for its failure on the
popular government of Bhode Island,
iv. 257.

Smythe, Sir Thomas, president of Lon-
don company; his policy excludes col-
onists from a share in the government,
1.116; resigns, 118.

Society for Propagating the Gospel in
Foreign Parts, founded and favored by
crown in aid of Anglican church, if.
279.

Society for Constitutional Information, of
London, raises one hundred pounds for
relief of widows, orphans, and parents
of Americans who preferred death
to slavery, and were murdered by the
king's troops ; an account of what had
been done published by Home Tooke in

the " Public Advertiser; " three print-
ers fined £100 each, and Home pur-
sued relentlessly by Thurlow, and af-
terwards fined £200, and imprisoned
twelve months, Thurlow asking that
he be put in the pillory, iv. 560.

Sokokis, an Indian tribe on the Saco,
many of them emigrate to Canada,
ii. 395.

Soldiers, first sent to America, after
Revolution of 1688, ii. 274.

" Somerset," the, a British ship of the
line, lies oflf Charles town while Breed's
Hill is fortified, iv. 605.

"Sons of Liberty," a quotation from
Barrels speech in parliament, adopted
in American colonies, iii. 448 ; resolve
that there is safety for the colonies only
in firm union of the whole, 534; in New
York, send invitation as far as South
Carolina to form permanent conti
nental union, 566 ; in Connecticut, meet
in convention, and declare for " perpet-
uating the union " as only security for
liberty, naming committee for that

Surpose, 577, 578; association of, in
Tew York, dissolved, iv. 20; their
favorite toast in Boston, " the honest
and independent grand jurors," 77:
eighteen of twenty-five members of
Georgia legislature belong to, 86; the
last achievement of, the inception of
the continental congress of 1774, 326;
convoke a meeting of people of New
York, and a new committee of corre-
spondence elected, representing various
political opinions, but the controlling
element favoring continued depend-
ence on England, 326, 327; new com-
mittee inaugurated, the wealthier ele-
ment predominating in it, 327, 328.

Sothel, Seth, one of proprietaries of
North Carolina, sent thither to look
after rights of the company, but cap
tured by Algerines, 506.

Soto, Ferdinand de, the companion of
Pizarro, i. 39; commissioned to con-
quer Florida at his own cost, 40; his
expedition sails from Cuba, 41 ; his ex-
plorations and cruelties in Florida,
41-47 ; ascends the Mississippi, 47.

Sovereignty, popular declaration of,
made by Virginia house of burgesses,
i. 172.

South America, fears of Spain that seeds
of discontent might be wafted into,
from United States, vi. 88; all Dutch
settlements in, captured by British,
366; plan for an expedition to, via
India, laid before the British cabinet
by Lord North, 368.

Southampton, Earl of, promotes Way-
mouth's expedition to New England,
i. 90; member and treasurer of Lon-
don company, 122 ; his death, 324.

South Carolina, levelling principles pre-
vail, and civil and ecclesiastical posts
are at disposal of the people, iii. 26;
most ready of all colonies to form a
union, 49 ; her people increase power fcjr

616

INDEX.

encroaching on executive, 85; modes of
life and characteristics of people, 85,
86; legislature vindicates *• their birth-
rights as British subjects," 234; tries
to check slave-trade by its own laws,
279; war with Cherokecs weans its
people from Great Britain, 279; assem-
bly resists Governor Boone's claim to
be sole Judge of elections, 393; assem-
bly of, debates invitation to congress of
delegates, pronounces for union, 481,
482; her great iutiuence in congress,
513; assembly adopts proceedings of
congress, 523; legislature of, grants
every requisition, remits a thousand
pounds for a statue of Pitt; but com-
plains of tenure of judges at king's
pleasure, and prays for modifications
of the navigation act, iv. 9, 10 ; praises
the ninety-two members of Massachu-
setts houses, who would not rescind,
95; the assembly dissolved by gover-
nor, 131, 132; refuses to comply with
billeting act, and publishes names
of dissentients from non-importation
agreement, 174; remits £10,500 for
support of bill of rights, 177 ; meeting
of citizens, strives to keep up spirit of
resistance, but in vain, and commerce
in all goods but tea resumed, 215, 216;
affections of, alienated from England,
228; its own judges dismissed, and
replaced by foreigners; assembly elects
Richard Lowndes speaker, and is or-
dered to elect another ; refuses, and is
{>rorogued by governor, 254; excited
>y imprisonment of Thomas Powell,
publisher of South Carolina " Ga-
zette," by the council, 270; planters
love their civil rights more than ease
and security, and declare that all
Americans must resolve to stand by
one another even unto death, 334, 335;
merchants and planters of, agree as
to necessity of a general congress,
who were authorized to agree to sus-
pension of exports as well as imports;
assembly confirms these proceedings,
and adjourns just as the governor
sends to prorogue them, 357; adopts
measures of continental congress with-
out change, elects delegates to next,
encourages people to learn use of
arms, 451; if blood shall be spilled in
Massachusetts, her sons will rise in
arms, 452; a committee of five ap-
pointed to put colony in state of de-
fence, 552; provincial congress issues
bills of credit for £140,000, which
public spirit kept up in value half
a year, 552; militia officers resign
commissions received from governor,
and submit to orders of congress;
a council of safety charged with ex-
ecutive powers, 552; Lord Campbell,
the new governor, arrives, and is ad-
dressed by provincial congress, which
declares its preference of death to
slavery, 553 ; political and religious
preferences of various sections of the

provinces, v. 47, 48; over twenty thou-
sand pounds of powder acquired by
boarding ships off the coast ; export of
rice allowed only in exchange for arma
and ammunition from Hispaniola and
French and Dutch islands, 49; arrest
of governor proposed, but defeated, 49;
convention of, startled by Gadsden's
open declaration for independence,
233,234; a constitution established for
the province, 234; its provisions, 235;
government organized amid general
rejoicing, 235, 236; wins praise for her
example in instituting a complete gov-
ernment, 238 ; her delegates in congress
first vote against independence, but the
next day vote for it, 319, 320: appoints
test for the voter, and declares that
Christian Protestant religion is con-
stituted the religion of the state, 514 ;
for two years un visited by an enemy ;
in 1778, establishes a permanent gov-
ernment; bill for a new constitution
approved by legislature, negatived by
President Rutledge ; Rawlins Lowndes,
the new president, sanctions the bill, vi.
155, 156; provisions of the new consti-
tution ; all persons refusing to support
it against Great Britain, exiled, 156;
legislature of, supersedes Lowndes and
recalls John Rutledge to be governor,
253; advice of congress to arm slaves
rejected with disdain, 256, 257 ; the des-
perate condition of the state; many
begin to regret the contest for inde-
pendence ; government sends to ask
terms of capitulation of invaders;
council proposes neutrality during the
war, 257; British general declines to
treat with civil government, and says
the garrison must surrender as pris-
oners of war, 257 ; her own courage to
bring her out of desolation, 263; for
six weeks after capture of Charleston,
all opposition ceases in the state, 267 ;
under panic, all resistance to British
suspended ; attempt to crush out spirit
of independence ; confiscation of prop-
erty threatened against all who oppose
the king's arms; pardon offered to the
penitent; restoration of former polit- ~\
leal immunities to the loyal, 268; suc-
cessful enterprise against the British,
276, 277 ; slavery under the British rule,
285; people of, never conquered, 286;
people see no peace except through ex-
pulsion of the British, 406; assembly
enacts banishment of active friends of
the British, and confiscation of their
estates, 461.

South Hadley, people of, compare pro-
hibiting slitting-mills to Philistines
prohibiting smiths in Israel, iv. 253.

Southern states, safety of, depends on
success of Greene's retreat from the
Catawba to north bank of the Dan,
vi. 392 ; ravages in, by parties of Brit-
ish, 458.

Spain, territorial acquisition of, i. 22;
threatens to send ships to Virginia to

INDEX.

617

remove colonists, 111 ; claims Carolina
as a part of Florida, 484 ; has a Span-
ish world in America, ii. 294 ; her gov-
ernment a despotism, 369 ; by peace of
Utrecht, loses all her European prov-
inces, and retains all her colonies; has
not strength proportioned to her colo-
nial possessions, 388 ; holds aloof from
Suarrels between France and England,
i. 58, 59 ; an absolute monarchy, with
French court and Italian ministers,
316; her insignificant marine the
result of commercial monopoly, 317,
318; founder of protective system,
fears opening oi colonial commerce,
and jealous of English colonies in
America; fears, too, they will become
republican, iv. 147, 148 ; divides North
America with England, 148; cabinet
agrees that Louisiana must be re-
tained as a granary for Havana and
Porto Rico, and as a barrier to English
encroachments, 149; king fears effect
of example of Louisiana on other
colonies, 150; he seeretly sends O'Reilly
to extirpate the sentiment of indepen-
dence at New Orleans, 152 ; famous for
explorations; a glorious future pre-
dicted for her, v. 531 ; her religious his-
tory, 532 ; has a ministry wholly com-
posed of Spaniards, 533; unprepared
for war ; her commerce depressed, her
navy weak, her revenue diminished,
535, 536; the court drawn toward alli-
ance with France, 536; its complica-
tions with England; had, under Gri-
maldi, given money to Americans, but
only through France, 537; abandons
intention of giving three million livres
to the United States, vi. 57; dreads
Americans as colonial insurgents, not
as a new Protestant state, 88; most
hostile of European powers to United
States, fearing effect on her own colo-
nies, 158, 159; baffled bv France, tries
to use Great Britain in checking growth
of the United States; desires lirst to
dictate, as a mediator, terms of settle-
ment with England, or to concert with
England plans to narrow their do-
main, and hasten their ruin, 160 ; ac-
cepts convention framed by Vergennes,
adding stipulation of no peace without
restoration of Gibraltar, 182 ; self-con-
demned by offer of mediation and
declaration of war, 224; hears of in-
surrection begun by ex-Jesuits in
Peru, but still inclines to separate
negotiations with England, 375 ; weak-
ness of her authority in her American
colonies intensifies her hatred of
United States, 441.

Spanish America, French statesmen
think England, by emancipation of,
may indemnify itself for loss of colo-
nies, with great benefit to the com-
merce of France, vi. 441.

Spanish colonies, management of, a seri-
ous care to Spain ; their extent, re-
moteness, and tenuity of ties with

mother country, vi. 86; restraints on
commerce grievous, 87.

Spanish commerce, depredations on, by
Dutch West India company, ii. 41.

" Speedwell," the smaller of the two Pil-
grim ships, i. 241 ; puts back to Plym-
outh, and is dismissed, 242.

Spencer, Joseph, of Connecticut, elected
brigadier-general of continental army ;
old and respectable, but inexperienced,
v. 7.

Spencer, Oliver, attacks equal force of
Waldeckers at Springfield, N.J., and,
taking some prisoners, puts the others
to flight, v. 496.

Spies of Gage, find people intent on mili-
tary exercises, or listening to patriotic
clergymen ; the loyalists deriding their
feeble preparations, iv. 472.

Spiritual unity binds together every
member of human family, ii. 78.

Spitzbergen, discovered by Dutch navi-
gators, Heemskerk and Barentsen, in
1596, ii. 23.

Spotswood, governor of Virginia, declines
to march troops to aid Governor
Hyde in North Carolina,4i. 204.

Springfield, abandoned by Connecticut
to Massachusetts, i. 318; a mob threat-
ens any one who shall enter the court-
house, and the judges of inferior court
agree not to put their commission in
force; assemblage declares that Gage's
troops shall be met by at least twenty
thousand men, iv. 381.

" Squirrel," the, a bark of ten tons,in
which Sir Humphrey Gilbert was lost,
while returning to England, i. 74.

Stair, Earl of, chosen for viceroy of
American colonies, but declines ap-
pointment, iii. 151 .

Stamp act, American, authorship of,
Jenkinson's testimony, Lord North's,
iii. 394; opposition to, in England, 410,
411 ; its beauties, as portrayed by Gren-
ville to colonial agents, 415; passes
houses of commons and lords, 457 ; re-
ceives royal assent by commission,
451; general belief that it would be
easily enforced, 453 ; the harbinger of
American independence, 465; associa-
tions formed to resist it by all lawful
means, 480 ; arrangements made to en-
force it, 490; all the royal governors
take oath to carry it into effect, 518;
stamp-officers everywhere resign, 519;
all colonies unite In resistance to it ;
deprecate the declaration of indepen-
dence, but abhor submission, 524, 525;
rejoicings over its repeal in London.
585 ; the expense of, over £1,200, and
revenue from, mainly from Canada
and the West Indies, about £1,500, iv.
245.

Stamps, propositions to impose use of,
on American colonies, iii. 39; British
press defends the scheme, 164 ; commhv
sioners of stamp duties ordered to p/j-
pare draft of act for imposing duthx on
American colonies, 393. V

618

INDEX.

Standing council for regulating tbe
colonies, commission to, include* names
of Clarendon, and the Earl of Man-
chester and Viscount Say and Seal,
the two latter good friends to New
England, 1. 419.

Stanl ope, a British officer, released on

Sarole by Washington ; forfeits his
onor, v 33.

Stanley, Hats, declares in house of com -
mous that Americans must be treated
as aliens, and advocates change in
charter of Massachusetts, so that the
king shall have appointment of the
council, iv. 129.

Stark, John, a New Hampshire trapper,
Hi. 60; lieutenant in New Hampshire
regiment in Crown Point expedition,
137; captures a party of French, but is
overpowered; promoted, 166; skilled
in the ways of Indians; hardy, odd,
but true, and trusted ; chosen colonel
of New Hampshire regiment; detached
with a battalion to take post at Chel-
sea, where his force becomes a model
for discipline, iv. 535, 536; throws up
rough shelter at Bunker Hill, and
fights independently ; best officer from
New Hampshire; not made one of six
new brigadiers, as being self-willed ;
retires to his farm, v. 554; gathers a
brigade at Charlestown, N H. ; bivou-
acs within a mile of Baum, to whom
he vainly ofters battle; joined by Seth
Warner and his regiment, and concerts
plan of battle, 588; sends live hundred
men to rear of Baum ; takes the front
with two or three hundred men, 588,
589 ; his tribute to the valor of his
troops, 589; esteemed a conqueror after
battle of Bennington, vi. 13.

State, creation of, as in America, pre-
liminary to it, new directing intelli-
gence must represent sum of the
intelligence of thirteen provinces of
various nationalities and beliefs, iv.
569 ; its organic unity to be reconciled
with the individuality of each of its
members : comprehensive law and
individual freedom essential to well-
being of; two opposite tendencies in all
governments, central power and iu-
ividuality, each essential, v. 70, 71 ;
the idea of right its life-giving princi-

Ele, 71; the idea of humanity teaches
ow to judge equitably the reciprocal
relations of states; the common aim
and the bond of duty, 72; the pride of
men creates differences among them-
selves; their pride seen in statute-
book and policy of Great Britain, and
to-day a heavy bias on the judgment
even of liberal Englishmen, 72, 73.
Staten Island, bought in 1670, by Michael
Pauw, a director of Dutch West India
company, ii. 43; settlement on, ruined
bv tribes of New Jersey, 49 ; attempt
of Sullivan to capture loyalists on;
Ogden lands, and captures and brings
awaj eighty prisoners; Sullivan crosses |

to, and divides his force; capture*
tories, and rules Quaker houses of
paper, achieving nothing of importance,
v. 592 ; his rear-guard of two hundred
troops is captured, 593.

States, governments of, dearer than
general government; points of differ-
ence between the two, vi. 174 ; tendency
to leave all power in, a natural conse-
quence of their historic development,
342; of the confederacy, during sus-
pension of active hostilities, many
moulding the forms of their now gov-
ernment to fix in living inotituuons
the thoughts of people on freedom of
conscience and religion, v. 435.

Statute, thirty-fifth, of Henry VIII.,
only one by which criminals could be
tried in England for offences in Amer-
ica, and its provisions extend only to
treasons, iv. 131.

Stedingk, Baron de, writes to king of
Sweden of assault on Savannah; is
badly wounded ; is a social " lion " at
Paris, vi. 261.

Stephen, Adam, would go to the far
west rather than submit his life, lib-
erty, and property to the arbitrary
disposal of a venal aristocracy,, iv.
486.

Stephens, William, a famous ship-
builder, i. 331.

Stephenson, Marmaduke, tried for
Quakerism, curses his judges, and is
hanged, i. 367.

Steuben, Baron, a Prussian, made in-
spector-general of American army;
obtains rank of maior-general, and at
Valley Forge works reform in use
of the musket and manoeuvre, vi. 49;
guards stores at Point of Fork, Va.;
persuaded by Simcoe, British com-
mander, that the whole British army
is after him, he flees, 465

Stevens,- joins Gates with seven hundred
Virginia militia, vi. 278.

Stiles, Rev. Ezra, of Rhode Island, notes
universal lack of confidence in any
official below the crown, ill. 284.

Stirling, Lord, a brigadier in American
army ; ordered by General Putnam, on
Long Island, to advance f.nd repulse
the enemy, v. 375; attacked by great
force, and deserted by all except Mary-
land and Delaware troops ; with a few
survivors, attempts escape, but fails,
379; refuses his sword to the British

General, but gives it to General Von
leister, 379, 380; routed at Scotch

Plains by Cornwallis, 568; at battle of

Brandy wine, 597.
Stockbridge (Mass.) Indians, promise to

intercede with Six Nations in behalf of

colonists, among whom they live, iv.

510; encampment of, near Boston, v.

16.
Stone, William, governor of Maryland, L

193 ; yields his commission to Catholics.

199 ; raises force, and seizes provincial

records, 199 ; overpowered by repubtt-

INDEX.

619

cans; sentenced to death, but spared,
200.

Stony Point, garrison of, withd* aws on
approach or British force under Clin-
ton, vi. 208; Wayne ordered to retake
it; he attacks in two columns, using
only the bayonet, and instantly gains
the fort; a brilliant victory; the fort
razed, but reoccupied later by a Brit-
ish force, 210, 211.

Stormont, Lord, British ambassador at
Paris ; his letter cited in house of lords
to prove France's desire for peace,
iv. 479; is told by Yergennes that
France sees England's embarrassments
with uneasiness ; recites the probable
consequences of success of colonies, v.
102, 103; protests against sailing of
. French ships with military stores for
America, 520 ; to application of Frank-
lin and Deane to exchange prisoners,
is silent; to a second, replies that " the
king's ambassador receives no applica-
tions from rebels, except for the king's
mercy," 539; succeeds Weymouth in
British ministry: confident in re-
sources of England, but blind to moral
distinctions in dealing with other na-
tions; to complaints of Dutch of out-
rage on their nag, announces determi-
nation to persist in his policy at any
cost, vi. 357 ; writes to Yorke that the
best way to bring the Dutch to their
senses is to hurt their trade, 360;
writes disingenuous memorial to states-
general, to be delivered conditionally;
wishes to "stun" the Dutch "into
their senses," 362, 363 ; renews demand
for punishment of Van Berckel ; pre-
pares to send secret orders to seize
Dutch West India settlements, 365.

Stoughton, Mass., a county congress di-
rects special meetings in every town
and precinct, to elect delegates to meet
at Dedham, iv. 379.

Strachey, Henry, appointed Oswald's as-
sistant; his instructions, vi. 477; writes
to secretary of state that Jay and
Adams will consent to indemnification
of refugees rather than lose the treaty,
478,479; at meeting of negotiators, says
that final settlement depends on resti-
tution of property to loyalists, 481 ; re-
luctantly answers that his propositions
are not an ultimatum, 482.

Strafford, Earl of. urges violent counsels,
i. 379 ; his arraignment and attainder,
381.

Stuart, land agent at the west, concludes
treaty with Cherokees, by which they
ratii'y all former grants of land, and
fix boundaries of Virginia, iv. 127.

Stuart, Indian agent for southern de-
partment, instructed by Gage to make
Cherokees take arms against king's
enemies; sends to lower Creeks and
Chickasaws to assure them of plenty,
if they will join the king's cause; em-
ploys like tactics with the Little Tal-
lassees and the Overhill Creeks, to

whom he distributes ammunition, t.
48, 49.

Stuart, James, an officer of Fort Lou-
doun, captured by Indians, ill. 237;
saved by Attakulla-kulla, 238.

Stuarts, their colonial measures always
fail, i. 168 ; their prohibition of foreign
trade with Virginia, 175; pass from
throne of England; monuments of, in
New World; their relations with
American colonies, ii. 188.

Stuyvesant, governor of New Nether-
land, ii. 52; dissolves assembly, 63 j
goes to Boston to protest against west-
ern extension of New England colonies,
65 ; futility of his efforts to coerce colo-
nists and provide defence against in-
vasion. 66; opposes surrender to Duke
of York's fleet, 68.

Subsidiary troops, required by Britain
from German princes; the duke of
Brunswick expects to supply three, and
the landgrave of Hesse-Cassol five,
thousand; Fauci tt, the British agent,
instructed to "get as many as he
can ; " the prince of Waldeck begs the
king to accept six hundred men, v. 170.

Sucingerachton, kine of the Senecas,
foremost man in the Six Nations, vi.
143; his attachment to the English in-
creases, on alliance of Americans with
the French, whom he hates; influences
Senecas to yield to Butler's allure-
ments, 144.

Suffolk county, convention of: Warren
reports that the sovereign who breaks
his compact with his people forfeits
their allegiance, advising a provincial
congress, and defensive action as long
as it shall be reasonable, iv. 389, 390.

Suffolk, Earl of, in house of lords offers
an amendment to address " to enforce
the legal obedience of the colonies and
their dependence on the sovereign au-
thority of the kingdom," ill. 529 ; which
is rejected by the house, 531 ; becomes
secretary of state in place of Wey-
mouth, iv. 217; replies, in house of
lords, to Chatham's great speech, that
the government would repeal not one
of the acts, but use every effort to
bring America to obedience, 449 ; says
king and cabinet are determined not
to treat with the illegal congress, and
in no event to recognise colonies in as-
sociation, v. 79; writes, with reference
to hiring Russian troops, that, this in-
crease of force being much desired,
expense, is " not so much an object as
in ordinary cases," 92, 93; death of, vi.
225.

Suffrage, universal, Virginia, first state
in the world, in separate boroughs,
where representation was based on, i.
175.

Sullivan, John, a member of continental
congress, from New Hampshire, dis-
mantles the fort at Portsmouth, iv.
434; elected brigadier-general of conti-
nental army, a lawyer, ready to act,

620

INDEX.

bat not always Judicious, vain, and a
lover of popularity, v. 7; commands
brigade in expedition to Canada, 291 ;
succeeds to command of army, on
Thomas's death, 297 ; thinks of " a glo-
rious death, or a victory over superior
numbers;" on approach of British
forces, breaks up his camp, 298, 299;
joins Stirling's command on Long Isl-
and, 376; his party attacked by Hes-
sians, and driven in confusion, 377;
orders his men to shift for themselves,
and hides in a corn-field, where three

Kenadiers find him, 378; received by
>rd Howe on the "Eagle," and ex-
changed with General Prescott ; volun-
teers to visit Philadelphia, as a go-be-
tween; in his boundless indiscretion,
takes no minute of the offer he is to
bear, 391; his greeting in congress by
John Adams, 392; affirms that Lord
Howe said he was ever opposed to
taxing America, and would set aside
the acts therefor, and that changing
charter of Massachusetts, 392, 393; at
Princeton, in command of fifteen hun-
dred men, 064; on approach of Howe,
retires to the Delaware, 566; ordered
to join his division to Greene, 666;
grievously weakens the army; plans
surprise of Jersey loyalists on Staten
Island, 692; divides his corps, and al-
lows his rear-guard to be captured,
693: at Brandy wine, charged with se-
curing the right flank ; ordered to cross
Brandy wine at a higher ford, but dis-
obeys orders, and defeats Washington's
scheme, 596, 597 ; is attacked, and his
division routed, 597; praises Conway
warmly, vi. 38, 39; gives written ad-
vice to Washington to attack Howe in
Philadelphia, 42 ; commands district of
Rhode Island, 160; detains the French
fleet ten days, 150 ; censures D'Estaing
in general orders, and hints that
French alliance is useless, and, com-

f>elled by Lafayette, makes reparation
n other orders ; repeatedly ordered by
Washington to withdraw from the isl-
and, 161; his men desert, and he be-
gns a retreat ; Greene foils attempt of
ritish to get around his right wing,
and drives them back to their post;
his army retires from the island, Clin-
ton, with re-enforcements, landing next
day, H2; his force raised by New Eng-
land, in twenty days, to ten thousand
men, and the people indignant at his
failure, 152; commands expedition
against the Senecas with his usual in-
efficiency, 212, 213; it falls to him, in
the pay of France, to carry Luzerne's
amendments in congress ; for this ser-
vice, recommended by Luzerne to
French cabinet for prolonged rewards,
377 and note; acting in concert with
Luzerne, promotes election of Frank-
lin as a peace commissioner, 378.
Sullivan's Island, Charleston harbor, a
fort on it proposed, v. 60.

Sumter, a patriot commander, in South
Carolina, takes refuge in North Caro-
lina; his wife turned out doors and
his house burned by British ; leader of
exiles, vi. 272, 273 ; attacks Hack, and
destroys nearly his whole force, 273;
surprises British post at Hanging Rock,
273; retires to Catawba settlement,
and patriots flock to his standard, 274;
captures British store train ana es-
cort, 278 ; after Camden, commands the
largest American force in the Caroli-
nas, 282 ; while bivouacking and asleep,
attacked by Tarleton, who routs the
Americans, taking two or three hun-
dred prisoners; rides into Charlotte
alone, without hat or saddle, 282 ; pro-
nounced by Cornwallis "our greatest
plague in this country," 286; repulses
a party sent against him under We-
niyss, 295 ; is joined by Clark and Bren-
nan, and threatens Ninety-Six, 296;
attacked by Tarleton, whom he forces
to retreat, 296; captures Orangeburg,
404.

Supper, a farewell, of congress; the
health of the commander is chief
drunk ; his reply received with silence,
imposed by thoughts of the difficulties
that await him, v. 7.

Supplies for British army, penalty fixed
by congress for furnishing; enemy
suffers For want of food and forage, vL
19.

Supreme court, in Boston, opened; but
jurors refuse to take the oath; judges
notify Gage of impossibility of exercis-
ing their office in any part of the prov-
ince ; the army is too small, and jurors
will not serve, 381.

Surrender of Burgoyne, vi. 13 ; he stipu-
lates for passage of army from Boston
to England, on condition of not serv-
ing again in North America during the
war; the convention signed; ceremo-
nies of surrender, 14.

Swaanendael, name of colony in Dela-
ware, planted by Pieter Heyes; de-
stroyed by Indians, ii. 44.

Sweden, only colony ever planted by,
ruined by aggression of its governor,
ii. 55.

Sweden, New, banks of Delaware, from
the ocean to the falls, known as, ii. 48 ;
disastrous end of: descendants of,
colonists blend with other nationali-
ties, 56.

Swedes, form company to plant colonies,
ii. 46; its operations delayed by the
king's military campaigns; first expe-
dition, 47 ; military fame protects colo-
ny against Dutch; increased emigra-
tion of, to America; Pennsylvania
traces its lineage to. 48; on the Dela-
ware, more powerful than the Dutch,
56; driven from their settlements by
the Dutch, 66.

Switzerland, an old and stable republic:
an example to America; its men will
not enlist in British armies; never

INDEX.

621

asked for aid by the United States, vi.
93.

Syracuse, gait springs of, discovered by
Jesuits in 1654, and occupied by a
French colony in 1656, ii. 64.

System, colonial, all Western Europe had
shared in building, ii. 293 ; two powers
most interested in, France and Eng-
land, 294.

System, mercantile, of 1689, prime cause
of colonial independence, ii. 290, 291 ;
a source of European wars, 291 ; each
nation permitted to apply it to its own
colonies ; doomed, by its own destruc-
tion, to emancipate commerce, 293.

Talbot, Silas, assails the " Renomm6,"
a British ship-of-war in the Hudson,
with a fire-brig; is severely burned,
but escapes with his crew, v. 404.

Talon, intendant of Canada, ii. 322; re-
solves to spread power of France, and
chooses St. Lusson to hold a congress
of Indians at Falls of St. Mary, 326;
favors Marquette's project of dis-
covering the Mississippi, hoping to
carry French flag to the Pacific or
Gulf of Mexico, 328.

Tarleton, a British officer, attacks Bu-
ford's command, and butchers nearly
all, though suing for quarter; is
warmly praised by Cornwallis, vi. 266,
267; joins Rawdon near Camden. 277;
ordered to aid of Ferguson, 290; hear-
ing of battle of King's Mountain, re-
joins Cornwallis, 293; sets fire to
houses, and destroys corn from Camden
to Nelson's ferry, beats the wife of a

Seneral because sne cannot tell where
larion is, 295 ; ordered against Sumter,
295; attacks him, and is forced to re-
treat, 296 ; promises either to destroy
Morgan's corps, or to push it towards
King's Mountain, 383, 384; aims to
break up assembly of Virginia; suffers
nothing of Jefferson's at Monticello to
be injured, 415; demonstrating against
allied troops at Gloucester, is driven
off by French dragoons, barely escap-
ing, 425, 426.

Taxation, arbitrary, law against, in Mas-
sachusetts, i. 292 ; New England planta-
tion freed from, by house of commons,
340; English lawyers doubt not power
of parliament to tax America, 11. 288 ;
American, the landed gentry of Eng-
land startled by Barrington's an-
nouncement of its abandonment; Lord
North, in house, moving the full tax
of four shillings in the pound on land,
encounters discontent of those who re-
member Barrington's words, and pro-
ceeds to explain that lord's statements,
rendering it harmless, v. 106; in
colonies, jealousy of control from with-
out centres in, 347.

Taxes on colonies, imposition of, advised
by Thomas Penn, Governor Dinwiddle,
of Virginia, and. Governor Sharp, of
Maryland, iii. 110; inquiries as to best

methods of levying, in parliament,
112; Franklin's argument against, 113:
general demand for, from servants of
crown in colonies, 116; various forms
of taxation proposed, the stamp-tax
being generally favored, 395, 396 ; right
of legislature to impose on colonies
unanimously conceded in house of
commons, 414.

Tea, duties on, in England given up, and
a specific duty imposed in America, iv.
45 ; women of Boston renounce the use
of, 185; bill to repeal duties on, intro-
duced in house, but fails, 201, 202;
meetings to protest against importa-
tion ofT in Boston, 267, 268, 272; the
case of the "Dartmouth," 274, 275;
two more tea-ships arrive in Boston,
276 ; destruction of three ships' cargoes
there, 280, 281 ; tea-ships at Charleston,
South Carolina, and Philadelphia, 281;
repeal of tax on, moved by Rose
Fuller, 303 ; reply of ministry that the
question was simply whether all British
authority should be taken away, 303;
Burke's great speech, 303, 304; re-
pealing act defeated, 306; a tea-ship
sent back from New York, 306 ; bill re-
fusing repeal passes the commons by
vote of three to one, and by greater
majority in lords, 306; a subscription
started to pay East India company for
tea, but fails, 323, 324.

Tea-party, the, men disguised as In-
dians, march to Griffin's Wharf.
Boston, and throw into the harbor all
the tea in three ships; encouraged by
Hancock, Samuel Adams, and others;
the deed accomplished, the town
quiet while the news is borne to other
points, iv. 280, 281.

Temple, John, a rumor spread in London
that letters of Hutchinson and Oliver
had been dishonestly obtained through
him ; press says he purloined letters of
Thomas Whately submitted to him by
latter's brother ; fights a duel with W.
Whately ; denies " any concern in pro-
curing or transmitting " the letters, iv.
283.

Temple, Lord, approves principle of
stamp act, hi. 451; refuses appoint-
ment to the treasury, 460. 461 ; and to
take office with Pitt, 484; offers a
protest against repeal of stamp act,
and defends Grenville's policy, 584:
his removal urged by Bernard, and
Hutchinson, iv. 141; says, in debate
on Boston port-bill, that nothing can
justify ministers now except Boston
proving in a state of actual rebellion,
800,301.

Ten Broeck, Abraham, member of New
York assembly, moves to take into
consideration the proceedings of the

Seneral congress, i>ut his motion la
efeated by a majority of one. It.
456.
Tennessee, people of, uphold American
independence in consequence of Indian

622

INDEX.

war Instigated by British, and name
their district Washington, v. 432.

Ternay, Admiral de, convoys Rocham-
beau's command to Newport, vi. 318.

Thacher, Oxenbridge, counsel for people
in trial touching writs of assistance,
ill. 274; his ideas as to relations of
colonies with England, 426; points out
results of prevalence of British colonial
system, 466; his tribute to Virginians,
476.

Thayer, Major Simeon, of Rhode Island,
takes command of Mud Island fort ;
after brave resistance, sends away the
garrison, vi. 23: reported to Wash-
ington as an officer of highest merit,
24.

Thirteen states, the old, whole Atlantic
coast of, possessed by England, ii. 69.

Thorne, Robert, of Bristol, visits New-
foundland in 1502, i. 63; proposes
voyages to the east by way or the
north, to an open sea near the pole,
64,65.

Thomas, John, commander of American
troops at Roxbury, iv. 541 ; a physician
of Kingston, Mass., elected brigadier-

general of continental army; the
est general officer of that colony,
v. 7; made major-general, and ordered
to command in Canada, 292; calls
council of war, which votes to retreat
to Three Rivers ; attacked by garrison
marines, and driven in disorder to
Deschambault ; at Sorel, fifteen
leagues below Montreal, 293, 294 ; des-
titution and inefficiency of his army,
296; his death, 297.

Thompson, Brigadier-general, of Penn-
sylvania, in command of four bat-
talions sent by Washington to Quebec,
v. 291 ; commands party sent to attack
Three Rivers ; encounters a large force
of the enemy, and is defeated after
brave resistance, 297, 298.

Thompson, William, colonel of the eight
companies of riflemen from Pennsyl-
vania; his second in command,
Edward Hand, an Irishman; one of
his captains, Hendricks, famed for his
fine person and gallantry, v. 30.

Thomson, William, commands Moultrie's
advanced guard at Fort Moultrie, v.
276 ; re-enforced by Muhlenburg's regi-
ment, 285.

Three plans for settlement; at opening
of parliament in November, 1777, three
systems of dealing with America pro-
posed; the king for continuation of
war at all hazards, till colonies submit,
vi. 54; Chatham for conciliation of
America by change of ministry, and
chastisement of France; Rockingham
party for giving up all claims on
America rather than continue an
unjust and cruel war, 55.

Thurlow, solicitor-general under George
III., his coarse nature and bad heart;
the evil genius of Lord North and
England, and unrelenting to America,

Iv. 200; thinks the Quebec constitu-
tion, which cuts off right of habeas
corpus and excludes men from any
share in government, the only proper
one for colonies, 308; his memory
honored in Canada for his aid in pass-
ing the Quebec act, 415; in 1799, pro-
nounces proposal to terminate the
slave-trade '• contemptible," vi. 298;
most conspicuous defender of the new
tory party, vi. 436.

Ticouderoga, battle of, iii. 196-201;
largest hody of men of European
origin ever assembled in America, 196;
confidence of Montcalm, 198 ; encounter
of Lord Howe with De Trepezee, and
death of Howe, 198 ; the English storm
the breastworks, and are repulsed with
great loss, 199, 200 ; expedition against,
sanctioned by commission to Benedict
Arnold, iv. 542; Parsons, of Con-
necticut, with Samuel Wyllys, Silas
Deane. and others, project capture
of; Joined at Bennington by Ethan
Allen, with a force of one hundred
and fifty; Arnold arrives with com-
mission, but Allen is elected com-
mander, landing near fort with eighty-
three men, 554 ; Allen calls for volun-
teers; every man assents; the Ameri-
cans rush into the fort; Allen calls on.
Delaplace, the commander, to come
forth, or he will sacrifice the whole
garrison; Delaplace asks by what
authority ; " In the name of the great
Jehovah and the continental con-
gress," answers Allen; Delaplace
yields ; the fort, which cost the British
£8,000,000, won in ten minutes by a few
volunteers, without loss; the booty
gained, 555 ; legislature of Massachu-
setts requests Connecticut to take care
of the conquest, 556 ; whole population
west of Green Mountains eager to
keep it; Massachusetts remonstrates
against its abandonment, and Con-
necticut orders one thousand men to
march to defence of the two forts;
narrowly escapes capture by Carleton,
v. 427; the garrison left by Gates
nominally twenty-five hundred, in
command of Colonel Wayne, 428;
Gates authorized by congress to evacu-
ate, 556; Burgoyne encamps before it;
Phillips seizes mills near outlet of
Lake George, and Mount Defiance is
taken possession of, 575.

Tituba, a servant of Rev. Samuel Parris,
driven to confess herself a witch, ii.
256.

Tobacco, introduced into England by re-
turning members of Raleigh's colony,
1586. i. 83; King James's hostility to;
Justifies the heavy tax on it, 166; its
culture and sale under the Stuarts,
167 ; first colonial measure of Charles
I. relates to it, 167; generally used
instead of coin, 173; tribute of a penny
on every pound levied in North
Carolina, 504; low price of, impover-

INDEX.

623

Uh*l Virginia, 11. 11, 12; fields of. torn
up by mobs. 12; principal currency,
208 ; the legalized currency of Virginia,
received for public dues, with consent
of all save clergy, iii. 405.

Tocsin of war, the, sounds from the
Penobscot to the coast of Georgia;
with one impulse and one spirit, the
colonies spring to arms, iv. 533, 534.

Toleration, beginning of the reign of, L
368.

Tonyn. governor of East Florida, writes
to Sir Henry Clinton at Charleston,
urging an attack on Georgia, and be-
littling the courage and resources of
South Carolina, v. 276.

Tory party, the new, founded by Mans-
field, Northington, and the lawyers, led
by Edmund Burke and the Rocking-
ham ministry ; accepts the creed which
Grenville claimed to be the whiggism of
the Revolution of 1688, iii. 563, 564;
creates a new opposition, and suggests
extensions of representative system,
565; changes ministry's recommenda-
tion to compensate sufferers by Ameri-
can riots to a parliamentary requisi-
tion, 567.

Town-meetings, held, Dec. 28. 1772,
from the Kennebec to Buzzard's Bay,
iv. 248 ; abolished by act of parliament.
302, 303; selectmen of Boston reminded
by Gage of act of parliament prohibit-
ing the calling of, without governor's
leave; they reply that the meeting
called is an adjourned one; he brings
subject before the council, who answer
that it should be referred to the crown
lawyers, iv. 375.

Town, the New England, its Teutonic
origin, 1. 335, 336; the choice of a min-
ister. 336, 337.

Townshend. Charles, enters board of
trade, " the greatest master of Amer-
ican affairs,'riii. 36; his political prob-
lem, to regulate charters and provide
a civil list independent of colonial leg-
islatures, 36, 37 ; indefatigable in study
of America; advises occupation of
eastern bank of the Ohio, 64; advises
sending troops and money to train
New England people, and then to con-
quer Canada, 110; urges application of
mutiny bill to colonial militia, 111 ;
defies Egmont to point out one Amer-
ican grievance, 111 ; made secretary at
war, 260; desires administration of
America, and receives secretaryship
of board of trade, 294, 295; becomes
first lord of trade with large powers,
861; his policy toward colonies fixed,
362; bound to raise large American
revenue by taxation of colonies; the
charters to yield to one system of gov-
ernment ; an American standing army
to be maintained by the colonies ; the
navigation acts to be enforced, 362-365;
retires from cabinet, 367; declines
to act under Grenviile, 372; urged
by the king to take seals of south-

ern department under Cumberland,
but refuses, 488; courts Duke of Graf-
ton, hoping to become secretary of
colonies, 586; advocates the depriva-
tion of America of its contradictory
charters: unless this was done, he
should reel compelled to withdraw
from the administration, iv. 7; be-
comes chancellor of the exchequer
under Pitt; his self-depreciation and
fine promises, 14, 15: devises a
.scheme for a board of customs in
America, to obtain a fund for the civil
list and concentrate power, iv. 28 ; lord
of the ascendant after Chatham's
eclipse; his ambition and obsequious-
ness, 38; assumes to dictate colonial
policy to the ministry, 38; an effort
made to remove him, 38, 39 ; " steals "
his bill for American revenue through
both houses of parliament, 50 ; remains
iu cabinet, treating every thing in jest,
55; seized with fever, and dies, 58.

Townshend, George, commands brigade
in Wolfe's army, and claims credit of
capitulation of Quebec, iii. 227; re-
turns home to advocate governing
America by concentrating power in
England, 227.

Townshend, Thomas, takes home de-
partment in Shelburne's administra
tion, vi. 452.

Tracy, general of French regiment sent
to Canada, ii. 322.

Trade, of Virginia, statistics of, i. 161 ;
foreign ships forbidden to trade with
Virginia, Barbados, &c, 162; liberty
of, offered by Virginia to every Chris-
tian nation, 174 ; of Massachusetts, with
the Chesapeake and Hudson River,
289; of New England, 452, 453; at-
tempt of English merchants to en-
force lawB of, against Massachusetts,
474, 475; acts or, everywhere evaded,
and especially in New York, ii. 234;
colonial, eagerness of parliament to
interfere with; all questions of, de-
cided from point of view of English
commerce and landholders, 282; act
passed, giving England monopoly of;
courts of vice-admiralty set up in
America, 283 ; export of wool and wool
fabrics prohibited, 284; export of rice
and molasses prohibited, 285; these
laws evaded by colonies, 285, 286; en-
forcement of, chief cause of dlscon*
tent, iii 284; proceedings in admiralty
courts, 284, 285.

Tradesmen, of Boston, efforts of royal-
ists to win them over ; meeting of, ad-
dressed by one who recommends for
consideration the manner of paying
for the tea, but Warren shows that
payment in any form would open the
way to general compliance, iv. 343.

Transfer of government and patent to
inhabitants of Massachusetts Bay
colony, i. 275; effects of this change,
275

Treaties of commerce to be offered by

624

INDEX.

congress to Prussia, Austria, and Tus-
cany, and their influence invoked to
8 re vent employment of Russian or
rerman troops by the British ; a sketch

' drawn for an offensive alliance with
France and Spain against Great Brit-
ain, v. 486.

Treaties with France: Feb. 6, 1778,
a treaty of amity and commerce, and an
eventual defensive treaty of alliance
concluded between king of France and
American commissioners, vi. 68 ; their
terms, — the absolute independence of
the states recognised as essential end of
the defensive alliance; guarantees of
present possessions; a secret act re-
serves to Spain the right to accede to
the treaties, 59; news of, received with
satisfaction at St. Petersburg, 69;
chief cause of the movement of intel-
lectual freedom, 71; benefit of, to
United States, priceless, 76.

Treaty between France and Spain,
signed; its provisions ; modifies treaty
between France and the United States,
the latter gaining right to make peace
whenever Great Britain will recog-
nise their independence, vi. 183.

Treaty of peace at Albany, iii. 67 ; South
Carolina represented for first time, 67.
68; many Indian tribes present ana
friendly ; peace agreed on, 68.

Treaty of peace between the United
States and Great Britain ; not a com-
promise nor a compulsory compact,
but a free solution and permanent set-
tlement of Questions at issue, vi. 483;
its effect on both nations, 483, 484.

Treaty of Russia, Sweden, and Den-
mark; the three agree to support
one another against attacks by repri-
sals and other means, and to protect
ships of each nation, vi. 369.

Treaty with France, plan of, adopted by
congress; its terms, v. 409, 410; Frank-
lin, Deane, and Arthur IJee appointed
commissioners ; Franklin proposes that
they be empowered to treat for peace
with England, 410; assured by Ver-
gennes of interest of France in their
cause; he asks Franklin for a paper
on condition of America, and adds that
they may communicate freely with the
Spanish ambassador, 622; the Span-
ish minister favors active aid to
America, 623 ; commissioners ask Ver-

{rennes for eight ships of the line, artil-
ery, and muskets, on the ground that
the commercial interest of the three
nations, France, Spain, and America,
is the same, 623; the king's answer,
refusing open supplies, but promising
secret succor, 623, 624; commissioners
contract with farmers-general to fur-
nish fifty-six thousand hogsheads of
tobacco, and receive on account an
advance of a million livres, 624.
Trecothick, head of committee of Amer-
ican merchants, remonstrates with
Townshend, and proposes that the

army shall be withdrawn from Amer-
ica, where no revenue will be needed,
iv.44; proposes repeal of duty on tea in
house of commons, 201.

Trent, William, messenger of Virginia,
finds French colors flying at Picqua,
and replaces them with English, iii.
61.

Trenton, army to be used against, about
five thousand; Washington detains
six hundred men at Morristown, under
Maxwell, to harass the enemy ; Griffin,
at Mount Holly, to engage the atten-
tion of Donop; Putnam, at last min-
ute, to lead force from Philadelphia;
Gates asked to command movement
of 2,000 troops from Bristol, v. 475;
Cadwalader marches to Donk's ferry,
478; and with his men waits for the
floating ice to open a passage ; Wash-
ington begins crossing at Mackonkey's
ferry, and is notified of Gates's recre-
ancy, 480, 481; a Hessian post at-
tacked by Captain Anderson, recon-
noitring Trenton, and a Hessian force
sent out; Rail continues his revels ; at
3 a.m. American troops had. all crossed
the Delaware, 481 ; the Hessian camp
quiet; its outer pickets attacked by
Washington's party, and Hessian
guard put to flight; ardor of Amer-
icans forbids Hessians to form ; Rail's
attempt to escape foiled, and his
effort to recover the town: surrender
of Hessians; nearly all of Rail's com-
mand captured with cannon, small
arms, &c, 483, 484.

Trevett, draws off the only field-piece
saved by patriots at Bunker Hill, iv.
621.

Triumvirate, executive powers of British
government intrusted to, after Bute's
resignation, — Grenville, Egremont,
and Halifax, iii. 368; laughed at as a
ministerial Cerberus, 372; has neither
popularity nor weight in parliament,
388, 389.

Troops, British, ordered to Boston, It.
101; desert in great numbers, 120:
four regiments with nothing to do, and
no quarters furnished by Massachu-
setts, 130, 131; Dairy mple's order to
prepare for an attack, 184: could not
fire without order from civil magis-
trate, and despised as harmless, 185,
186; magistrates ready to enforce the
law against them, but they are screened
by their officers, 186; insult the people,
and fire upon them, 187-190; trial of
Preston's command for participation
in Boston massacre, seven found guilty
of manslaughter, 209; bill legalizing
the quartering of in Boston, introduced
in parliament, 307; two regiments en-
camped on Boston common, and re-en-
forcements sent to the castle, 343;
large additions to force on the common,
348 ; encouraged to provoke the people,
that they might have cause to begin
hostilities, 490; inir regiments ordered

INDEX.

625

from Boston to New York, 514; British
officers in Boston dare not order a
sally; officers shrink from avowing
their own acts, 538 ; ashamed of their
confinement, and determined to lay
the country waste, 602.

Trumbull, Jonathan, deputy governor
of Connecticut, foresees a greater
change for America ; his characteristics
and opinions; believes that violent
methods will hasten a separation, while
the connection of colonies with Eng-
land can be preserved by gentle ones,
iv. 50 ; thinks it hard to break connec-
tion with mother country, but, when
she tries to enslave us, the closest
union must be dissolved, 188; writes to
Washington, enjoining strength and
courage, and supplicating God in his
behalf, v. 14 ; writes that, knowing our
cause is righteous, and trusting Heav-
en's support, he does not greatly dread
what the enemy can do, 369; calls out
nine regiments (in addition to five sent),
and urges all to volunteer, 369; bis
irreverent figure touching the pardon
of sins, 398 ; in the darkest hour, says,
for himself and his people, " We are
determined to maintain our cause to
the last extremity," 458; thinks he
must be blind who cannot see the hand
of Providence in the events of the war,
vi. 153; cheers Washington with the
opinion that he will obtain all he needs,
414.

Truth, its power as shown in the en-
franchisements of Christianity, 97.

Tryon, governor of North Carolina, per-
secutes Husbands, elected by Orange
county, 214; tries to secure passage of
a severe riot act, 215; reputed the
ablest governor in the colonies; trans-
ferred to New York, 215; dares not
detain Husbands, but conspires with
chief justice to get him indicted for a
pretended libel ; but grand jury refuse
to find, and the prisoner is set free,
218; calls another court, and obtains
jurors and witnesses to suit him, 218;
to raise funds, creates a paper cur-
rency, 219, 220; marches to Orange
county, destroying as he goes, and to
the Great Alamance; attacks and dis-
perses " regulators;" joins Waddel;
issues proclamation, inviting every one
to shoot Husbands, Hunter, and other
leading "regulators;" sails for New
York, 220-222; says Great Britain
must put forth all her power to bring
America to her feet, 349 ; from a ship-
of-war in New York, recommends a
separate petition to people of that prov-
ince, v. 140 ; plots with royalist mayor
of New York to raise an insurrection
in aid of Howe, to seize Washington
and his chief officers; some of his
agents suspected of intentions against
Washington's life; the plot discovered,
807; Germain's favorite officer in re-
cruiting in America, 544; leads a pil-

laging expedition to Connecticut t
plunders and burns New Haven: at
East Haven, his men are driven to their
ships; robs and sets fire to Fairfield
and Green Farms; burns Norwalk,
and reproaches inhabitants for ingrat-
itude; aims at New London, but is
recalled to New York by disaster at
Stony Point; loses nearly one hundred
and fifty men, vi. 209, 210.

Tryon county, N.Y., husbandmen of,
strike the first blow toward Bur-
goyne's defeat, v. 563.

Tucker, Josiah, dean of Gloucester,
writes a wise book on the Interest of
Great Britain in regard to colonies,
and the means of keeping on good
terms with them; finds but one solu-
tion of the difficulty, — to declare the
American colonies free and indepen-
dent, iv. 298; tries to show that Great
Britain will lose nothing by renounc-
ing her colonies, and trading with
them as an independent nation; his
argument praised in verse by Soame
Jenyns, and approved by Mansfield, v.
Ill ; says that every man is convinced
that colonies must become indepen-
dent, and agrees with Franklin and
Adams that now is the time, 365.

Tupac Amaru, descendant of the Incas,
supports insurrection in Peru, vi. 375.

Turgot, at age of twenty-three, predicts
freedom of American colonies, iii. 44;
his character, and ideas of the human
race ; insists on freedom of opinion and
industry, 324; would make trade free
between man and man, and nation
and nation, 325 ; explains to Hume the
onward movement of the human race,
and how the world is moving to a hap-

Jrier condition, iv. 95; anticipates with
oy the separation of American colo-
nies from England. 208 ; made minis-
ter of marine, and, a little later, of
finance, 365; his promise of self-sacri-
fice to the king, 366; made by exigen-
cies of his position a partisan of central
unity of power ; looks to unobstructed

Eower for good government; would
ave no bankruptcy, no increase of
taxes, no new loans, 367; opposes a
war with Great Britain, v. 122; oppo-
sition of aristocracy to his reforms, 225 ;
gives his views on American question,
advising peace. 226-229; one of the first
to predict and desire American inde-
pendence, 229; dismissed by the king;
In him French monarchy lost its truest
support, and only check to rising en-
thusiasm for America, 246.

Turkey, accedes to Russian declaration
of principles of neutrality, vi. 360.

Turkish empire, affects the course of
American affairs; its border provinces
left at mercy of their neighbors, and
some English statesmen desire peace,
in order that England may exert au-
thority on the Bosphorus and within
the Euxine, vL 91.

TOL. VI.

40

626

INDEX.

Tuscaroraa, Indignant at encroachments
of proprietaries of Carolina, assail the
Palatine settlements, ii. 384, 386: di-
vided by Spotswood, and eight hun-
dred captured, 385; hunted by North
Carolinians, till hostile ones withdraw
to Oneida Lake, and become the Sixth
Nation, 385, 386.

Two-penny act. the, permitting pay-
ment of dues in tobacco, negatived by
king in council, ill. 405.

Uchbbs, dwell south-east of Cherokees ;
claim to be the oldest inhabitants of
the region around Augusta, ii. 403.

Uncas, sachem of Mohegans, the ally of
English in Connecticut, 1. 314.

Underwood, John, commander of Dutch
troops in war with Algonkins ; his ex-
perience in Boston, ii. 51, 52.

Union, religious, the bulwark of Massa-
chusetts, against expected attacks of
English hierarchy, i. 293; first tenden-
cies towards, of colonies, ii. 17 ; of " col-
onies on the main" attempted, ill. 49;
colonies do not accept invitation to
meet Indian chiefs at Albany, 49; re-
fuse, because colonies would not place
their concentrated strength under au-
thority independent of themselves, 119;
the only relief for colonies ; the hope of
Otis, 481 ; the cry throughout America,
after defeat of tea importation, iv. 282.

Dnited Provinces, their maritime enter-

S rises, ii. 35; political and religious
Inferences in, 36; reconquer Ameri-
can possessions, while struggling for
existence; plots of Louis XIV. and
Charles II. against; public virtue
saves them, 75; heroism of people, and
naval prowess, 76, 77 ; peace concluded
with England, and rights of neutral
flags established; disappear from
American history, to rise up, a century
later, to vindicate freedom of the seas,
77; friends of intellectual freedom ; no
longer a maritime power, ill. 315; Wil-
liam's accession to throne of England
fatal to their political weight; factions
arise, and the stallholder's party tend
toward monarchical forms; the patri-
ots hate England, and grow less jeal-
ous of France, 316.
United States of America, conquest of,
difficulties of, v. 365 ; vastness of, pre-
vents local attachments, and the sen-
timent of unity is only in the germ, vi.
25, 26; her organizing principle, resist-
ance to power ; spirit or segregation in-
creases in congress ; adopt the principle
of the all-embracing unity of society,
26; by residence, one accepts protection
of America, and owes it allegiance;
each state to remain a sovereign, and
their union only an alliance, 27 ; with
consent of all states but Virginia, an
equal vote in congress given to each,
28; rights of king and congress com-
pared, 28; congress jealous of a stand-
ing army, and leaves to each state ex-

clusive power over Its militia, 80, 81;

' the power to make peace and war, to
make treaties. &c. ; their right to make
treaties of commerce nullified by power
of states over imports and exports;
rights of coining money, keeping forts,
&c., shared by congress with the states :
each state retains its sovereignty ana
all power not expressly delegated, 31 :
no veto power in congress ; powers of
states; assent of every state neces-
sary to acceptance of articles of con-
federation ; confederation embodies
four capital results, 32; wisdom of
settlement of relations of United States
to natural rights of inhabitants; re-
jects disfranchisement, and makes no
distinction of classes; reality given to
the union, by the article securing to
free inhabitants of each state all priv-
ileges and Immunities of free citizens
in the several states, 33; articles of
confederation suffused with ideas of
largest liberty to man, unknown in
Greek system, 34; first effort to form,
a general union a failure, and why:
sentiment of nationality forming, and
framers of confederation, while recog-
nising no "people of the United
States," avow purpose to secure for
them an " existence as a free people,"
35 ; in possession of the Ohio ana left
bank of Mississippi, from Pittsbuig and
Kaskaskia to Spanish boundary of
Florida, 192 ; their beginning and their
growth, 484.

Unity of mankind, assertion of, the dis-
tinctive character of Christian relig-
ion, iii. 6.

Usher, John, son-in-law of Allen, ap-

Sointed lieutenant-governor of New
[ampsliire, ii. 253.
Utrecht, treaty of, closes the series of
wars for the balance of power, ii. 387;
scatters seeds of strife through the
globe, by inaugurating wars for com-
mercial advantages, 388; its conse-
quences to Spain, Belgium, and France,
388, 389; gives lar^e concessions in
America, from France to England, but
leaves many questions that could not
be amicably adjusted, 392.

Vaga, Cabeza de, with Narvaez, cast on
an island on the Texas coast, 1. 32;
penetrates to Sonora, 33.

Valley Forge, chosen by Washington for
winter quarters of the army, vi. 40; his
half-naked and shoeless troops build
thatched huts, 41.

Van, in house of commons, declares that
the offence of Americans is flagrant,
and that Boston ought to be destroyed,
iv. 297.

Van Berckel, pensionary of Amsterdam,
a friend of France, vi. 233: writes that
" we desire leagues of amity and com-
merce " with the new republic, 235.

Van Capellen tot den Pol, Baron, puts
an end to system of villeinage in

INDEX.

627

Overyssel, In spite of the nobility, vi.
297.

Vandalia, Franklin's inchoate province,
stretches from the Aileghanies to Ken-
tucky River, iv. 419.

Vane, Henry, the younger, governor of
Massachusetts, i. 303, 304 ; member of*
council for American colonies, 344 ; in-
strumental in making Abode Island a
political state, 345; "the sheet anchor
of Rhode Island," 346; after Restora-
tion, adheres to liberal cause, and falls
from the affections of the English peo-
ple, 407 ; anticipates every great princi-
ple of the modern reform bill, 408; re*
sists usurpations of Cromwell, who
imprisoned him, 408 ; his last hours and
execution, 409, 410.

Van Rensselaer, Kiiiaen, his possessions
in Delaware, ii. 43.

Van Twiller, Wouter, governor of New
Netherland, succeeding Miniiit, ii. 45.

Van Wart, Isaac, of Greenburg, N.Y.,
aids Paulding in the seizure of Andri.
vi. 327.

Varney, Lord, who had gratuitously
brought Burke into parliament, falls
into debt, and sells bis borough, iv.
428,429.

Varnum, a brigadier-general of Rhode
Island, proposes to emancipate the
slaves in that state, if they will enlist;
his scheme accepted, vi. 48.

Vaudreuil, Marquis of, governor of Can-
ada, conciliates the Iroquois, and
makes treaty of neutrality with Sene-
cas, ii. 373.

Vaudreuil, the younger, assaults Fort
William Henry, but is repulsed, iii.
166, 167.

Vaughan. Robert, commander of Kent
Island, i. 192 ; desires that Maryland
house of burgesses should be separated,
195.

Vaughan, a British officer, storms and
takes Forts Clinton and Montgomery ;
marauds on the Hudson, but accom-
plishes little, vi. 9.

Vergennes, his prophecy as to effects of
cession of Canada to France, iii. 305;
in charge of foreign affairs under Louis
XVI. ; nis career marked by modera-
tion, vigilance, and success; explains
to Louis XVI. that continental congress
contains the germ of a rebellion; that
France had nothing to fear but Chat-
ham's return to power, iv. 440 ; on hear-
ing news of Bunker Hill, says. " Two
more such victories, and England
will have no army left in America," v.
57 ; does not err in judgment, 91 ; pro-
motes interests of America steadfastly,
his influence gradually overcoming the
scruples of the king, 221,- 222 : advises
Louis XVI. as to necessity of defence
agaiust England, 356; sees small re-
sults of British campaign in America,
but Louis XVI. is not disposed to
take any decided steps, 476; receives
American commissioners, 523; never

recognises Americans as a belligerent
power; proposes to admit American

grivateers only when in distress, 529;
xes on January or February, 1778,
as the time when France and Spain
must join in war, or have ever to re-

£et the lost opportunity, 538; asks
merican commissioners what is to be
France's share in the fisheries, vi. 56;
discusses question of French alliance
with colonies with Marquis D'Ossun.
adviser for Spain, and the two digest
a plan, 58; sure of co-operation of
Spain, but fears that Florida's scheme
of invading England will require too
great a force, 164; refuses Spain's pro-
posal that after peace England shall
hold New York and Rhode Island, 177 ;
protests against Spain's offer of media-
tion on basis of a truce, 181; sends
draft of convention to Spain, granting
all she asks, but insisting on indepen-
dence of the states, 181 ; says congress
has only one course, to refuse to listen to
any proposition for peace, except peace
with France as well as America, 196,
197 ; attempts a compromise with Eng-
land, on basis of a truce of at least twen-
ty years, in which South Carolina and
Georgia shall remain to latter in return
for evacuation of New York ; complains
that an excessive share of burdens of
the war fall on France, 371 ; complains,
of John Adams as an embarrassing ne-

fotiator, 375; says of surrender at
rorktown, " History offers few exam-
ples of a success so complete," 430;
wishes America and France to treat
directly and simultaneously with Eng-
land, 442; sees that France needs re-
pose, and to get release from Spain is
ready tq make sacrifices on the part of
France, and to exact them from A tneri-
ca, 47b; writes Luzerne that treaties do
not bind Louis XVI. to prolong the war,
to sustain pretensions of the states as to
boundaries and fisheries, 480 and note.

Verhulst, William, succeeds May as gov-
ernor of New Netherland, ii. 49.

Vermont, territory of, -claimed by France,
New York, ana royal governor Went-
worth of New Hampshire, iii. 48, 49;
settlers of, refuse to submit to jurisdic-
tion of New York, and declare inde-
pendence of their state; expect to be
received into union ; but congress dis-
claims the intention of recognising
them, v. 571; organic law adopted by
convention of, 577; introduction of
system postponed after loss of Ticon-
deroga; council of safety of. asks aid
of Massachusetts and New Hampshire,
578 ; applies for admission as a state ;
shut out by southern opposition, on the

ground that her admission will destroy
alance of power between the two sec-
tions ; has to wait till a southern state
could be received, vi. 302.
Verplanck's Point, ingloriously surren-
ders, vi. 208, 209.

628

INDEX

Veto power, earns to be used In Eng-
land, bat applied to all colonies except
Connecticut and Rhode Island, il. 279;
exercised by Hutchinson, in disapprov-
ing the Massachusetts tax-bill which
did not exempt revenue officers' sala-
ries, iv. 224, 226.

Victims, the, of Puritan bigotry would
be entitled to honor, but for their own
extravagances, which irritate the gov-
ernment, 1. 369.

Tiller*, a patriot of New Orleans, ar-
rested by O'Reilly, iv. 165; hearing the
voice of his wife, forbidden to see nim,
struggles with his guard, and falls dead,
166.

Vincennes, the only settlement in Indi-
ana, iy. 126; people of, through media-
tion of Giboult, a priest, take oath of
allegiance to United States; taken by
Hamilton, and people made to return
to British allegiance, vi. 187.

Virginia, name given by Queen Elisa-
beth to the region explored by Raleigh,
i. 77; from it proceeded first effort to
restrain French colonization in North
America, 112; submits to common-
wealth, asserting freedom of its own
institutions, 170 ; extent of, by second
charter, 178; dismembered in 1669 in
lavish grants, and the" remnant of
colony given away in 1673, 432 ; people
of, a prosperous representative democ-
racy, 626: growth of the spirit of per-
sonal independence, 626; aristocracy
aspires to control the government,
629 ; effects of populargovernment, 630 ;
joy of royalists at Restoration, 630;
self-sovereignty at an end: the Res-
toration a political revolution for
Virginia, 631; a collision imminent,
644 ; Indian ravages, 644, 646 ; avarice
and obstinacy of Governor Berkeley,
who refuses to commission a force to
resist Indians, 646; reforming legisla-
tion completed July 4, 1776, 650; all
acts of Bacon's assembly, save one,
repealed, and old grievances revived,
667, 668; its government becomes pro-
prietary under Culpepper, il. 10; the
grant to Culpepper and Arlington ; Vir-

gnia again a royal province, 13 ; ceased
be resort of voluntary emigrants;
no printing press permitted there, 16;
legislative authority, and plebeian sects
proscribed, 87 ; bad character of priests ;
free schools rare, 87; opinions on slav-
ery divided, 87, 88; sentiment of indi-
viduality parent of its republicanism,
88; resists British commercial system
from abhorrence of slave-trade; pro-
posed to suppress this trade by pro-
hibitory duty; speech of Richard
Henry Lee on the subject, 278, 279;
tax ordered, but negatived by England,.
279; movement in, against prerogative,
408; receives stamp act with conster-
nation; disuses British products, 468;
leads opposition to the slave-trade, iv.
42; action of hor assembly on the Mas-

sachusetts circular letter, 84, 85; Its
western boundary to be extended, 163;
claims sole right of taxing Virginians;
asserts lawfulness of a union of the
colonies; sends these resolves to every
legislature in America, 169; members
ox assembly informally adopt Wash-
ington's scheme for non-importation,
and covenant not to import slaves or
buy any imported, 160; icing's orders
to governor, forbidding his assent to
any law obstructing importation of
slaves, 230, 231; the institution of a
union of colonies depends on, 268; lays
the foundation of toe union, 269; soli
loyal, and no thought of revolution,
but resolved on relief of Boston, 369:
its military ardor, 463, 464; members of
convention in 1776 never think of re-
nouncing their allegiance, 604; driven
by imminence of danger to the Fairfax
resolves; measure for putting colony in
a state of defence finally adopted, 606*
606; convention encourages manufac-
ture of woollen, cotton, and linen, &c.,
powder, salt, &c.y 606 ; angry at seizure
of its powder and Dunmore's threat,
when, on receipt of news from Lexing-
ton, several thousand troops march to
Williamsburg, 660; June 1, 1776, the)
house of burgesses convened for the
last time by a royal governor, 686;
colonial legislature ceases to exist;
through his governor, the king abdi-
cates his legislative power in his oldest
and most loyal colony, v. 42; delegates
to general congress elected, 43; people
declare their allegiance to George 111.,
and would defend him and his govern-
ment, as founded on the laws and consti-
tution, but would defend their lives and
their just rights at all hazards, 44 ; con-
vention instructs delegates in congress
to favor of opening all ports of the col-
onies for trade, with all except Great
Britain, Ireland, and British West In-
dies, 166; May 6, forty-five members of
house of burgesses meet, and dissolve,
the last vestige of the king's authori-
ty thus passing away, 264 : by action
of May convention, moves from char-
ters and customs to primal principles,
and summons the eternal laws of man's
being to protest against tyranny, 262;
her constitution adopted in June, 1776,
603 ; legislature of, retaliates for Mat-
thews's raid, by confiscating property
of British subjects, 207 ; legislature rat-
ifies treaties with France, 336; nearly
divided as to a closer union, 336 ; yields
her title to lands north-west of the
Ohio, to be formed into republican
states and admitted to the union, 351.

Virginia and Massachusetts, kept in
close union by Jefferson, while in con-
gress ; after his retirement, they become
estranged, vi. 301.

Virginia convention of May 6, 1776:
object of the convention the total and
final separation from Great Britain,

INDEX.

629

and establishment of a constitution,
r. (266. 257; Pendleton's resolutions
declaring independence agreed to and
received with rejoicings, amid which
British flag is struck ; a declaration of
rights and a plan of government pre-

Ktrod, and amended on motion of
adison, who objects to the word
"toleration," as implying an estab-
lished religion, ana adopted unani-
mously, 260-262 ; proceeds to form her
constitution, 301; convention trans-
forms itself into a temporary general
assembly, and elects governor and
council, 303.

Voltaire, his advice to Frederic of
Prussia, lit. 186; his prediction, 188;
foresees a revolution, 417,418; wages .
war against Roman Catholic hierarchy, r
iii. 321 ; had no sympathy with popular
liberty; did not understand the ten-
dency of his own labors, 322 ; declares
that light is spreading on all sides,
490; rejoices in revolution which has
taken place in the minds of men, iv.
60; his account of an interview with
Franklin; everywhere the friend of
America; praises Lafayette to the
latter's wife, vi. 60; on his reception
by the French academy, France
adopted America as her child; the
kiss of Franklin and Voltaire, a symbol
that the war for independence is a
war for freedom of mind, 71.

Volunteers in camp at Cambridge, in-
dependent corps under their own
leaders, iv. 641 ; many return for want
of clothes or provisions, or to put their
affaire in order; many absent on fur-
lough, iv. 641.

Volunteers, New England, men. of family
and worth; remembered in devotional
exorcises, and each acting under the
observation of his neighbors; the
camp a gathering of schoolmates and
fiends, each with his own gun and
store of ammunition and provisions, iv.
638.

Tose, a major in Heath's regiment, sets
fire to light-house in Boston harbor,
capturing a field-piece, swivels, and
the lamps; pursued by boats from a
man-of-war, but escapes, v. 19.

Voyages, the, wbich led to colonization
of United States: the courage and
ability exhibited therein, i. 91, 92.

Waddkl, commander of militia, sent by
Governor Tryon to Salisbury, iv. 220;
his ammunition blown up, 221.

Walcott, Lieutenant-colonel, represents
General Howe in negotiations for ex-
change of prisoners, and tries to sound
his American co-commissioners with
reference to negotiations for peace, v.
649.660.

Walueck, prince of, agrees to furnish
troops, but has no way of getting them
except by force or deceit; but, helped
by the clergy, he hopes to get some

together, vi. 176; collects twenty men
for British army in his own domain,
and sixty-nine elsewhere, 639.

Waldenses, the, their origin, ii. 69.

Waldron, Richard, magistrate at Co-
checo, murdered by Indians, ii. 348.

Walker, Henderson, governor of North
Carolina during four years of pros-

W verity, ii. 202.
alker, Sir Hovenden, commander of
fleet for conquest of Canada, ii. 380;
his obstinate stupidity, 382, 383.

Walpole, Horatio, reports bill in parlia-
ment to overrule charters, and make
all royal orders the highest law in
America, iii. 33; protests of the colonies
against it, 33, 34; the bill dropped, 34;
the younger, thinks Osborne's instruc-
tions better adapted to Mexico than
for British Americans, leaning toward
independence, iii. 67.

Walpole, Sir Robert, his administration
leaves English statutes and American
practice more at variance than ever,
hi. 56.

War, a naval, between England and
Holland, i. 166.

War, King Philip's, its beginning, i.
459; one of surprises on the part of
Indians, 469, 460; peace concluded by
Sir Edmund Andros, on terms favor-
able to Indians, 466; between France
and England, suspended by negotia-
tions, soon followed by peace of Utrecht,
ii. 386; concessions of England and
France, 387, 388 ; between France and
England, avoidance of, desired by
Bedford and De Puysieux, French
minister for foreign affairs, but pre-
cipitated by a collision in America, iii.
48; between England and France,
established by rescript of Louis
XVI.;' the British ambassador at
Paris, and the French at London, re-
called. 62 ; Rockingham advises break-
ing of alliance between France and
the United States, by acknowledging
independence of the latter; Shel-
burne insists that it is impossible not
to resent the affront of France, 63.

Ward. Artemas, first general officer
of Massachusetts militia, iv. 470;
fears that he cannot keep his troops
together, 641 ; his incompetency for his
post observed by Joseph Warren, and
the necessity of his removal impera-
tive, 687 ; determines to avoid a gen-
eral action, and sends regiments of
Stark and Reed to Prescott's aid ; does
not leave his house all day. 610; his
general order, 624; elected first of
major-generals by continental con-
gress ; professes he is ready to devote
his life to his country, v. 4.

Ward, Nathaniel, of Ipswich, prepares
a model of a body of liberties for
Massachusetts colony, i. 332.

Warner, elected lieutenant-colonel of
regiment of Green Mountain Boys, v.
Ill; commands rear-guard of St

630

INDEX.

Glair's retreating army, and repulses
Francis's attack, till latter Is re-en-
forced by Uiedesel, v. 578.

Warren, James, of Plymouth, desponds,
saying, " The towns are dead, and can-
not be raised without a miracle," iv.
247 ; speaker of house of representa-
tives of Massachusetts, ▼. 19; writes
to Samuel Adams, in congress, that
the king's silly proclamation will put
an end to petitioning, and calling on
him for a declaration of independence,
Ac, 83.

Warren, Joseph, of Boston, utters new
war-cry of the world, " Freedom and
equality," ill. 578; convinced that all
connection with British parliament
must be thrown off, iv. 879; singled
out as leader of the " rebellion," 390;
protests to Gage against fortifications
on the Neck which closes the town. 390 ;
writes to Quincy, the younger: "It is
barely possible that Great Britain
may depopulate North America; she
never can conquer the inhabitants,"
427 ; his hair grazed by a bullet, on
retreat of British from Concord, 531 ;
says, after Lexington and Concord,
" The next news from England must be
conciliatory, or the connection between
us ends," 532: resolves to take part in
the battle of Bunker Hill, and to
Eibridge Gerry, remonstrating, he
says, "It is pleasant and becoming
to die for one's country;" receives
tender of obedience from Putnam, but
declines to assume authority, and de-
clines like offer from Prescott, 611 ; at
moment of retreat from Bunker Hill,
falls, last in the trenches ; his private
and public virtues; lamented by all

WWitriots, 623.
arwick. Earl of, leader of opposition
in the London company, i. 124 j gover-
nor in chief of American colonies, 344 ;
Connecticut obtains title to her soil
from his assigns, 344.
Washington, George, sent as envoy to
French forces on the Ohio, iii. 69 ; fired
at by an Indian, whom he spares, 72 ;
commissioned lieutenant-colonel to
command at fork of Ohio, 73; opens
first great war of revolution, and wins
a small victory, 76; no aid comes to
him, save one company from South
Carolina, whose commander claims
precedence, 77; his pretensions oc-
casion defeat that followed, 77 ;
capitulates, 78; resigns from British
service, because no rank was given to
provincial general officers, 111 ; joins
Braddock as his aide, 121; com-
missioned colonel of volunteers, but
thwarted by regular officers, 147, 148;
goes to Boston to appeal to Shirley,
who sustains bim, 147 ; complimented
by Shirley and Dinwiddle, 155, 156;
loins Forbes's expedition to Ohio, 204 ;
leads advance on Fort Duquesne, 206 ;
thanked by speaker of house of bur-

gesses, 208; retires to Mount Vernon,
208,209; compared with Frederic, king
of Prussia, 209 ; denounces stamp act,
504; avows his readiness to take his
musket when his country calls, iv.
82; takes part in conference which
announces policy of Virginia, 336:
gives fifty pounds in aid of Boston,
presides at convention, which favors
a general congress, 351 ; eager for
tranquillity, but indignant at wrongs
of Boston, and resolved to resist
regulating act, 405; publishes under
bis own name resolves of Maryland
convention and Fairfax county com-
mittee, and thus stands out the advo-
cate of a system which sets aside the
military powers of royal governors;
chosen commander of a company com-
posed exclusively of " sons of gentle-
men." 453; exults in the rising of New
England and the discomfiture of Lord
Sandwich,who had said that Americans
were cowards, 580; battle of Bunker
Hill confirms him in belief that the
liberties of America would be pre-
served, 624; writes to his wife that " a
kind of destiny has thrown me on
this service," v. 7; assumes command
of army at Cambridge ; sees materials
for a good army, but notes want of
subordination and errors of inexperi-
ence, 17, 18; unable to return fire of
enemy for want of ammunition, 32;
takes possession of Ploughed Hill,
when Gage begins a cannonade ; the
next day offers battle, but British will
not accept the challenge, 33; resolves
to direct the invasion of Canada from
Ticonderoga, and open the road to
Montreal, 33, 34; his life after his
arrival at Cambridge "one con-
tinual round of vexation and fatigue,"
35; submits to reproach of having
chosen the policy of inaction, at which
his soul revolts, 35; urges congress
to establish prize courts, 83; his in-
structions to Arnold, 123; receiving
from congress authority to attack
Boston, repels with dignity the imputa-
tion of inactivity: uneasy, but never
thinks of resigning his trust, 155;
thinks independence should be de-
clared, 156; consents to Lee's taking
a separate command at New York,
185; prepares a stroke for the British,
194; when congress voted him thanks
and a gold medal, he transfers the

S raise to his troops, 203; freely says
lat reconciliation is impracticable,
and would be injurious to America;
is convinced that nothing but indepen-
dence will save the country, 263 ; his
refusal to receive Lord Howe's com-
munication approved by congress, 341 ;
attempts defence of New York Island ;
forced to occupy many posts with a
feeble and destitute force, 367 ; his gen-
erals incompetent, 369; resolves to
avoid a general action at Long Island,

INDEX.

631

890, note,' disapproves Sullivan's mis-
sion as a go-between, 391 ; submits to
the decision of generals, till he can
convince congress that evacuation
of New York is a necessity, 394, 396 ;
his conduct at Kip's Bay, 401-403,
note ; uses every means to revive the
courage of his army, 404; foreseeing
Howe's attempt to get in his rear,
occupies causeway And bridge from
Throg's Neck, posts guards on de-
fensible grounds, and detaches a corps
to White Plains, 439. 440 ; after the
battle, draws back his army above
White Plains ; his military skill supe-
rior, but his army wasting away, 444 ;
gives Greene final orders to use his
iscretion as to evacuating Fort
Washington, and revoking order of
congress to defend it to the last, 447,
448 ; not seconded by his generals, who
seem to be his peers. 448, 449; after
capture of Fort Washington, regrets
his failure to overrule the orders of
general in command of the post* 453 ;
retreats before Cornwallis, and ex-
changes a sharp cannonade at Baritan
bridge; his repeated but vain order
to Lee, 460, 461 ; resolves to strike the
enemy as soon as Lee joins him, 470 ;
his determination to attack Trenton,
481; begins the battle, 482; defeats
Ball's plans,* 483; crosses Delaware,
and announces to congress that he will
beat up the enemy's quarters ; pledges
his own fortune to raise money for
troops, 488; surrounded by jealous
and tattling officers, 554, 555; moves
his army of seventy-five hundred men
to Middlebrook, 564; cares of north-
ern department thrown on him ;
blamed for his Fabian policy by Sam-
uel Adams and others, 566 ; leads his
troops, decorated with sprigs of green,
through Philadelphia, to overawe the
disaffected, 594, 595; withdraws to
high ground above Chad's ford,
directly in Howe's course, 595; too
weak to risk a battle; joined by
Wayne, and re-enforced by a thousand
Marylanders; urges Gates to return
Morgan's corps, resolved to force
Howe to retreat or capitulate before
winter, 601; receives news of Bur-
goyne's surrender with Joy and grati-
tude, vi. 20 ; defeats project of attack-
ing Howe in Philadelphia; selects
strong ground for an encampment,
and waits for the enemy, 36; reproves
Johnstone, one of British commission-
ers, for sending him a private letter,
136 ; crosses Delaware above Trenton,
and follows Clinton in a parallel line,
137, 138 ; encountering Lee's reti eating
troops, angrily demands of Lee, "What
is the meaning of this? " on Lee's re-
ply that he had not approved of the
attack, tells liim that he shouldn't
have taken the command, unless he
meant to do his duty, 139, 140; the

first to affirm that efficient power
must be infused into general gov-
ernment, 174; seeing congress "rent
by party,*' calls on George Mason
and Jefferson to save the country,
301; moves his camp to Bockaway
bridge, leaving Greene, with two brig-
ades, at Short Hills, 317 ; arrives at Fort
Defiance a few hours after Arnold's
flight, 328; refuses sole disburse-
ment of the six million gift of France,
372 ; orders Steuben to defend Virginia
with an eye to Greene's needs, 398;
congress puts highest military powers
in his hands, 414 ; visits Mount Vernon,
with Bochambean and Chastellux, thn
first time in six years ; goes to Wil •
liamsburg, and is welcomed by Lafay-
ette as generalissimo of combined
armies or two nations ; acknowl-
edges the courage and coolness of the
French at Yorktown. 428; resumes,
with eastern army, the old positions
around New York, 432; his reply to
Nicola, 465.

Washington, Lieutenant-colonel, sent by
Morgan against Georgia tories, plun-
dering near Fair Forest, attacks and
routs them, vi. 383; kept in reserve
at battle of Cowpens, 385 ; but charges
with effect at its close, 387 ; receives a
silver medal from congress, 387 ; in the
battle of Guilford, 395 ; wounded and
taken prisoner at Eutaw Springs, 408.

Watauga, the, settlers on, march under
Evan Shelby to Point Pleasant on the
Kanawha, iv. 423; hold assembly at
Abingdon, which adheres to congress,
and addresses delegates from Virginia
with an avowal of its political faith,
443, 444; settlers on, pitying Mac
dowell's men, resolve to restore them
to their homes, and raise two regi-
ments under Isaac Shelby and John
Sevier, vi. 289 ; this force, with Camp-
bell's and Macdowell's men, crosses
the Alleghanies ; is joined by Colonel
Benjamin Cleveland with a regiment.
290 ; takes name of u western army ; "
officers resolve to surprise Ferguson,
291; they encounter, and compel his
force to surrender, 292.

Watson, George, of Plymouth, Mass.,
elected to the council; on Sunday
after his acceptance, when he enters
meeting-house, his neighbors depart;
overcome by this indignity, determines
to resign, iv. 376.

Waymouth, George, commands expedi-
tion to New England in 1605, i. 90;
ascends St. George's River ; takes home
five natives. 90, 91.

Wayne, Anthony, joins Pennsylvania
troops in Forbes's expedition to Ohio,
iii. 204; commands a regiment in Sul-
livan's army in Canada; his gallantry
at Three Rivers, v. 297, 298; burns to
go to assistance of " poor Washing-
ton," but is kept in command at Ti-
conderoga, 458; is attacked by General

632

INDEX.

Grey with three regiments, who takes,
kills, or wounds three hundred men,
600; expresses purpose to follow line

S rfnted out by Lee, Gates, and Mif-
In ; disparages Washington as having
often Blighted the favors of fortune,
vi. 38; uiBtlngnishes himself at Mon-
mouth, 142; leads assault on Stony
Point, 211; encounters heavily supe-
rior force at Green Spring, ana is res-
cued by Lafayette. 417, 418 ; goes south
to Join Greene, 432; wrests Georgia
from the British; surprises a body of
British troops, escorting Indians, and
totally defeats them ; repulses a Creek
attack, and kills their chief warrior,
460, 461 ; Joins Greene, on evacuation
of Savannah ; strives to reconcile pa-
triots and loyalists of South Carolina.
461.

Webb. British general, ordered to be
ready to march to defence of Oswego,
ill. 156 ; delays, and flees to Albany, 158 :
his cowardly conduct at capture of
Fort William Henry. 174, 176.

Webster, Pelatiah, of Philadelphia, shows
congress the necessity of their calling
a continental convention to define, en-
large, and limit the duties and powers
of the constitution, vi. 396.

Wedderburu, seconds Burke in condemn-
ing ministerial policy towards Amer-
ica, and denounces Hillsborough; his
veracity questioned by Lord North,
i. 203; becomes solicitor-general, 217;
his attack on Franklin before privy
council, 286-288; his memory honored
in Canada for bis aid in passing Que-
bec act. 415.

Welde, Thomas, minister of Roxbury,
helps to translate Psalms from He-
brew, i. 330.

Wemyss, a British officer, despatched
against Sumter; is repulsed, wounded,
and taken prisoner: on him is found
a list of houses he has burnt, and he
had hanged Adam Cusack ; but is un-
harmed by bis captors, vi. 296.

Wesley, John, defends colonial policy of
the court; regards defection or Amer-
ica as prelude of conspiracy against
monarchy, iv. 494; hearing news of
Lexington, writes to Dartmouth and
Lord North, asking if it is common
sense to use force toward Americans,
561; noting rapid increase of British
prosperity, predicts approach of revo-
lution in Europe, v. 247.

West, Francis, governor of Virginia, i.
152.

West, Francis, sent to exclude from
American waters fishermen without a
license: his authority derided, i. 255.

West, John, governor of Virginia on the
deposition of Harvey, i. 155.

West, Joseph, commercial agent for pro-

Srietaries of South Carolina, i. 509;
ismissed on the charge of favoring
the popular party, 522.
Westchester county, Pa., a thorough

movement made for manumission of
slaves, iv. 603.

Westchester county, N.Y.: Morris, of
Morrisania, and Van Cortlandt, strong
patriots; but Philipse and the Delan-
ceys, large landholders, in favor of
the king, v. 183.

Western territory, conquered by English
in America, a waste, with feeble garri-
sons, which yet alarmed the Indians.
til. 375.

Western Virginians at Fort Gower,
promise allegiance to the king, if he
would reign over them as **a brave
and free people," but agree to exert all
their powers for the defence of Ameri-
can liberty, iv. 426.

West Florida, Franklin pleads In peace
negotiations for its restoration to Eng-
land, vi. 474; the line of north boun-
dary of, and the United States, agreed
on in separate article of treaty of peace.
483.

West India Islands, captured by De
Grasse,— St. Eustatius, St. Christo-

WE>her, Nevis, and Monteerrat, vi. 445.
estminster, in New Hampshire Grants ;
to prevent the assertion of New York
Jurisdiction, young men of, take pos-
session of the court-house, and are
driven out by the royal sheriff, two
being killed ; royalists concerned in the
affair sent to Massachusetts for trial;
the story of their deed spread abroad,
as one of tyranny and murder, iv. 602.
Westmoreland, county of, the only
county in Virginia that had no griev-
ances to set before the king. i. 658.
Westmoreland county, Pa., inhabitants

of, form regiments, iv. 649.
West New Jersey, its fundamental laws,
recognising democratic equality, pub-
lished, ii. 102; influx of English Qua-
kers; Jurisdiction claimed by Andros,
} governor of New York, but claim re-
erred to England ; Duke of York re-
linquishes all claims to territory and
government, 105; institution of this

government one of the most beautiful
icidents of the age, 105: Byllinge's
claim as proprietary to right of nomi-
nating deputy governor resisted ; con-
stitution amended, and a governor
elected, 106.

Weston, Thomas, a London merchant,
active in forwarding Plymouth colony;
desires to monopolize profits of the fur-
trade, i 249; failure of his enterprise,
249, 260.

Wethersfield, Conn., scene of Ingersoll's
resignation, 111. 498, 499; sends one hun-
dred volunteers to Boston, well-armed
and spirited, April 22, iv. 636.

Weymouth, settlement at, maintained,
1.264.

Weymouth, Lord, refuses Spain's offer
or mediation, but invites a closer
union, even an alliance, with Spain,
vi. 163; gives warning of fatal effects
of American independence on Spanish

INDEX

633

monarchy, 164 ; steadily repels Spain's
mediation, unless France withdraws
her support from colonies, 180; rejects
Spain's special offer of mediation on
basis of a trace of thirty-live or forty
years, 181.

whale-fishery, the boon that was to mol-
lify New England ; Americans relieved
from inequality of the discriminat-
ing duty, 412, 413; the most liberal
measure of Grenville's administration,
413.

Whately, Thomas, joint secretary of Brit-
ish treasury, thinks the taxes on
American colonies insufficient, iii.
414.

Whately, William (brother and executor
of Thomas, Hutchinson's correspond-
ent), publishes card, in which he does
not relieve John Temple from suspi-
cion of purloining some of Thomas
Whately's letters ; fights a duel with
Temple, iv. 283, 284.

Whalley, Edward, one of the judges
who- condemned Charles I.; escapes
with Goffe to Boston, i. 406.

Wheelock, Eleazer, president of Dart-
mouth College, sends James Dean to
visit the tribes in Canada, and
"brighten the chain of friendship."
iv. 510.

Wheelwright. John, a silenced minister,
a friend of Anne Hutchinson, i. 306;
censured for sedition, 307 ; exiled from
Massachusetts, 308; his sentence of
exile rescinded, 349.

Whence was America peopled ? Mounds
do-not prove the existence in it of peo-
ple of a high civilization, ii. 452, 453 ;
no evidence of America's early connec-
tion with Europe in resemblance in
roots of words, 454, 455 ; or in similarity
of customs, 455; theory that the lost
tribes of Israel found homes in Amer-
ica unsupported, 455, 456; only Ameri-
can nations were ignorant of the pas-
toral state, 458; water the highway
of uncivilized man, 459; resemblance
between American and Mongolian
races, 460; the Tschukchi of North-
eastern Asia and Esquimaux of same
origin, 461.

Whig lords, conference of; Bedford, on
behalf of Temple and Grenville, an-
nounces readiness to support a, if it
insisted on sovereignty of Great Britain
over colonies; Rockingham objects; a
substitute for Grenville's explicit lan-
guage accepted; meeting closes with-
out any results, 53, 54; a second con-
ference as vain, the difference about
America being insuperable, 54.

Whig party, the, of England ; its achieve-
ments, ill. 107, 106; its controversy
with province of New York, 108, 109:
never had affection or confidence of
people, 163; its crime and its punish-
ment, 289; chief members of, driven
into retirement, 294; its leaders pro-
pose to stay away from parliament, as

their opposition only strengthens the
ministry ; keep aloof for the time, in-
tending to favor mercy when the rebel-
lion is beaten down, v. 415, 416 ; Burke
and the friends of Rockingham retire
from active service in parliament, 419;
its principle the paramount power of
the aristocracy, vi. 436; the trustees
of, rather than with the people.
437.

Whitaker, Alexander, the "apostle of
Virginia," i. 110.

White, John, governor of city of Raleigh,
i. 83 ; goes to England for supplies and
re-enforcements, 84; two ships contain-
ing these forced to return, 85 ; revisits
Roanoke in 1590, and finds it a desert,
86.

Whitefleld, George, his fears for New
England, iii. 418.

White Plains, battle of; Howe beset by
difficulties; advances his right and
centre above New Rochelle, leaving
Von Heister there with three brigades;
Washington sends Heath's division to
White Plains, v. 442 ; re-enforcements
of Hessians and Waldeckers; Wash-
ington is at White Plains, and baffles
attempt to get in his rear, 442, 443;
Lee joins army, and grumbles at the
position; Washington's object to waste
Howe's time, 443; his army advances,
driving back Spencer at Hart's Corner,
443, 444 ; English and Hessians attack
Chatterton Hill in line ; are desperately
resisted, and seem to be defeated, when
Rail charges Americans on the flank ;
Macdougall, beset by thrice his own
force, safely retires ; British losses the
larger, 444, 445.

White slavery, in last quarter of eigh-
teenth century, blights more than half
of Europe, vi. 298.

Whitgift, archbishop of Canterbury, en-
forces conformity, i. 222; his death,
231.

Whiting, agent of Connecticut, aids in
obtaining approval of king for resump-
tion of government, after Andros's
repulse by Presbyterian sympathy, ii
241.

Wilford, Thomas, an officer under Bacon,
in Virginia; his jest on arraignment,
i. 555.

Wilkes, John, inflames public mind
through "North Briton,'^ iii. 294; ex-
poses a fallacy in king's speech ; u ar-
rested, but set at liberty, 372; elected
member for Middlesex, and expelled at
king's request, iv. 156 ; made magistrate
of London, and returned by Middle-
sex ; the return voted null in the house ;
returned unanimously a third time;
becomes the most conspicuous man in
England, 156, 157; deprecates war
against Americans, and anticipates
their celebration of victory, 467, 468;
lord mayor of London calls on the
king, with aldermen and livery, and
complains that the real purpose of the

684

INDEX.

ministry 1b to establish arbitrary power
over all America, 511; his remark
about the king, v. 89 ; says it is impos-
sible to conquer ana hold America.
416.

Wilkins, commandant in Illinois, ap-
points judges to decide local contro-
versies; favors some Philadelphia fur-
traders, and gives them large grants
of land, in which he had one sixth
interest, in violation of his orders, iv.
126.

Wilkinson, Gates's chief aide, a syco-
phant; made a brigadier, vi. 38.

Willard, Abijah, of Lancaster, Mass.,
arrested by farmers of Union, Conn.,
and about to be taken to county jail,
when he begs forgiveness, and promises
never to sit in the council, iv. 376.

Willard, brother-in-law of Prescott,
asked by General Gage if the latter
will fight, answers, " To the last drop
of his blood," iv. 606.

Willett, Marinus, of New York, in com-
mand of St. John's, v. 130; leads a
sally from Fort Stanwix, and harries
Sir John Johnson's quarters, 685;
makes his way through Indian quar-
ter, to seek relief for tne garrison, 686;
receives from congress public praise
and " an elegant sword," 686.

William and Mary, college of, established
by Governor Nicholson, ii. 206.

William of Orange, his absorbing pas-
sion, ii. 190; his election to the throne,
its meaning, 192; recalls Sir Edmund
Andros, 250; favors colonizing Missis-
sippi, 366; governs the policy of Eu-
rope, and, as to territory, shapes the
destinies of America, 370.

William V., stadholder of United Prov-
inces, weak, incompetent, and depen-
dent on influence of Great Britain;
mercenary, vi. 233; sides with England
in dispute about ravages of her priva-
teers, 236; indignation at his want of
patriotism, 241; addresses empress of
Russia as to concert in defence of neu-
tral rights, 357 ; delays organization of
defensive association, 358; will not
listen to a treaty with Russia, unless it

{guarantees possessions of the republic
n both Indies, 360, 361; thinks his
government has done enough to avert
England's suspicion, 365.

Williams, Colonel Ephraim, of Massa-
chusetts, sent to relieve Fort Edward
from Johnson's camp, is ambuscaded
and killed, ill. 139.

Williams, Colonel James, alone of patriot
leaders of militia in South Carolina,
escapes pursuit, vi. 267; after fall of
Charleston, does not cease to gather
friends of the union in arms, 286;
routs garrison of Musgrove's Mills,
287; in the forks of the Catawba, pur-
suing Ferguson; joins the "western
army " at the Cowpens, 291 ; killed in
battle of King's Mountain ; his family
nearly extirpated by the enemy, 293.

Williams, David, of Tarrytown, aids
Paulding in the seizure of Andr*. vi.
327.

Williams, Roger, arrives In Boston, i.
285, 286; unable to Join with Boston
church, 287; called to Higginson's
place in Salem, but, warned by Win-
throp, the church withdraws its call,
287; again called to Salem, 293; his
opinions, 294, 295; first in modern
Christendom to assert, in its plen-
itude, the doctrine of liberty of con-
science, 298; exiled by the court,
299; leaves Salem for Narragansett
Bay, 300; under advice of Governor
Winthrop, goes to a place which he
calls Providence, 301; founds a com-
monwealth in an unmixed form, 301 ;
invites Anne Hutchinson's friends to
Providence, 309; obtains a charter for
Rhode Island, 344 ; goes again to Eng-
land, and procures revocation of Cod-
dington's commission to govern islands,
346; his success due to Sir Henry
Vane, 346.

Wolfe, General James, his military ca-
reer, iii. 193; gathers army to operate
against Quebec, 216 ; attempts to land,
but is repulsed, 219; his final inspec-
tion, and recital of Gray's lines, 222;
repulses French attack, is thrice
wounded, and carried to the rear; his
last words, and death, 224.

Wooster, David, of Connecticut, briga-
dier-general of continental army, v. 7 ;
appointed governor of Montreal, 130;
chief command of troops in Canada
falls on him, 287; incompetent, and
desires to yield his office; takes com-
mand of troops around Quebec, and is
laughed at by the garrison, 290; fights
bravely, and is mortally wounded at
Ridgeneld, 561 ; a monument voted to
him by congress, 562.

Worcester, Mass., holds a county con-
gress, which disclaims the jurisdiction
of British house of commons, asserts
exclusive rights of colonies to originate
laws for themselves, and declares the
violation of the charter a dissolution of
their union with Britain, iv. 372.

Writs of general assistance, demanded by
customs-officers in Massachusetts, iii.
252; James Otis' s bold denunciation of
the writs as destructive of the funda-
mental principles of law, and against
the constitution, 274, 275; old judges
against granting writs; but persuaded
by Hutchinson to await orders from
England, on receipt of which writs
were granted, 627.

Ximenes, Cardinal, refuses to sanction
introduction of negroes into Hispani-
ola, i. 136.

Yale College, founded by gift of a few
volumes by ten clergymen, at Bran-
ford, in 1700, i. 425.

Yeamans, Sir John, created a landgrave

INDEX.

685

of South Carolina, i. 510; his arrival
with slaves, 512; second governor of
South Carolina; his policy, 522.

Yeardley, George, deputy governor of
Virginia, superseded by Argall, i. 116 ;
reinstated and knighted, 117 ; real life
of Virginia begins with his administra-
tion (1619), 118.

York, Duke of, brother of Charles IX,
engrossed witji country between Pem-
aquid and the St. Croix, and with
that between Connecticut River and
Delaware Bay. i. 433"; ascends the
throne, 481 ; in his name, soldiers
landed near Brooklyn, 11. 67; patron
of the slave-trade, 70; promises not to
change enactments of assembly of New
York, but breaks his promise after
accession of James II., decreeing di-
rect tax, and extorting fees and quit-
rents, 146; excluded by vote of com-
mons, 165.

Yorke, Charles, selected by Newcastle
for chancellor, but opposed by Pitt, ill.
404 ; defends the stamp act, 450 ; offered
chancellorship by the king, which he
had Ions coveted; accepts, and is re-
proachea by Hardwicke, his brother,
kisses him, goes home, and dies by his
own hand, 181.

Yorke, Sir Joseph, charged to induce
Austria to turn to England, ill. 286,
287 ; perfidy of this effort, which fails,
287; British minister at the Hague;
reports that recruits in any number
may be raised in Germany, v. 92; as-
sures British government that capture
of Lee is to be regretted, that he is the
worst present the Americans can re-

ceive, 550, 551 ; instructed to ascertain
how British cruisers may know where
to And richest Dutch prizes, vi. 360;
reports to Stormont that a war against
England is still believed impossible.
363.

Yorktown, Va., fortified by Cornwallis.
vi 420; exterior posts of, abandoned
by him, 425; trenches opened before,
by Americans and French, and firing
begun ; two advanced British redoubts
stormed, one by Americans, the other
by French grenadiers and yagers, and
both carried, 426-428 ; British make a
sortie, but are driven back; Corn-
wallis proposes to surrender; terms
of capitulation same as those granted
to Lincoln, 428; Cornwallis stays in
his tent, while Major-General O'Hara
marches the British army, and with
ill grace surrenders to Washington,
429.

Yorktown, surrender of, news of, re-
ceived in England; in parliament, the
king's speech confused, the debates
augur a change of opinion, and minis-
terial majority reduced, vi. 430

Young, Thomas, publishes address to
people of Vermont, which influences
the action of its convention, v. 577,
578.

Zubly, a Swiss, delegate in congress
from Georgia, says a republic is little
better than a government of devils, and
shudders at the idea of separation
from Britain, v. 86.

Zufil, the account of; manners, customs,
&o., i. 85, 37, 38.

END OF VOLUME SIX.

Cambridge : Electrotyped and Printed by John Wilson & Son.

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